Tinospora cordifolia as a potential neuroregenerative candidate against glutamate induced excitotoxicity: an in vitro perspective

Tinospora cordifolia Extract Enhances Dextromethorphan Bioavailability: Implications for Alzheimer's Disease

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers (Menispermaceae) is a traditional rejuvenator and a conventional medicine used to manage oxidative stress-related diseases, including those associated with the central nervous system. Decreased dextromethorphan (DEM) metabolism is necessary for high bioavailability and application against Alzheimer's disease (AD). Since T. cordifolia stem extract (TCE) can potentially inhibit several metabolic enzymes, it can also enhance dextromethorphan bioavailability. This study investigates the potential of TCE to improve DEM's bioavailability and efficacy for the management of AD. In silico analysis was carried out to find the inhibition potential of phytocomponents of T. cordifolia for CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. The LC-MS method was revalidated for the analysis of DEM and metabolite dextrorphan (DEX) in the presence of quinidine (QN). The ratio of DEM to DEX was estimated with varying doses of TCE following pharmacokinetic analysis. Network pharmacology analysis was carried out to understand the complementary potential of phytocomponents. This was further validated in the scopolamine-induced dementia model through behavioral and histopathological analyses. TCE (100 mg/kg) for 14 days increased the DEM to DEX ratio by 2.8-fold compared to QN treatment. While T max was comparable to that of QN treatment at this dose (100 mg/kg) of TCE, it increased significantly at the higher dose (400 mg/kg) of TCE pretreatment. All other pharmacokinetic parameters were also enhanced at this dose with a 4.7-fold increase in DEM/DEX compared with QN. Network pharmacology analysis indicated the ability of TCE to target multiple factors associated with AD. Furthermore, it improved spatial memory and reduced hyperactivity in rodents better than the combination of QN and DEM.

Neuroprotective Effects of Tinospora cordifolia via Reducing the Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction against Rotenone-Induced PD Mice

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are leading mechanisms that play a crucial role in the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). Tinospora cordifolia shows a wide range of biological activities including immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This study explored the neuroprotective activities of T. cordifolia ethanolic extract (TCE) against Rotenone (ROT)-intoxicated Parkinsonian mice. Four experimental groups of mice were formed: control, ROT (2 mg/kg body wt, subcutaneously), TCE (200 mg/kg body wt, oral) + ROT, and TCE only. Mice were pretreated with TCE for a week and then simultaneously injected with ROT for 35 days. Following ROT-intoxication, motor activities, antioxidative potential, and mitochondrial dysfunction were analyzed. Decrease in the activity of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC) complex, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Ψm), increase in Bax/Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) ratio, and caspase-3 expression are observed in the ROT-intoxicated mice group. Our results further showed ROT-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated alpha-synuclein (α-syn) accumulation and mitochondrial dysfunction. However, pre- and cotreatment with TCE along with ROT-intoxication significantly reduced α-syn aggregation and improved mitochondrial functioning in cells by altering mitochondrial potential and increasing mETC activity. TCE also decreases the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and also the expression of caspase-3, thus reducing apoptosis of the cell. Altogether, TCE is effective in protecting neurons from rotenone-induced cytotoxicity in the Parkinsonian mouse model by modulating oxidative stress, ultimately reducing mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death.

Mortalin/Hspa9 involvement and therapeutic perspective in Parkinson’s disease

By controlling the proper folding of proteins imported into mitochondria and ensuring crosstalk between the reticulum and mitochondria to modulate intracellular calcium fluxes, Mortalin is a chaperone protein that plays crucial roles in neuronal homeostasis and activity. However, its expression and stability are strongly modified in response to cellular stresses, in particular upon altered oxidative conditions during neurodegeneration. Here, we report and discuss the abundant literature that has highlighted its contribution to the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s disease, as well as its therapeutic and prognostic potential in this still incurable pathology.

Dietary intervention with Tinospora cordifolia improved aging-related decline in locomotor coordination and cerebellar cell survival and plasticity in female rats

Reduced bone mineral density, and muscle strength are the hallmark of aging-related motor coordination deficits and related neuropathologies. Since cerebellum regulates motor movements and balance perception of our body, therefore it may be an important target to control the age-related progression of motor dysfunctions. Dry stem powder of Tinospora cordifolia (TCP) was tested as a food supplement to elucidate its activity to attenuate age-associated locomotor dysfunctions. Intact acyclic middle-aged female rats were used in this study as the model system of the transition phase from premenopause to menopause in women along with cycling young adult rats. Normal chow or 30% High Fat Diet (HFD), supplemented with or without TCP was fed to animals for 12 weeks and then tested for locomotor performance on rotarod followed by post-sacrifice protein expression studies. In comparison to young adults, middle-aged animals showed an increase in number of falls and lesser time spent in rotarod performance test, whereas, animals given TCP supplemented feed showed improvement in performance with more pronounced effects observed in normal chow than HFD fed middle-aged rats. Further, due to its multicomponent nature TCP was found to target the expression of various markers of neuroinflammation, apoptosis, cell survival, and synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum region. The current findings suggest that TCP supplementation in the diet may prove to be a potential interventional strategy for the management of frailty and fall-associated morbidities caused by aging-related deterioration of bone mineral density, and muscle strength.

Ayurvedic formulations Guduchi and Madhuyashti triggers JNK signaling mediated immune response and adversely affects Huntington phenotype

BACKGROUND

Huntington's disease manifests due to abnormal CAG trinucleotide expansion, in the first exon of the Huntingtin gene and disease progression involves genetic, immune, and environmental components. The pathogenesis is characterized by the formation of Inclusion Bodies, disruption of neuronal circuitry, cellular machinery, and apoptosis, resulting in gradual and progressive loss of neuronal cells, ultimately leading to nervous system dysfunction. Thus, the present study was conducted to assess the effect of two Ayurvedic formulations, Guduchi and Madhuyashti, on Huntington's phenotype, using Drosophila as a model system.

METHOD

The Huntington phenotype was ectopically induced in the Drosophila eye using the UAS-GAL4 binary system and the effect of the two Ayurvedic formulations were assessed by feeding the progenies on them. Degeneration was observed microscopically and Real Time-PCR was done to assay the alterations in the different transcripts of the innate immune pathways and JNK signaling pathway. Immunostaining was performed to assay different gene expression patterns.

RESULT

The present study shows that Guduchi and Madhuyashti, endowed with immunomodulatory and intellect promoting properties, aggravates polyQ mediated neurodegeneration. We provide evidence that these formulations enhance JNK signaling by activating the MAP 3 K, dTAK1, which regulates the expression of Drosophila homologue for JNK. Sustained, rather than a transient expression of JNK leads to excessive production of Anti-Microbial Peptides without involving the canonical transcription factors of the Toll or IMD pathways, NF-κB. Enhanced JNK expression also increases caspase levels, with a concomitant reduction in cell proliferation, which may further contribute to increased degeneration.

CONCLUSION

This is a report linking the functional relevance of Guduchi and Madhuyashti with molecular pathways, which can be important for understanding their use in therapeutic applications and holds promise for mechanistic insight into the mammalian counterpart.

Exploring the role of nanomedicines for the therapeutic approach of central nervous system dysfunction: At a glance

In recent decades, research scientists, molecular biologists, and pharmacologists have placed a strong emphasis on cutting-edge nanostructured materials technologies to increase medicine delivery to the central nervous system (CNS). The application of nanoscience for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Huntington’s disease (HD), brain cancer, and hemorrhage has the potential to transform care. Multiple studies have indicated that nanomaterials can be used to successfully treat CNS disorders in the case of neurodegeneration. Nanomedicine development for the cure of degenerative and inflammatory diseases of the nervous system is critical. Nanoparticles may act as a drug transporter that can precisely target sick brain sub-regions, boosting therapy success. It is important to develop strategies that can penetrate the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and improve the effectiveness of medications. One of the probable tactics is the use of different nanoscale materials. These nano-based pharmaceuticals offer low toxicity, tailored delivery, high stability, and drug loading capacity. They may also increase therapeutic effectiveness. A few examples of the many different kinds and forms of nanomaterials that have been widely employed to treat neurological diseases include quantum dots, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, liposomes, and micelles. These unique qualities, including sensitivity, selectivity, and ability to traverse the BBB when employed in nano-sized particles, make these nanoparticles useful for imaging studies and treatment of NDs. Multifunctional nanoparticles carrying pharmacological medications serve two purposes: they improve medication distribution while also enabling cell dynamics imaging and pharmacokinetic study. However, because of the potential for wide-ranging clinical implications, safety concerns persist, limiting any potential for translation. The evidence for using nanotechnology to create drug delivery systems that could pass across the BBB and deliver therapeutic chemicals to CNS was examined in this study.

Dietary Supplementation With Tinospora cordifolia Improves Anxiety-Type Behavior and Cognitive Impairments in Middle-Aged Acyclic Female Rats

The midlife transition period in women marks the progressive flattening of neurological health along with increased adiposity, dyslipidemia, frailty, and inflammatory responses mainly attributed to the gradual decline in estrogen levels. Conflicting reports of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) necessitate the exploration of novel therapeutic interventions using bioactive natural products having the least toxicity and a holistic mode of action for the preservation of metabolic homeodynamics with aging in women. The present study was planned to investigate the effects of aging and/or a high-fat diet (HFD) on cognitive impairments and anxiety and further their management by dietary supplement with the Tinospora cordifolia stem powder (TCP). Acyclic female rats were included in this study as the model system of the perimenopause phase of women along with young 3-4 months old rats as controls. Rats were fed on with and without TCP supplemented normal chow or HFD for 12 weeks. Animals fed on a TCP supplemented normal chow showed consistent management of body weight over a 12-week regimen although their calorie intake was much higher in comparison to their age-matched controls. Post-regimen, neurobehavioral tests, such as novel object recognition and elevated plus maze, performed on these animals showed improvement in their learning and memory abilities as well as the anxiety-like behavior. Furthermore, due to the presence of multiple components, TCP was observed to modulate the expression of key marker proteins to ameliorate neuroinflammation and apoptosis and promote cell survival and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions of the brain. These findings suggest that TCP supplementation in diet during the midlife transition period in women may be a potential interventional strategy for the management of menopause-associated anxiety and cognitive impairments and healthy aging.

Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases in Himachal Pradesh, India in Western Himalaya

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal plants are considered as a healthcare resource and widely used by rural people in their traditional medicine system for curing neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases refer to incurable and debilitating conditions that result in progressive degeneration/death of nerve cells or neurons in the human brain. This review is mainly focused on the usage of different ethnomedicinal plants in the treatment of different neurodegenerative diseases in Himachal Pradesh. Study reveals total of 73 ethnomedicinal plants, which are used for treating different neurological disorders in different areas of Himachal Pradesh. The data is compiled from the different sources that described the detailed information of plants in tabular form and highlights the significance of different phytochemicals on neuroprotective function. The present study also provides the scientific data and clinical (in-vivo and in-vitro) studies in support of ethnomedicinal use.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to provide information of ethnomedicinal plants which are used for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases in Himachal Pradesh.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on the use of ethnomedicinal plants to treat various neurological disorders has been gathered from a variety of sources, including various types of literature, books, and relevant publications in Google Scholar, Research Gate, Science Direct, Scopus, and Pub Med, among others. The collected data is tabulated, including the botanical names of plants, mode of use and the disease for which it is used for curing, etc. RESULTS: There are 73 ethnomedicinal plants that are used to cure various neurological disorders, with the most plants being used to treat epilepsy problem in Himachal Pradesh.

CONCLUSION

Numerous phytochemicals and extracts from diverse plants were found to have a protective effect against neurodegenerative diseases. Antioxidant activity is known to exist in a variety of herbal plants. The most common bioactive antioxidant chemicals having their significant impacts include flavonoids, flavones, coumarins, lignans, isoflavones, catechins, anthocyanins, and isocatechins.

Aging-related changes in metabolic indicators in female rats and their management with Tinospora cordifolia

Conflicting reports of HRT necessitates exploration of therapeutic interventions with the least side effects to preserve metabolic homeodynamics in women later in life. The current study was designed to elucidate the cumulative effects of aging and/or high fat diet (HFD) on some metabolic indicators and their management by Tinospora cordifolia stem powder (TCP) using middle-aged acyclic and young adult cyclic female rats as the model system. Animals were fed on either normal chow or HFD supplemented with or without TCP. Blood and liver tissue were collected for biochemical, and histological studies as well as for expression of proteins regulating lipid metabolism. Animals fed with TCP supplemented normal chow feed showed bodyweight management over 12-weeks despite their high feed and calories intake compared to young and age-matched controls as well as HFD-fed animals. TCP dose used was not toxic and rather prevented age-associated liver dysfunctions and ameliorated dyslipidemia and oxidative stress, normalized blood glucose, insulin, leptin, and secretary pro-inflammatory cytokines. Further, bodyweight management effect of TCP was observed to target AMPK signalling pathway as the mediator of lipogenesis, sterol biosynthesis, lipolysis, and β-oxidation of fatty acids. These findings suggest that TCP supplementation in diet may be a potential interventional strategy to ameliorate aging-associated hepatic and metabolic dysfunctions and to promote healthy aging.

Acute Sleep Deprivation-Induced Anxiety and Disruption of Hypothalamic Cell Survival and Plasticity: A Mechanistic Study of Protection by Butanol Extract of Tinospora cordifolia

Since sleep is a key homeostatic phenomenon of the body, therefore understanding the complex etiology of the neurological outcome of sleep deprivation (SD) such as anxiety, depression, cognitive dysfunctions, and their management is of utmost importance. The findings of the current study encompass the neurobehavioral as well as hormonal, and neuroinflammatory changes in serum and hypothalamus region of the brain as an outcome of acute SD and their amelioration by pre-treatment with butanol extract of Tinospora cordifolia. SD group animals showed anxiety-like behavior as evident from Elevated Plus Maze data and higher serum cortisol levels, whereas, pre-treatment with B-TCE showed anxiolytic activity and also reduced cortisol levels which was corroborated by an increase in leptin and insulin levels. Further, SD induced elevation of serum pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and MCP-1 and subsequent activation of astroglial cells in the hypothalamus was suppressed in B-TCE pre-treated animals. The current findings suggest that besides the cortical structures, hypothalamus region's synaptic plasticity and cell survival are adversely impacted by acute SD. Further active ingredients present in B-TCE may be useful for the management of SD-induced anxiety, systemic inflammation, and neuroinflammation by targeting hypothalamic BDNF-TrkB/PI3K-Akt pathways.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers: Protection mechanisms and strategies against oxidative stress-related diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers (Menispermaceae) is a Mediterranean herb, used in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani, and folk medicines. The herb is also used in conventional medicine to treat oxidative stress-related diseases and conditions, including inflammation, pain, diarrhea, asthma, respiratory infections, cancer, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The taxonomy, botanical classification, geographical distribution, and ethnobotanical uses of T. cordifolia, as well as the phytochemical compounds found in the herb, the toxicology of and pharmacological and clinical studies on the effects of T. cordifolia are all covered in this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To gather information on T. cordifolia, we used a variety of scientific databases, including Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct. The information discussed focuses on biologically active compounds found in T. cordifolia, and common applications and pharmacological activity of the herb, as well as toxicological and clinical studies on its properties.

RESULTS

The findings of this study reveal a connection between the use of T. cordifolia in conventional medicine and its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticancer, immunomodulatory, and other biological effects. The entire plant, stem, leaves, root, and extracts of T. cordifolia have been shown to have a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective impact. Toxicological testing demonstrated that this plant may have medicinal applications. T. cordifolia contains a variety of biologically active compounds from various chemical classes, including alkaloids, terpenoids, sitosterols, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. Based on the reports researched for this review, we believe that chemicals in T. cordifolia may activate Nrf2, which leads to the overexpression of antioxidant enzymes such as CAT, GPx, GST, and GR, and thereby induces the adaptive response to oxidative stress. T. cordifolia is also able to reduce NF-κB signalling by inhibiting PI3K/Akt, activating AMPK and sirtuins, and downregulating PI3K/Akt.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the pharmacological properties displayed by T. cordifolia back up its conventional uses. Antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antidiabetic, nephroprotective, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective activities were all demonstrated in T. cordifolia stem extracts. To validate pharmacodynamic targets, further research is needed to evaluate the molecular mechanisms of the known compounds against gastrointestinal diseases, inflammatory processes, and microbial infections, as immunostimulants, and in chemotherapy. The T. cordifolia safety profile was confirmed in a toxicological analysis, which prompted pharmacokinetic assessment testing to confirm its bioavailability.

Unraveling the Neuroprotective Effect of Tinospora cordifolia in a Parkinsonian Mouse Model through the Proteomics Approach

Stress-induced dopaminergic (DAergic) neuronal death in the midbrain region is the primary cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Following the discovery of l-dopa, multiple drugs have been developed to improve the lifestyle of PD patients; however, none have been suitable for clinical use due to their multiple side effects. Tinospora cordifolia has been used in traditional medicines to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Previously, we reported the neuroprotective role of Tc via inhibition of NF-κB-associated proinflammatory cytokines against MPTP-intoxicated Parkinsonian mice. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective molecular mechanism of Tc in a rotenone (ROT)-intoxicated mouse model, using a proteomics approach. Mice were pretreated with Tc extract by oral administration, followed by ROT intoxication. Behavioral tests were performed to check motor functions of mice. Protein was isolated, and label-free quantification (LFQ) was carried out to identify differentially expressed protein (DEP) in control vs PD and PD vs treatment groups. Results were validated by qRT-PCR with the expression of target genes correlating with the proteomics data. In this study, we report 800 DEPs in control vs PD and 133 in PD vs treatment groups. In silico tools demonstrate significant enrichment of biochemical and molecular pathways with DEPs, which are known to be important for PD progression including mitochondrial gene expression, PD pathways, TGF-β signaling, and Alzheimer's disease. This study provides novel insights into the PD progression as well as new therapeutic targets. More importantly, it demonstrates that Tc can exert therapeutic effects by regulating multiple pathways, resulting in neuroprotection.

Neuroprotection by B355252 against Glutamate-Induced Cytotoxicity in Murine Hippocampal HT-22 Cells Is Associated with Activation of ERK3 Signaling Pathway

Glutamate differentially affects the levels extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and ERK3 and the protective effect of B355252, an aryl thiophene compound, 4-chloro-N-(naphthalen-1-ylmethyl)-5-(3-(piperazin-1-yl)phenoxy)thiophene-2-sulfonamide, is associated with suppression of ERK1/2. The objectives of this study were to further investigate the impact of B355252 on ERK3 and its downstream signaling pathways affected by glutamate exposure in the mouse hippocampal HT-22 neuronal cells. Murine hippocampal HT22 cells were incubated with glutamate and treated with B355252. Cell viability was assessed, protein levels of pERK3, ERK3, mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase-5 (MAPKAPK-5), steroid receptor coactivator 3 (SRC-3), p-S6 and S6 were measured using Western blotting, and immunoreactivity of p-S6 was determined by immunocytochemistry. The results reveal that glutamate markedly diminished the protein levels of p-ERK3 and its downstream targets MK-5 and SRC-3 and increased p-S6, an indicator for mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) activation. Conversely, treatment with B355252 protected the cells from glutamate-induced damage and prevented the glutamate-caused declines of p-ERK3, MK-5 and SRC-3 and increase of p-S6. Our study demonstrates that one of the mechanisms that glutamate mediates its cytotoxicity is through suppression of ERK3 and that B355252 rescues the cells from glutamate toxicity by reverting ERK3 level.

Phytotherapeutics Against Alzheimer's Disease: Mechanism, Molecular Targets and Challenges for Drug Development

Alzheimer's disease is inflating worldwide and is combatted by only a few approved drugs. At best, these drugs treat symptomatic conditions by targeting cholinesterase and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Most of the clinical trials in progress are focused to develop disease-modifying agents that aim single targets. The 'one drug-one target' approach is failing in the case of Alzheimer's disease due to its labyrinth etiopathogenesis. Traditional medicinal systems like ayurveda uses a holistic approach encompassing legion of medicinal plants exhibiting multimodal activity. Recent advances in high-throughput technologies have catapulted the research in the arena of ayurveda, specifically in identifying plants with potent anti-Alzheimer's disease properties and their phytochemical characterization. Nonetheless, clinical trials of very few herbal medicines are in progress. This review is a compendium of Indian plants and ayurvedic medicines against Alzheimer's disease and their paraphernalia. A record of 230 plants that are found in India with anti-Alzheimer's disease potential and about 500 phytochemicals from medicinal plants has been solicited with the hope of exploring the unexplored. Further, the molecular targets of phytochemicals isolated from commonly used medicinal plants such as Acorus calamus, Bacopa monnieri, Convolvulus pluricaulis, Tinospora cordifolia and Withania somnifera have been reviewed with respect to their multidimensional property such as antioxidant, anti-inflammation, anti-aggregation, synaptic plasticity modulation, cognition and memory enhancing activity. In addition, the strengths, and challenges in ayurvedic medicine that limit its use as mainstream therapy is discussed and a framework for the development of herbal medicine has been proposed.

The Reproductive Toxicity of Monosodium Glutamate by Damaging GnRH Neurons Cannot Be Relieved Spontaneously Over Time

Objective

The present study aims to evaluate the effect of monosodium glutamate on testicular spermatogenesis in mice from the perspective of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis and whether this destructive effect is alleviated with time.

Methods

Neonatal mice were randomly divided into a monosodium glutamate (MSG) group and a control group, just below the interscapular region after birth with 10 µL MSG to deliver 4 mg/g (body mass), or with equivalent volumes of 0.9% saline. Samples which involved blood, brains and testicles of mice were collected and measured at puberty at 60 days and adulthood at 90 days.

Results

The results show that the fluorescence intensity of GnRH nerve fibers, the levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and testosterone (T) hormones in the reproductive system, the number of spermatocytes and spermatozoa in testicular sections, the body length, body weight, testicular weight, and testicular index in the 60-day-old mice in monosodium glutamate group (MSG60 group) and the MSG90 group were lower than those in the 60-day-old mice in normal control group (NC60 group) (p < 0.05), but the number of apoptotic cells in the testicular section was higher than in the NC60 group (p < 0.05). When the 90-day-old mice in monosodium glutamate group (MSG90 group) was compared with the MSG60 group, except for body weight and testicular weight increase (p < 0.05), there is no significant difference in the other parameters mentioned above (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

Monosodium glutamate can cause reproductive toxicity to male mice by damaging GnRH neurons, and this reproductive toxicity cannot be relieved spontaneously over time. These findings are supported by observed histological changes.

Butanol Extract of Tinospora cordifolia Alleviates Acute Sleep Deprivation-Induced Impairments in Cognitive Functions and Neuromuscular Coordination in Middle-Aged Female Rats

Sleep deprivation due to present-day lifestyle and late-hours work commitments are associated with a broad spectrum of neurobehavioral complications. Moreover, women, as they age, become prone to the cumulative effects of menopause such as sleep disturbances, adiposity, and inflammation which are attributed to a compromised immuno-neuro-endocrine axis. So far, no effective therapeutic remedy is available to mitigate the adverse effects of SD. The current study was aimed to elucidate the neuroprotective potential of n-Butanol fraction obtained from hydroalcoholic extract of Tinospora cordifolia stem (B-TCE). Four groups of female rats are (1) Vehicle-undisturbed sleep, (2) Vehicle-sleep deprived (between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m.), (3) B-TCE oral feeding for 2 weeks and sleep deprivation, and (4) B-TCE alone undisturbed sleep group. Novel Object Recognition test was used to study cognitive impairments and Rotarod for motor coordination. Rats were then sacrificed to study the expression of various marker proteins in the hippocampus and piriform cortex regions of the brain by western blotting. SD was observed to impair the exploratory behavior and neuromuscular coordination, whereas, B-TCE pre-treatment was observed to ameliorate these behavioral functions'- impairments and further suppressed the changes in the expression of markers for synaptic plasticity, inflammation, cell survival, and apoptosis pathways. The current data suggest that B-TCE may be effective in the management of acute SD-associated impairments in learning and memory functions and neuromuscular coordination.

An Insight in Pathophysiological Mechanism of Alzheimer's Disease and its Management Using Plant Natural Products

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-associated nervous system disorder and a leading cause of dementia worldwide. Clinically, it is described by cognitive impairment and pathophysiologically by deposition of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain and neurodegeneration. This article reviews the pathophysiology, course of neuronal degeneration, and the various possible hypothesis of AD progression. These hypotheses include amyloid cascade, tau hyperphosphorylation, cholinergic disruption, metal dysregulation, vascular dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. There is an exponential increase in the occurrence of AD in the recent few years that indicate an urgent need to develop some effective treatment. Currently, only 2 classes of drugs are available for AD treatment, namely acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and NMDA receptor antagonist. Since AD is a complex neurological disorder and these drugs use a single target approach, alternatives are needed due to limited effectiveness and unpleasant side-effects of these drugs. Currently, plants have been used for drug development research especially because of their multiple sites of action and fewer side effects. Uses of some herbs and phytoconstituents for the management of neuronal disorders like AD have been documented in this article. Phytochemical screening of these plants shows the presence of many beneficial constituents like flavonoids, triterpenes, alkaloids, sterols, polyphenols, and tannins. These compounds show a wide array of pharmacological activities, such as anti-amyloidogenic, anticholinesterase, and antioxidants. This article summarizes the present understanding of AD progression and gathers biochemical evidence from various works on natural products that can be useful in the management of this disease.

Leveraging hallmark Alzheimer's molecular targets using phytoconstituents: Current perspective and emerging trends

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a type of dementia, severely distresses different brain regions. Characterized by various neuropathologies, it interferes with cognitive functions and neuropsychiatrical controls. This progressive deterioration has negative impacts not only on an individual's daily activity but also on social and occupational life. The pharmacological approach has always remained in the limelight for the treatment of AD. However, this approach is condemned with several side effects. Henceforth, a change in treatment approach has become crucial. Plant-based natural products are garnering special attention due to lesser side effects associated with their use. The current review emphasizes the anti-AD properties of phytoconstituents, throws light on those under clinical trials, and compiles information on their specific mode of actions against AD-related different neuropathologies. The phytoconstituents alone or in combinations will surely help discover new potent drugs for the effective treatment of AD with lesser side effects than the currently available pharmacological treatment.

Neuroprotective effects of hydro-alcoholic extract of Eclipta alba against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium-induced in vitro and in vivo models of Parkinson's disease

Pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) specifically involves the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra region, which mainly begun with the overwhelmed oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Considering the antioxidant and other pharmacological properties, Eclipta alba needs to be exploited for its possible neuroprotective efficacy against PD and other neurological disorders. Therefore, the current study was conducted to exemplify the remedial effects of hydro-alcoholic extract of E. alba (EA-MEx) against MPP⁺-elicited in vitro and in vivo PD models. SH-SY5Y, a neuroblastoma cell culture and male Wistar rats were used to impersonate the hallmarks of PD. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of EA-MEx revealed the presence of quercetin, ellagic acid, catechin, kaempferol, and epicatechin at varying concentrations. EA-MEx was found to deliver considerable protection against MPP⁺-induced oxidative damages in SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, in vivo study also supported the neuroprotective efficacy of EA-MEx, with significant mitigation of behavioral deficits induced by intrastriatal injection of MPP⁺. Furthermore, the disturbed levels of cellular antioxidant machinery have been significantly improved with the pre-treatment of EA-MEx. Mechanistically, the expression of α-synuclein, tyrosine hydroxylase, and mortalin were also found to be improved with the prior treatment of EA-MEx. Hence, the study suggests Eclipta alba as a suitable candidate for the development of better neuropathological therapeutics.

An Insight into Molecular Mechanisms and Novel Therapeutic Approaches in Epileptogenesis

Epilepsy is the second most common neurological disease with abnormal neural activity involving the activation of various intracellular signalling transduction mechanisms. The molecular and system biology mechanisms responsible for epileptogenesis are not well defined or understood. Neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and Epigenetic modification elicit epileptogenesis. The excessive neuronal activities in the brain are associated with neurochemical changes underlying the deleterious consequences of excitotoxicity. The prolonged repetitive excessive neuronal activities extended to brain tissue injury by the activation of microglia regulating abnormal neuroglia remodelling and monocyte infiltration in response to brain lesions inducing axonal sprouting contributing to neurodegeneration. The alteration of various downstream transduction pathways resulted in intracellular stress responses associating endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrial and lysosomal dysfunction, activation of nucleases, proteases mediated neuronal death. The recently novel pharmacological agents modulate various receptors like mTOR, COX-2, TRK, JAK-STAT, epigenetic modulators and neurosteroids are used for attenuation of epileptogenesis. Whereas the various molecular changes like the mutation of the cell surface, nuclear receptor and ion channels focusing on repetitive episodic seizures have been explored by preclinical and clinical studies. Despite effective pharmacotherapy for epilepsy, the inadequate understanding of precise mechanisms, drug resistance and therapeutic failure are the current fundamental problems in epilepsy. Therefore, the novel pharmacological approaches evaluated for efficacy on experimental models of epilepsy need to be identified and validated. In addition, we need to understand the downstream signalling pathways of new targets for the treatment of epilepsy. This review emphasizes on the current state of novel molecular targets as therapeutic approaches and future directions for the management of epileptogenesis. Novel pharmacological approaches and clinical exploration are essential to make new frontiers in curing epilepsy.

Potential of Medicinal Plants as Neuroprotective and Therapeutic Properties Against Amyloid-β-Related Toxicity, and Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity in Human Neural Cells

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are notorious neurodegenerative diseases amongst the general population. Being age-associated diseases, the prevalence of AD and PD is forecasted to rapidly escalate with the progressive aging population of the world. These diseases are complex and multifactorial. Among different events, amyloid β peptide (Aβ) induced toxicity is a well-established pathway of neuronal cell death, which plays a vital function in AD. Glutamate, the major excitatory transmitter, acts as a neurotoxin when present in excess at the synapses; this latter mechanism is termed excitotoxicity. It is hypothesised that glutamate-induced excitotoxicity contributes to the pathogenesis of AD and PD. No cure for AD and PD is currently available and the currently approved drugs available to treat these diseases have limited effectiveness and pose adverse effects. Indeed, plants have been a major source for the discovery of novel pharmacologically active compounds for distinct pathological conditions. Diverse plant species employed for brain-related disorders in traditional medicine are being explored to determine the scientific rationale behind their uses. Herein, we present a comprehensive review of plants and their constituents that have shown promise in reversing the (i) amyloid-β -related toxicity in AD models and (ii) glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in AD and PD models. This review summarizes information regarding the phytochemistry, biological and cellular activities, and clinical trials of several plant species in view to provide adequate scientific baseline information that could be used in the drug development process, thereby providing effective leads for AD and PD.

PSA mimetic 5-nonyloxytryptamine protects cerebellar neurons against glutamate induced excitotoxicity: An in vitro perspective

PSA-NCAM is a molecule of therapeutic interest for its key role in promoting neuritogenesis and synaptic plasticity. The current study was aimed to investigate the neuroregenerative potential of 5-nonyloxytryptamine (5-NOT) as PSA mimetic compound against glutamate induced excitotoxicity. 2D and 3D cultures of cerebellar neurons challenged with glutamate were used to ascertain the effect of 5-NOT on neurite outgrowth, migration and expression of neuronal plasticity markers. Glutamate excitotoxicity is one of the major underlying pathological factor responsible for neurodegeneration in various neurological disorders such as trauma, stroke, ischemia, epilepsy and neurodegenerative diseases.5-NOT treatment was observed to promote axonal growth and defasiculation in glutamate challenged neurons as well as promoted the migration of cerebellar neurons in both wound scratched area and cerebellar explant cultures. Further, 5-NOT treatment upregulated the expression of synaptic plasticity and cell survival pathway proteins which showed reduced expression after glutamate induced excitotoxicity. Thus, this preliminary data reveals thatPSA-mimetic,5-NOT may prove to be a potential neuroprotective candidate for neurodegenerative diseases.

From ayurvedic folk medicine to preclinical neurotherapeutic role of a miraculous herb, Tinospora cordifolia

In Ayurveda, the age-old Indian traditional system of medicine, health is considered to be achieved as equilibrium of physical and mental wellbeing and brain related ailments are recognized as 'Vatavyadi'. Rasayana herbs were mainly used for pharmacological treatment of neurological diseases and Tinospora cordifolia is one of the popular Rasayana herbs of Ayurveda. The traditional claims of therapeutic activity of this herb for treatment of fever, diabetes, anxiety, immunodeficiency, memory deficit and psychological problems have been explored by different research groups using reverse pharmacology and advance technological approaches. The aim of current review is to compile and discuss the neurotherapeutic potential of T. cordifolia in the light of various preclinical and clinical studies from literature. This review summarizes the information about different extracts of this herb and decoctions used for various neuro-related problems such as neurodegenerative diseases, neuroinflammation, sleep disorders, neural cancers, memory and cognition deficits and psychological problems besides other potential activities. The review also provides the knowledge of underlying therapeutic mechanism of T. cordifolia and its active phytoconstituents.

Potential effect of herbal antidepressants on cognitive deficit: Pharmacological activity and possible molecular mechanism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cognitive symptom is a "core" symptom of major depressive disorder (MDD) patients with clear deficit in memory, social and occupational function, and may persist during the remitting phase. Therefore, the remission of cognitive symptom has been considered as one of the main objectives in the treatment of MDD. Herbal antidepressants have been used to treat MDD, and there has been great advances in the understanding of the ability of these herbs to improve cognitive deficit linked to brain injury and various diseases including depression, Alzheimer disease, diabetes and age-related disorders. This systematic review summarizes the evidence from preclinical studies and clinical trials of herbal antidepressants with positive effects on cognitive deficit. The potential mechanisms by which herbal antidepressants prevent cognitive deficit are also reviewed. This review will facilitate further research and applications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted an open-ended, English restricted search of MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Science and Scopus for all available articles published or online before 31 December 2019, using terms pertaining to medical herb/phytomedicine/phytochemical/Chinese medicine and depression/major depressive disorder/antidepressant and/or cognitive impairment/cognitive deficit/cognitive dysfunction.

RESULTS

7 prescriptions, more than 30 individual herbs and 50 phytochemicals from China, Japan, Korea and India with positive effects on the depressive state and cognitive deficit are reviewed herein. The evidence from preclinical studies and clinical trials proves that these herbal antidepressants exhibit positive effects on one or more aspects of cognitive defect including spatial, episodic, aversive, and short- and long-term memory. The action mode of the improvement of cognitive deficit by these herbal antidepressants is mediated mainly through two pathways. One pathway is to promote hippocampal neurogenesis through activating brain derived neurotrophic factor-tropomyosin-related kinase B signaling. The other pathway is to prevent neuronal apoptosis through the inhibition of neuro-inflammation and neuro-oxidation.

CONCLUSION

These herbal antidepressants, having potential therapy for cognitive deficit, may prevent pathological processes of neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, these herbal medicines should provide a treasure trove, which will accelerate the development of new antidepressants that can effectively improve cognitive symptom in MDD. Studies on their molecular mechanisms may provide more potential targets and therapeutic approaches for new drug discovery.

Anti-brain cancer activity of chloroform and hexane extracts of Tinospora cordifolia Miers: an in vitro perspective

Background

Plants have been suggested as safest source of therapeutic agents, with multi targeted mode of action and least side effects. Tinospora cordifolia, commonly known as Guduchi in India, is one of the most highly valued herbs in Ayurvedic medicine. It possesses potential anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, immune-stimulatory and various other beneficial activities.

Purpose

The present study was aimed to investigate the differentiation inducing potential of chloroform and hexane extracts of T. cordifolia using U87MG glioblastoma and IMR-32 neuroblastoma cell lines as model system.

Results

Chloroform (Chl-TCE) and hexane (Hex-TCE) extracts significantly reduced the rate of proliferation and induced cell differentiation as evidenced by MTT assay and immunostaining for GFAP and MAP-2 in glioblastoma and neuroblastoma, respectively. Further these extracts increased the expression of stress markers HSP70 and Mortalin and induced senescence. Chloroform and hexane extracts also inhibited the migration of U87MG glioblastoma and IMR-32 neuroblastoma as indicated by wound scratch assay and supported by reduced expression of NCAM. Furthermore these extracts are not toxic to normal cells as they showed no inhibitory effects on primary astrocytic and neuronal cultures.

Conclusions

The present study suggests that chloroform and hexane extracts of T. cordifolia retard the rate of proliferation, induce differentiation and inhibit migration of human glioblastomas and neuroblastomas, thus may act as potential phytotherapeutic intervention in treatment of neural cancers.

Restorative effect of modified dioscorea pills on the structure of hippocampal neurovascular unit in an animal model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

Introduction

A considerable part of old people suffer from Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion (CCH) in their long lives but have no way to change. The Modified Dioscorea Pills (MDP), a Chinese compound herbal prescription, has good clinical efficacy for CCH related diseases such as Vascular Dementia, whereas, what happened and how MDP works in CCH need to be clarified. Here, we investigate the neural inflammation and gliosis, neuronal apoptosis and regeneration in an animal model of CCH and interfered with MDP to explore some mechanisms of this Chinese herbal medication.

Methods

40 rats were randomly divided into Sham operated Group, Model Group and MDP Group according to a Random Number Table. CCH models were made by the modified 2-VO (two vessels occlusion) operation. The intelligence of rats were measured by Morris Water Maze (MWM) test; H & E staining and transmission electron microscope (TEM) were applied to observe the pathological and ultrastructural changes in hippocampus; The expression of key genes including growth associated protein 43 (GAP-43) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and key protein including Bax, Bcl-2, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB p65), microtubule associated protein-2 (MAP-2), Oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2(Olig-2), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) of hippocampus were detected.

Results

CCH lead to learning and memorial impairment and MDP can partly restore them; Neural inflammation, Neuronal apoptosis and astrocyte hyperplasia were common in Model Group but they were partly reversed by MDP; The expressions of GAP-43mRAN and VEGF mRNA in Model Group were much higher than those in Sham operated Group, but they reached the highest in MDP Group (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Through regulating the expressions of key genes and proteins, MDP partly restore the intrinsic structure of Neurovascular Unit (NVU) in hippocampus, which revealed one of its therapeutic mechanisms on CCH.