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Starke G, Akmazoglu TB, Colucci A, Vermehren M, van Beinum A, Buthut M, Soekadar SR, Bublitz C, Chandler JA, Ienca M. Qualitative studies involving users of clinical neurotechnology: a scoping review. BMC Med Ethics 2024; 25:89. [PMID: 39138452 PMCID: PMC11323440 DOI: 10.1186/s12910-024-01087-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rise of a new generation of intelligent neuroprostheses, brain-computer interfaces (BCI) and adaptive closed-loop brain stimulation devices hastens the clinical deployment of neurotechnologies to treat neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. However, it remains unclear how these nascent technologies may impact the subjective experience of their users. To inform this debate, it is crucial to have a solid understanding how more established current technologies already affect their users. In recent years, researchers have used qualitative research methods to explore the subjective experience of individuals who become users of clinical neurotechnology. Yet, a synthesis of these more recent findings focusing on qualitative methods is still lacking. METHODS To address this gap in the literature, we systematically searched five databases for original research articles that investigated subjective experiences of persons using or receiving neuroprosthetics, BCIs or neuromodulation with qualitative interviews and raised normative questions. RESULTS 36 research articles were included and analysed using qualitative content analysis. Our findings synthesise the current scientific literature and reveal a pronounced focus on usability and other technical aspects of user experience. In parallel, they highlight a relative neglect of considerations regarding agency, self-perception, personal identity and subjective experience. CONCLUSIONS Our synthesis of the existing qualitative literature on clinical neurotechnology highlights the need to expand the current methodological focus as to investigate also non-technical aspects of user experience. Given the critical role considerations of agency, self-perception and personal identity play in assessing the ethical and legal significance of these technologies, our findings reveal a critical gap in the existing literature. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the current qualitative research landscape on neurotechnology and the limitations thereof. These findings can inform researchers on how to study the subjective experience of neurotechnology users more holistically and build patient-centred neurotechnology.
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Grants
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- HYBRIDMIND (SNSF 32NE30_199436; BMBF, 01GP2121A and -B), ERA-NET NEURON
- NGBMI (759370) European Research Council (ERC)
- NGBMI (759370) European Research Council (ERC)
- NGBMI (759370) European Research Council (ERC)
- NGBMI (759370) European Research Council (ERC)
- SSMART (01DR21025A), NEO (13GW0483C), QHMI (03ZU1110DD), QSHIFT (01UX2211) and NeuroQ (13N16486) Federal Ministry of Research and Education (BMBF)
- SSMART (01DR21025A), NEO (13GW0483C), QHMI (03ZU1110DD), QSHIFT (01UX2211) and NeuroQ (13N16486) Federal Ministry of Research and Education (BMBF)
- SSMART (01DR21025A), NEO (13GW0483C), QHMI (03ZU1110DD), QSHIFT (01UX2211) and NeuroQ (13N16486) Federal Ministry of Research and Education (BMBF)
- SSMART (01DR21025A), NEO (13GW0483C), QHMI (03ZU1110DD), QSHIFT (01UX2211) and NeuroQ (13N16486) Federal Ministry of Research and Education (BMBF)
- A-2019-558 Einstein Foundation Berlin
- A-2019-558 Einstein Foundation Berlin
- A-2019-558 Einstein Foundation Berlin
- A-2019-558 Einstein Foundation Berlin
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Starke
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute for History and Ethics of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
- College of Humanities, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | | | - Annalisa Colucci
- Clinical Neurotechnology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences at the Charité Campus Mitte, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mareike Vermehren
- Clinical Neurotechnology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences at the Charité Campus Mitte, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Amanda van Beinum
- Centre for Health Law Policy and Ethics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Maria Buthut
- Clinical Neurotechnology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences at the Charité Campus Mitte, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Surjo R Soekadar
- Clinical Neurotechnology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences at the Charité Campus Mitte, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Jennifer A Chandler
- Bertram Loeb Research Chair, Faculty of Law, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Marcello Ienca
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute for History and Ethics of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- College of Humanities, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Döbler NA, Carbon CC. Adapting Ourselves, Instead of the Environment: An Inquiry into Human Enhancement for Function and Beyond. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2024; 58:589-637. [PMID: 37597122 PMCID: PMC11052783 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-023-09797-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Technology enables humans not only to adapt their environment to their needs but also to modify themselves. Means of Human Enhancement - embodied technologies to improve the human body's capabilities or to create a new one - are the designated means of adapting ourselves instead of the environment. The debate about these technologies is typically fought on ethical soil. However, alarmist, utopian, and science fiction scenarios distract from the fact that Human Enhancement is a historical and pervasive phenomenon incorporated into many everyday practices. In the vein of disentangling conceptual difficulties, we claim that means of Human Enhancement are either physiologically or psychologically embodied, rendering the merging with the human user their most defining aspect. To fulfill its purpose, an enhancement must pass the test-in-the-world, i.e., assisting with effective engagement with a dynamic world. Even if failing in this regard: Human Enhancement is the fundamental and semi-targeted process of changing the users relationship with the world through the physical or psychological embodiment of a hitherto external object and/or change of one's body. This can potentially change the notion of being human. Drawing on a rich body of theoretical and empirical literature, we aim to provide a nuanced analysis of the transformative nature of this phenomenon in close proximity to human practice. Stakeholders are invited to apply the theory presented here to interrogate their perspective on technology in general and Human Enhancement in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Alexander Döbler
- Department for General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany.
- Research group EPÆG (Ergonomics, Psychological Æsthetics, Gestalt), Bamberg, Germany.
- Bamberg Graduate School of Affective and Cognitive Sciences (BaGrACS), Bamberg, Germany.
| | - Claus-Christian Carbon
- Department for General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
- Research group EPÆG (Ergonomics, Psychological Æsthetics, Gestalt), Bamberg, Germany
- Bamberg Graduate School of Affective and Cognitive Sciences (BaGrACS), Bamberg, Germany
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Padfield N, Agius Anastasi A, Camilleri T, Fabri S, Bugeja M, Camilleri K. BCI-controlled wheelchairs: end-users' perceptions, needs, and expectations, an interview-based study. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol 2024; 19:1539-1551. [PMID: 37166297 DOI: 10.1080/17483107.2023.2211602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Brain-computer interface (BCI)-controlled wheelchairs have the potential to improve the independence of people with mobility impairments. The low uptake of BCI devices has been linked to a lack of knowledge among researchers of the needs of end-users that should influence BCI development. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study used semi-structured interviews to learn about the perceptions, needs, and expectations of spinal cord injury (SCI) patients with regards to a BCI-controlled wheelchair. Topics discussed in the interview include: paradigms, shared control, safety, robustness, channel selection, hardware, and experimental design. The interviews were recorded and then transcribed. Analysis was carried out using coding based on grounded theory principles. RESULTS The majority of participants had a positive view of BCI-controlled wheelchair technology and were willing to use the technology. Core issues were raised regarding safety, cost and aesthetics. Interview discussions were linked to state-of-the-art BCI technology. The results challenge the current reliance of researchers on the motor-imagery paradigm by suggesting end-users expect highly intuitive paradigms. There also needs to be a stronger focus on obstacle avoidance and safety features in BCI wheelchairs. Finally, the development of control approaches that can be personalized for individual users may be instrumental for widespread adoption of these devices. CONCLUSIONS This study, based on interviews with SCI patients, indicates that BCI-controlled wheelchairs are a promising assistive technology that would be well received by end-users. Recommendations for a more person-centered design of BCI controlled wheelchairs are made and clear avenues for future research are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Padfield
- Centre for Biomedical Cybernetics, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | | | - Tracey Camilleri
- Department of Systems and Control Engineering, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Simon Fabri
- Department of Systems and Control Engineering, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Marvin Bugeja
- Department of Systems and Control Engineering, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Kenneth Camilleri
- Centre for Biomedical Cybernetics, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
- Department of Systems and Control Engineering, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
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Soldado-Magraner J, Antonietti A, French J, Higgins N, Young MJ, Larrivee D, Monteleone R. Applying the IEEE BRAIN neuroethics framework to intra-cortical brain-computer interfaces. J Neural Eng 2024; 21:022001. [PMID: 38537269 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ad3852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Objective. Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are neuroprosthetic devices that allow for direct interaction between brains and machines. These types of neurotechnologies have recently experienced a strong drive in research and development, given, in part, that they promise to restore motor and communication abilities in individuals experiencing severe paralysis. While a rich literature analyzes the ethical, legal, and sociocultural implications (ELSCI) of these novel neurotechnologies, engineers, clinicians and BCI practitioners often do not have enough exposure to these topics.Approach. Here, we present the IEEE Neuroethics Framework, an international, multiyear, iterative initiative aimed at developing a robust, accessible set of considerations for diverse stakeholders.Main results. Using the framework, we provide practical examples of ELSCI considerations for BCI neurotechnologies. We focus on invasive technologies, and in particular, devices that are implanted intra-cortically for medical research applications.Significance. We demonstrate the utility of our framework in exposing a wide range of implications across different intra-cortical BCI technology modalities and conclude with recommendations on how to utilize this knowledge in the development and application of ethical guidelines for BCI neurotechnologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Soldado-Magraner
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - Alberto Antonietti
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano 20131, Italy
| | - Jennifer French
- Neurotech Network, St. Petersburg, FL 33733, United States of America
| | - Nathan Higgins
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Michael J Young
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, United States of America
| | - Denis Larrivee
- Mind and Brain Institute, University of Navarra Medical School, Pamplona, Navarra 31008, Spain
- Loyola University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Monteleone
- Disability Studies Program, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, United States of America
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Herbert C. Analyzing and computing humans by means of the brain using Brain-Computer Interfaces - understanding the user - previous evidence, self-relevance and the user's self-concept as potential superordinate human factors of relevance. Front Hum Neurosci 2024; 17:1286895. [PMID: 38435127 PMCID: PMC10904616 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1286895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are well-known instances of how technology can convert a user's brain activity taken from non-invasive electroencephalography (EEG) into computer commands for the purpose of computer-assisted communication and interaction. However, not all users are attaining the accuracy required to use a BCI consistently, despite advancements in technology. Accordingly, previous research suggests that human factors could be responsible for the variance in BCI performance among users. Therefore, the user's internal mental states and traits including motivation, affect or cognition, personality traits, or the user's satisfaction, beliefs or trust in the technology have been investigated. Going a step further, this manuscript aims to discuss which human factors could be potential superordinate factors that influence BCI performance, implicitly, explicitly as well as inter- and intraindividually. Based on the results of previous studies that used comparable protocols to examine the motivational, affective, cognitive state or personality traits of healthy and vulnerable EEG-BCI users within and across well-investigated BCIs (P300-BCIs or SMR-BCIs, respectively), it is proposed that the self-relevance of tasks and stimuli and the user's self-concept provide a huge potential for BCI applications. As potential key human factors self-relevance and the user's self-concept (self-referential knowledge and beliefs about one's self) guide information processing and modulate the user's motivation, attention, or feelings of ownership, agency, and autonomy. Changes in the self-relevance of tasks and stimuli as well as self-referential processing related to one's self (self-concept) trigger changes in neurophysiological activity in specific brain networks relevant to BCI. Accordingly, concrete examples will be provided to discuss how past and future research could incorporate self-relevance and the user's self-concept in the BCI setting - including paradigms, user instructions, and training sessions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Herbert
- Department of Applied Emotion and Motivation Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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6
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Goering S, Brown AI, Klein E. Brain Pioneers and Moral Entanglement: An Argument for Post-trial Responsibilities in Neural-Device Trials. Hastings Cent Rep 2024; 54:24-33. [PMID: 38390679 PMCID: PMC11060429 DOI: 10.1002/hast.1566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
We argue that in implanted neurotechnology research, participants and researchers experience what Henry Richardson has called "moral entanglement." Participants partially entrust researchers with access to their brains and thus to information that would otherwise be private, leading to created intimacies and special obligations of beneficence for researchers and research funding agencies. One of these obligations, we argue, is about continued access to beneficial technology once a trial ends. We make the case for moral entanglement in this context through exploration of participants' vulnerability, uncompensated risks and burdens, depth of relationship with the research team, and dependence on researchers in implanted neurotechnology trials.
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7
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Mitchell J, Shirota C, Clanchy K. Factors that influence the adoption of rehabilitation technologies: a multi-disciplinary qualitative exploration. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2023; 20:80. [PMID: 37340496 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-023-01194-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Technological innovation is recognised as having the potential to enhance rehabilitation for people with disability. Yet, resistance to, and abandonment of, rehabilitation technology is prevalent and the successful translation of technology into rehabilitation settings remains limited. Therefore, the aim of this work was to develop an in-depth, multi-stakeholder perspective on what influences the adoption of rehabilitation technologies. METHODS Semi-structured focus groups were conducted as part of a larger research project aiming to facilitate the co-design of a novel neurorestorative technology. Focus group data were analysed using a five-phase hybrid deductive-inductive approach to qualitative data analysis. RESULTS Focus groups were attended by 43 stakeholders with expertise in one or more of the following fields: people with disability, allied health, human movement science, computer science, design, engineering, ethics, funding, marketing, business, product development, and research development. Six main themes influencing the adoption of technology in rehabilitation were identified: cost beyond the purchase price, benefits to all stakeholders, trust to be earned in technology, ease of technology operation, ability to access technology, and the 'co' in co-design. All six themes were found to be interrelated; in particular, the importance of direct stakeholder engagement in the development of rehabilitation technologies (the 'co' in co-design) was prevalent in all themes. CONCLUSIONS A range of complex and interrelated factors influence the adoption of rehabilitation technologies. Importantly, many of the issues that have the potential to negatively impact rehabilitation technology adoption may be addressed during development by utilising the experience and expertise of stakeholders who influence its supply and demand. Our findings state that a wider cohort of stakeholders needs to be actively engaged in the development of rehabilitation technologies to better address the factors that contribute to technology underutilisation and abandonment and facilitate better outcomes for people with disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessie Mitchell
- The Hopkins Centre, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Camila Shirota
- The Hopkins Centre, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Kelly Clanchy
- The Hopkins Centre, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.
- School of Health Sciences and Social Work, Griffith University, Southport, Australia.
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8
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Sample M, Sattler S, Boehlen W, Racine E. Brain-computer interfaces, disability, and the stigma of refusal: A factorial vignette study. PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENCE (BRISTOL, ENGLAND) 2023; 32:522-542. [PMID: 36633302 PMCID: PMC10115937 DOI: 10.1177/09636625221141663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
As brain-computer interfaces are promoted as assistive devices, some researchers worry that this promise to "restore" individuals worsens stigma toward disabled people and fosters unrealistic expectations. In three web-based survey experiments with vignettes, we tested how refusing a brain-computer interface in the context of disability affects cognitive (blame), emotional (anger), and behavioral (coercion) stigmatizing attitudes (Experiment 1, N = 222) and whether the effect of a refusal is affected by the level of brain-computer interface functioning (Experiment 2, N = 620) or the risk of malfunctioning (Experiment 3, N = 620). We found that refusing a brain-computer interface increased blame and anger, while brain-computer interface functioning did change the effect of a refusal. Higher risks of device malfunctioning partially reduced stigmatizing attitudes and moderated the effect of refusal. This suggests that information about disabled people who refuse a technology can increase stigma toward them. This finding has serious implications for brain-computer interface regulation, media coverage, and the prevention of ableism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Sample
- Matthew Sample, Centre for Ethics and Law in the Life Sciences, Leibniz University Hannover, 30167 Hannover, Germany.
| | | | - Wren Boehlen
- Institut de recherches cliniques de Montréal, Canada
| | - Eric Racine
- Institut de recherches cliniques de Montréal, Canada; Université de Montréal, Canada; McGill University, Canada
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Bergeron D, Iorio-Morin C, Bonizzato M, Lajoie G, Orr Gaucher N, Racine É, Weil AG. Use of Invasive Brain-Computer Interfaces in Pediatric Neurosurgery: Technical and Ethical Considerations. J Child Neurol 2023; 38:223-238. [PMID: 37116888 PMCID: PMC10226009 DOI: 10.1177/08830738231167736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Invasive brain-computer interfaces hold promise to alleviate disabilities in individuals with neurologic injury, with fully implantable brain-computer interface systems expected to reach the clinic in the upcoming decade. Children with severe neurologic disabilities, like quadriplegic cerebral palsy or cervical spine trauma, could benefit from this technology. However, they have been excluded from clinical trials of intracortical brain-computer interface to date. In this manuscript, we discuss the ethical considerations related to the use of invasive brain-computer interface in children with severe neurologic disabilities. We first review the technical hardware and software considerations for the application of intracortical brain-computer interface in children. We then discuss ethical issues related to motor brain-computer interface use in pediatric neurosurgery. Finally, based on the input of a multidisciplinary panel of experts in fields related to brain-computer interface (functional and restorative neurosurgery, pediatric neurosurgery, mathematics and artificial intelligence research, neuroengineering, pediatric ethics, and pragmatic ethics), we then formulate initial recommendations regarding the clinical use of invasive brain-computer interfaces in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bergeron
- Division of Neurosurgery, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Marco Bonizzato
- Electrical Engineering Department, Polytechnique Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada
- Neuroscience Department and Centre
interdisciplinaire de recherche sur le cerveau et l’apprentissage (CIRCA), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Guillaume Lajoie
- Mathematics and Statistics Department, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada
- Mila - Québec AI Institute, Montréal,
Québec, Canada
| | - Nathalie Orr Gaucher
- Department of Pediatric Emergency
Medicine, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Bureau de l’Éthique clinique, Faculté
de médecine de l’Université de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Éric Racine
- Pragmatic Research Unit, Institute de
Recherche Clinique de Montréal (IRCM), Montreal, Québec, Canada
- Department of Medicine and Department
of Social and Preventative Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Alexander G. Weil
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department
of Surgery, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte-Justine (CHUSJ), Département de
Pédiatrie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Brain and Development Research Axis,
CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Might artificial intelligence become part of the person, and what are the key ethical and legal implications? AI & SOCIETY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00146-022-01584-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThis paper explores and ultimately affirms the surprising claim that artificial intelligence (AI) can become part of the person, in a robust sense, and examines three ethical and legal implications. The argument is based on a rich, legally inspired conception of persons as free and independent rightholders and objects of heightened protection, but it is construed so broadly that it should also apply to mainstream philosophical conceptions of personhood. The claim is exemplified by a specific technology, devices that connect human brains with computers and operate by AI-algorithms. Under philosophically reasonable and empirically realistic conditions, these devices and the AI running them become parts of the person, in the same way as arms, hearts, or mental capacities are. This transformation shall be called empersonification. It has normative and especially legal consequences because people have broader and stronger duties regarding other persons (and parts of them) than regarding things. Three consequences with practical implications are: (i) AI-devices cease to exist as independent legal entities and come to enjoy the special legal protection of persons; (ii) therefore, third parties such as manufacturers or authors of software lose (intellectual) property rights in device and software; (iii) persons become responsible for the outputs of the empersonified AI-devices to the same degree that they are for desires or intentions arising from the depths of their unconscious. More generally, empersonification marks a new step in the long history of human–machine interaction that deserves critical ethical reflection and calls for a stronger value-aligned development of these technologies.
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Public attitudes towards neurotechnology: Findings from two experiments concerning Brain Stimulation Devices (BSDs) and Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275454. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
This study contributes to the emerging literature on public perceptions of neurotechnological devices (NTDs) in their medical and non-medical applications, depending on their invasiveness, framing effects, and interindividual differences related to personal needs and values. We conducted two web-based between-subject experiments (2×2×2) using a representative, nation-wide sample of the adult population in Germany. Using vignettes describing how two NTDs, brain stimulation devices (BSDs; NExperiment 1 = 1,090) and brain-computer interfaces (BCIs; NExperiment 2 = 1,089), function, we randomly varied the purpose (treatment vs. enhancement) and invasiveness (noninvasive vs. invasive) of the NTD, and assessed framing effects (variable order of assessing moral acceptability first vs. willingness to use first). We found a moderate moral acceptance and willingness to use BSDs and BCIs. Respondents preferred treatment over enhancement purposes and noninvasive over invasive devices. We also found a framing effect and explored the role of personal characteristics as indicators of personal needs and values (e.g., stress, religiosity, and gender). Our results suggest that the future demand for BSDs or BCIs may depend on the purpose, invasiveness, and personal needs and values. These insights can inform technology developers about the public’s needs and concerns, and enrich legal and ethical debates.
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Lo YT, Premchand B, Libedinsky C, So RQY. Neural correlates of learning in a linear discriminant analysis brain-computer interface paradigm. J Neural Eng 2022; 19. [PMID: 36206725 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ac985f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Objective.With practice, the control of brain-computer interfaces (BCI) would improve over time; the neural correlate for such learning had not been well studied. We demonstrated here that monkeys controlling a motor BCI using a linear discriminant analysis (LDA) decoder could learn to make the firing patterns of the recorded neurons more distinct over a short period of time for different output classes to improve task performance.Approach.Using an LDA decoder, we studied two Macaque monkeys implanted with microelectrode arrays as they controlled the movement of a mobile robotic platform. The LDA decoder mapped high-dimensional neuronal firing patterns linearly onto a lower-dimensional linear discriminant (LD) space, and we studied the changes in the spatial coordinates of these neural signals in the LD space over time, and their correspondence to trial performance. Direction selectivity was quantified with permutation feature importance (FI).Main results.We observed that, within individual sessions, there was a tendency for the points in the LD space encoding different directions to diverge, leading to fewer misclassification errors, and, hence, improvement in task accuracy. Accuracy was correlated with the presence of channels with strong directional preference (i.e. high FI), as well as a varied population code (i.e. high variance in FI distribution).Significance.We emphasized the importance of studying the short-term/intra-sessional variations in neural representations during the use of BCI. Over the course of individual sessions, both monkeys could modulate their neural activities to create increasingly distinct neural representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Tung Lo
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Neuroscience Institute, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, 308433, Singapore
| | - Brian Premchand
- Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R), A*STAR, 1 Fusionopolis Way, #21-01 Connexis (South Tower), 138632, Singapore
| | - Camilo Libedinsky
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Rosa Qi Yue So
- Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R), A*STAR, 1 Fusionopolis Way, #21-01 Connexis (South Tower), 138632, Singapore.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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13
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Engagement, Exploitation, and Human Intracranial Electrophysiology Research. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2022; 15. [DOI: 10.1007/s12152-022-09502-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Rostami E, Ghassemi F, Tabanfar Z. Canonical Correlation Analysis of Task Related Components as a noise-resistant method in Brain-Computer Interface Speller Systems based on Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential. Biomed Signal Process Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2021.103449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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15
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Pitt KM, Dietz A. Applying Implementation Science to Support Active Collaboration in Noninvasive Brain-Computer Interface Development and Translation for Augmentative and Alternative Communication. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY 2022; 31:515-526. [PMID: 34958737 DOI: 10.1044/2021_ajslp-21-00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this article is to consider how, alongside engineering advancements, noninvasive brain-computer interface (BCI) for augmentative and alternative communication (AAC; BCI-AAC) developments can leverage implementation science to increase the clinical impact of this technology. We offer the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) as a structure to help guide future BCI-AAC research. Specifically, we discuss CFIR primary domains that include intervention characteristics, the outer and inner settings, the individuals involved in the intervention, and the process of implementation, alongside pertinent subdomains including adaptability, cost, patient needs and recourses, implementation climate, other personal attributes, and the process of engaging. The authors support their view with current citations from both the AAC and BCI-AAC fields. CONCLUSIONS The article aimed to provide thoughtful considerations for how future research may leverage the CFIR to support meaningful BCI-AAC translation for those with severe physical impairments. We believe that, although significant barriers to BCI-AAC development still exist, incorporating implementation research may be timely for the field of BCI-AAC and help account for diversity in end users, navigate implementation obstacles, and support a smooth and efficient translation of BCI-AAC technology. Moreover, the sooner clinicians, individuals who use AAC, their support networks, and engineers collectively improve BCI-AAC outcomes and the efficiency of translation, the sooner BCI-AAC may become an everyday tool in the AAC arsenal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Pitt
- Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
| | - Aimee Dietz
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Georgia State University, Atlanta
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16
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Ziadeh H, Gulyas D, Nielsen LD, Lehmann S, Nielsen TB, Kjeldsen TKK, Hougaard BI, Jochumsen M, Knoche H. "Mine Works Better": Examining the Influence of Embodiment in Virtual Reality on the Sense of Agency During a Binary Motor Imagery Task With a Brain-Computer Interface. Front Psychol 2022; 12:806424. [PMID: 35002899 PMCID: PMC8741301 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.806424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor imagery-based brain-computer interfaces (MI-BCI) have been proposed as a means for stroke rehabilitation, which combined with virtual reality allows for introducing game-based interactions into rehabilitation. However, the control of the MI-BCI may be difficult to obtain and users may face poor performance which frustrates them and potentially affects their motivation to use the technology. Decreases in motivation could be reduced by increasing the users' sense of agency over the system. The aim of this study was to understand whether embodiment (ownership) of a hand depicted in virtual reality can enhance the sense of agency to reduce frustration in an MI-BCI task. Twenty-two healthy participants participated in a within-subject study where their sense of agency was compared in two different embodiment experiences: 1) avatar hand (with body), or 2) abstract blocks. Both representations closed with a similar motion for spatial congruency and popped a balloon as a result. The hand/blocks were controlled through an online MI-BCI. Each condition consisted of 30 trials of MI-activation of the avatar hand/blocks. After each condition a questionnaire probed the participants' sense of agency, ownership, and frustration. Afterwards, a semi-structured interview was performed where the participants elaborated on their ratings. Both conditions supported similar levels of MI-BCI performance. A significant correlation between ownership and agency was observed (r = 0.47, p = 0.001). As intended, the avatar hand yielded much higher ownership than the blocks. When controlling for performance, ownership increased sense of agency. In conclusion, designers of BCI-based rehabilitation applications can draw on anthropomorphic avatars for the visual mapping of the trained limb to improve ownership. While not While not reducing frustration ownership can improve perceived agency given sufficient BCI performance. In future studies the findings should be validated in stroke patients since they may perceive agency and ownership differently than able-bodied users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamzah Ziadeh
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - David Gulyas
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Louise Dørr Nielsen
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Steffen Lehmann
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Thomas Bendix Nielsen
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Thomas Kim Kroman Kjeldsen
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Bastian Ilsø Hougaard
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Mads Jochumsen
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Hendrik Knoche
- Human Machine Interaction Lab, Department of Architecture, Design, and Media Technology, Institute for Architecture and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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17
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2020 International Neuroethics Society Annual Meeting Top Abstracts. AJOB Neurosci 2021; 15:1-23. [PMID: 34060979 DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2021.1917726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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Goering S, Klein E. Fostering Neuroethics Integration with Neuroscience in the BRAIN Initiative: Comments on the NIH Neuroethics Roadmap. AJOB Neurosci 2021; 11:184-188. [PMID: 32716753 DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2020.1778120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The BRAIN 2.0 roadmap lauds the neuroscientific advances made in the first decade of the BRAIN Initiative, but also calls attention to the need to carefully consider how these advances will inform and perhaps alter our understanding of "those deepest behaviors that, as humans we hold dear" (Roadmap, Executive Summary). In this short statement, we briefly consider several features of the BRAIN Neuroethics subgroup's roadmap that lie within our area of expertise, including the recommendations to (1) enhance integration of neuroscience and neuroethics, and (2) provide additional tools and resources for neuroscientists to recognize neuroethics issues and opportunities for neuroethics research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eran Klein
- University of Washington.,Oregon Health And Science University
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19
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Goering S, Brown T, Klein E. Neurotechnology ethics and relational agency. PHILOSOPHY COMPASS 2021; 16:e12734. [PMID: 34531923 PMCID: PMC8443241 DOI: 10.1111/phc3.12734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Novel neurotechnologies, like deep brain stimulation and brain-computer interface, offer great hope for treating, curing, and preventing disease, but raise important questions about effects these devices may have on human identity, authenticity, and autonomy. After briefly assessing recent narrative work in these areas, we show that agency is a phenomenon key to all three goods and highlight the ways in which neural devices can help to draw attention to the relational nature of our agency. Drawing on insights from disability theory, we argue that neural devices provide a kind of agential assistance, similar to that provided by caregivers, family, and others. As such, users and devices participate in a kind of co-agency. We conclude by suggesting the need for developing relational agency-competencies-skills for reflecting on the influence of devices on agency, for adapting to novel circumstances ushered in by devices, and for incorporating the feedback of loved ones and others about device effects on agency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Goering
- Department of Philosophy and Center for Neurotechnology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Timothy Brown
- Department of Philosophy and Center for Neurotechnology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Eran Klein
- Department of Philosophy and Center for Neurotechnology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health and Sciences University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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20
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Abstract
Neural devices have the capacity to enable users to regain abilities lost due to disease or injury - for instance, a deep brain stimulator (DBS) that allows a person with Parkinson's disease to regain the ability to fluently perform movements or a Brain Computer Interface (BCI) that enables a person with spinal cord injury to control a robotic arm. While users recognize and appreciate the technologies' capacity to maintain or restore their capabilities, the neuroethics literature is replete with examples of concerns expressed about agentive capacities: A perceived lack of control over the movement of a robotic arm might result in an altered sense of feeling responsible for that movement. Clinicians or researchers being able to record and access detailed information of a person's brain might raise privacy concerns. A disconnect between previous, current, and future understandings of the self might result in a sense of alienation. The ability to receive and interpret sensory feedback might change whether someone trusts the implanted device or themselves. Inquiries into the nature of these concerns and how to mitigate them has produced scholarship that often emphasizes one issue - responsibility, privacy, authenticity, or trust - selectively. However, we believe that examining these ethical dimensions separately fails to capture a key aspect of the experience of living with a neural device. In exploring their interrelations, we argue that their mutual significance for neuroethical research can be adequately captured if they are described under a unified heading of agency. On these grounds, we propose an "Agency Map" which brings together the diverse neuroethical dimensions and their interrelations into a comprehensive framework. With this, we offer a theoretically-grounded approach to understanding how these various dimensions are interwoven in an individual's experience of agency.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Eran Klein
- University of Washington
- Oregon Health and Science University
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21
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Abstract
Recent advances in brain-computer interface technology to restore and rehabilitate neurologic function aim to enable persons with disabling neurologic conditions to communicate, interact with the environment, and achieve other key activities of daily living and personal goals. Here we evaluate the principles, benefits, challenges, and future directions of brain-computer interfaces in the context of neurorehabilitation. We then explore the clinical translation of these technologies and propose an approach to facilitate implementation of brain-computer interfaces for persons with neurologic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Young
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurotechnology and Neurorecovery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - David J Lin
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurotechnology and Neurorecovery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- School of Engineering and Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, VA RR&D Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Leigh R Hochberg
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurotechnology and Neurorecovery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- School of Engineering and Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
- Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, VA RR&D Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Providence, Rhode Island
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22
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Schönau A. The Spectrum of Responsibility Ascription for End Users of Neurotechnologies. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2021; 14:423-435. [DOI: 10.1007/s12152-021-09460-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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23
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Abstract
The prospect and potentiality of interfacing minds with machines has long captured human imagination. Recent advances in biomedical engineering, computer science, and neuroscience are making brain–computer interfaces a reality, paving the way to restoring and potentially augmenting human physical and mental capabilities. Applications of brain–computer interfaces are being explored in applications as diverse as security, lie detection, alertness monitoring, gaming, education, art, and human cognition augmentation. The present tutorial aims to survey the principal features and challenges of brain–computer interfaces (such as reliable acquisition of brain signals, filtering and processing of the acquired brainwaves, ethical and legal issues related to brain–computer interface (BCI), data privacy, and performance assessment) with special emphasis to biomedical engineering and automation engineering applications. The content of this paper is aimed at students, researchers, and practitioners to glimpse the multifaceted world of brain–computer interfacing.
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24
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A comprehensive assessment of Brain Computer Interfaces: Recent trends and challenges. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 346:108918. [PMID: 32853592 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An uninterrupted channel of communication and control between the human brain and electronic processing units has led to an increased use of Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs). This article attempts to present an all-encompassing review on BCI and the scientific advancements associated with it. The ultimate goal of this review is to provide a general overview of the BCI technology and to shed light on different aspects of BCIs. This review also underscores the applications, practical challenges and opportunities associated with BCI technology, which can be used to accelerate future developments in this field. METHODS This review is based on a systematic literature search for tracking down the relevant research annals and proceedings. Using a methodical search strategy, the search was carried out across major technical databases. The retrieved records were screened for their relevance and a total of 369 research chronicles were engulfed in this review based on the inclusion criteria. RESULTS This review describes the present scenario and recent advancements in BCI technology. It also identifies several application areas of BCI technology. This comprehensive review provides evidence that, while we are getting ever closer, significant challenges still exist for the development of BCIs that can seamlessly integrate with the user's biological system. CONCLUSION The findings of this review confirm the importance of BCI technology in various applications. It is concluded that BCI technology, still in its sprouting phase, requires significant explorations for further development.
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Tang J, Xu M, Han J, Liu M, Dai T, Chen S, Ming D. Optimizing SSVEP-Based BCI System towards Practical High-Speed Spelling. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20154186. [PMID: 32731432 PMCID: PMC7435370 DOI: 10.3390/s20154186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The brain–computer interface (BCI) spellers based on steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) have recently been widely investigated for their high information transfer rates (ITRs). This paper aims to improve the practicability of the SSVEP-BCIs for high-speed spelling. The system acquired the electroencephalogram (EEG) data from a self-developed dedicated EEG device and the stimulation was arranged as a keyboard. The task-related component analysis (TRCA) spatial filter was modified (mTRCA) for target classification and showed significantly higher performance compared with the original TRCA in the offline analysis. In the online system, the dynamic stopping (DS) strategy based on Bayesian posterior probability was utilized to realize alterable stimulating time. In addition, the temporal filtering process and the programs were optimized to facilitate the online DS operation. Notably, the online ITR reached 330.4 ± 45.4 bits/min on average, which is significantly higher than that of fixed stopping (FS) strategy, and the peak value of 420.2 bits/min is the highest online spelling ITR with a SSVEP-BCI up to now. The proposed system with portable EEG acquisition, friendly interaction, and alterable time of command output provides more flexibility for SSVEP-based BCIs and is promising for practical high-speed spelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiabei Tang
- Lab of Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.T.); (M.X.); (J.H.); (T.D.); (S.C.)
| | - Minpeng Xu
- Lab of Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.T.); (M.X.); (J.H.); (T.D.); (S.C.)
- Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Neural Engineering, Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China;
| | - Jin Han
- Lab of Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.T.); (M.X.); (J.H.); (T.D.); (S.C.)
| | - Miao Liu
- Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Neural Engineering, Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China;
| | - Tingfei Dai
- Lab of Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.T.); (M.X.); (J.H.); (T.D.); (S.C.)
| | - Shanguang Chen
- Lab of Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.T.); (M.X.); (J.H.); (T.D.); (S.C.)
- Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Neural Engineering, Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China;
- National Key Laboratory of Human Factors Engineering, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing 100094, China
| | - Dong Ming
- Lab of Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Precision Instruments and Optoelectronics Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.T.); (M.X.); (J.H.); (T.D.); (S.C.)
- Tianjin International Joint Research Center for Neural Engineering, Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China;
- Correspondence:
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