Critically appraised topic on adverse food reactions of companion animals (3): prevalence of cutaneous adverse food reactions in dogs and cats

Feline dermatoses at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (Iran): 154 cases (2009-2020)

BACKGROUND

Studies indicate that 6% to 20% of feline patients have at least one dermatopathy.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVE

This retrospective study aimed to provide comprehensive information about the types of skin diseases, diagnosis methods, treatments and follow-up data in a hospital population of domestic cats in Iran.

ANIMALS/MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present survey of clinical observations was conducted on the medical records of 1825 individual cats brought to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (Iran) over a 12-year period (2009-2020).

RESULTS

Feline dermatoses accounted for 154 (8.43%) of the 1,825 cats examined during the study period. The most prevalent dermatological manifestations in the studied population of 154 were erythema, macules, papules and/or pustules (36; 23.37%), alopecia (18; 11.68%) and erosive/ulcerative lesions (17; 11.03%). Specific dermatological diagnoses made were the following (in descending order, of 154): dermatophytosis (34; 22.07%), subcutaneous abscesses (16; 10.38%), atopic skin syndrome/environmental allergies (20; 10.38%), external parasites (15; 9.74%), otitis (10; 6.49%), flea infestation (6; 3.89%), food allergy (4; 2.59%) and primary pyoderma (2; 1.29%). Most lesions were observed in the head/face of cats (41 of 154; 26.62%) and their ears (39; 25.32%). Following treatment, 86 of 154 cats (69.35%) had complete remissions, 17 cats faced recurrent dermatoses and the owners of 21 cats were not satisfied.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The prevalence of dermatoses among this cohort of Iranian cats is similar to that in other parts of the world. However, a noticeable difference was detected in the most prevalent dermatoses. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to assess the characteristics and outcomes of feline dermatological conditions in Iran.

Establishment of clinical criteria for the diagnosis of adverse food reactions in dogs with atopic dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis of canine adverse food reactions (AFRs) is based on vague criteria, such as '>50% improvement' during elimination diet trial (EDT) followed by 'deterioration' during provocation test (PT).

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to use predefined criteria to evaluate response during EDT [i.e., Owner Global Assessment of Treatment Efficacy (OGATE) = good-to-excellent] and relapse during PT [i.e., Owner Global Assessment of Challenge Deterioration (OGACD) = moderate-to-severe and/or >100% increase of lesional (Canine Atopic Dermatitis Extent and Severity Index, 4th iteration, CADESI-04) and/or of pruritus (pruritus Visual Analog Scale, PVAS) scores].

ANIMALS

Twenty-nine dogs with atopic dermatitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An extensively hydrolysed diet was fed to all dogs followed, in seven of 11 nonresponders, by a second home-made novel-protein EDT. Dogs responding to either EDT were challenged with their previous diet.

RESULTS

Thirteen (44.8%) dogs were diagnosed with AFRs: at the end of EDT, their OGATE was good (9 of 13; 69.2%) or excellent (four of 13; 30.8%), and both CADESI-04 (46.7%) and PVAS (71.1%) had decreased significantly; at the end of PT, OGACD was moderate or severe in 12 of 13 (92.3%) dogs, and both CADESI-04 (127.9%) and PVAS (181.8%) had increased significantly. Of the 16 dogs without AFRs, 6 (37.5%) responded to the commercial (n = 5) or home-made (n = 1) diet [OGATE = good (three of six) or excellent (three of six)], with significant concurrent reduction of CADESI-04 and nonsignificant reduction of PVAS, yet they did not relapse during PT.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The proposed (predefined) criteria for the evaluation of response during EDT and deterioration during PT seem reliable and are easily applicable in clinical practice and research.

Comparison of intradermal and serum testing for environmental allergen-specific immunoglobulin E determination in a laboratory colony of cats with naturally acquired atopic syndrome

BACKGROUND

Allergen testing is used to select antigens included in the desensitisation vaccine. Intradermal skin test (IDT) is the gold standard in cats, yet allergen-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E serological testing (ASIS) is often used. Feline data are lacking regarding the agreement between IDT and ASIS results.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

The first objective of the study was to establish a colony of cats with naturally acquired feline atopic syndrome (FAS). Further objectives were to define their hypersensitivity disorder to detail the allergen tests results, and to assess similarity between the allergen tests.

ANIMALS

Thirty-five cats with FAS and 10 control cats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Enrolled cats went through a five phase-screening and quarantine process before joining the colony. An elimination diet trial was performed on all FAS cats. ASIS and IDT were consecutively performed on all cats under sedation.

RESULTS

Reactions to 34 allergens were compiled for the 45 cats. Global sensitivity and specificity of ASIS were 34.7% and 78.9%, respectively. Only flea (ICC = 0.26, p = 0.040) and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (ICC = 0.48, p < 0.001) allergens had a significant intraclass correlation (weak agreement). Two FAS cats had negative tests including one cat with a concomitant food allergy.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This study depicts the first reported colony of cats with naturally acquired FAS. This is the first feline study to compare and show the poor agreement between allergen tests with a panel of 34 allergens. This colony also harbours two cats with FAS with negative allergen tests. These may represent the first described cats with an intrinsic form of atopic syndrome.

An open-label clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy of an elemental diet for the diagnosis of adverse food reactions in dogs

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of cutaneous adverse food reactions (CAFR) in dogs is dependent on a diet trial and provocative challenge.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the efficacy of an elemental diet for the diagnosis of CAFR in dogs.

ANIMALS

Sixty-two client-owned nonseasonally pruritic dogs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prospective, uncontrolled, observational elimination diet trial study. Dogs were fed a commercially available elemental canine diet (Pro Plan Veterinary Diets EL Elemental Canine Formula, Nestlé Purina PetCare Company) for up to eight weeks. Pruritus was assessed using a validated Visual Analog Scale (PVAS), lesions with the Canine Atopic Dermatitis and Severity Index, 4th iteration (CADESI-04) and gastrointestinal (GI) signs with a client questionnaire. All dogs were challenged with their previous diet for up to 14 days. Treats were added from Day (D)7 to D14.

RESULTS

Forty-five dogs completed the study. Eighteen (40%) of these were diagnosed with CAFR and 27 (60%) were diet-nonresponsive (NR). Dogs with CAFR flared on provocative challenges within 14 days. The smallest volume of previous diet that induced a CAFR flare was one teaspoon in two dogs (11.1%). The mean number of days leading to a provocation of clinical signs was 4.88 days. Gastrointestinal signs improved in both groups. Eight of the dogs with CAFR (44.4%) were subsequently maintained on the elemental diet alone.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Pro Plan Veterinary Diets EL Elemental Canine Formula is efficacious for the diagnosis of canine CAFR. One teaspoon of the offending diet may induce clinical signs in some dogs with CAFR.

The Use of Diets in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Common Gastrointestinal Diseases in Dogs and Cats

The nutritional health of dogs and cats is important to pet owners around the world. Nutrition is inextricably linked to the health of the gastrointestinal system and vice versa. Gastrointestinal signs, such as vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, or weight loss, are one of the most common reasons that dog and cat owners make non-routine appointments with veterinarians. Those patients are evaluated systematically to identify and/or rule out the causes of the symptoms. Some causes of chronic diarrhea are within the gastrointestinal tract while others are secondary to pathogenic factors outside the digestive system. Some useful biomarkers of chronic intestinal disease (enteropathy) exist in serum and feces. After determination that the clinical signs are due to primary gastrointestinal disease and that there is no parasitism, specific diets are used for at least two weeks. There are several types of diets for pets with chronic enteropathies. There are limited ingredient diets and hydrolyzed protein diets with reduced levels of allergens. There are also highly digestible and fiber-enhanced diets. Some diets contain probiotics and/or prebiotics. If symptoms do not improve and the patient is stable, a diet from a different class may be tried. For chronic enteropathies, the prognosis is generally good for symptom resolution or at least improvement. However, if interventions with novel diets do not ameliorate the symptoms of chronic enteropathy, then antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, or immunosuppressant therapy or further, more invasive diagnostics such as taking an intestinal biopsy, may be indicated. Pancreatitis is a common gastrointestinal disease in dogs and cats and patients may present with mild to severe disease. Many patients with mild to moderate disease can be successfully treated with early supportive care, including feeding a low-fat diet. A novel pharmaceutical, fuzapladib (Panoquell-CA1) looks very promising for treating more severe forms of acute pancreatitis in dogs. Maintenance on a low-fat diet may prevent pancreatitis in at-risk dogs. Future advances in medicine will allow pet owners and veterinarians to use dietary management to maximize the health of their dogs and cats.

A retrospective study of treatment, outcome, recurrence and concurrent diseases in 190 dogs with anal sacculitis

BACKGROUND

Few studies report the treatment and recurrence rate in anal sacculitis (AS).

OBJECTIVES

Retrospective study reporting the management, recurrence and concurrent diseases in dogs with AS in a primary care practice.

ANIMALS

One hundred and ninety privately owned dogs in Sweden.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clinical records of dogs diagnosed with AS between 2018 and 2021 were reviewed, and management, time until clinical resolution, number of recurrent episodes and comorbidites were recorded.

RESULTS

The 190 dogs developed 290 episodes of AS. The most common management, in 235 of 290 (81.0%) episodes, was flushing ± infusion of an antimicrobial product into the sacs ± prescription of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), providing resolution in 213 of 235 (90.6%) episodes. Median time to resolution was one week (range 1-16 weeks), with resolution seen within one week in 205 of 290 (70.7%) episodes. A single episode of AS developed in 126 of 190 (66.3%) dogs. Dogs with concurrent cutaneous allergic disease were more likely (p < 0.001) to have recurrence of AS when compared to dogs with other comorbidities. Cutaneous allergic disease occurred more often (p < 0.001) in dogs with AS than in the practice population.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Local treatment of the anal sacs ± systemic NSAID was the most common treatment, inducing clinical resolution in the majority of dogs. Cutaneous allergic disease was the most common concurrent diagnosis, with higher recurrence rate of AS compared to other diseases and occurring in higher prevalence than in the practice population. Further studies are needed to determine if management of cutaneous allergic disease would reduce the risk of AS.

Analysis of Intestinal Microbiota and Metabolic Pathways before and after a 2-Month-Long Hydrolyzed Fish and Rice Starch Hypoallergenic Diet Trial in Pruritic Dogs

Intestinal microbiota alterations were described in allergic individuals and may improve with diets. Farmina Ultra Hypo (FUH), a hydrolyzed fish/rice starch hypoallergenic diet, is able to improve clinical signs in allergic dogs. Study objectives were to determine microbiota differences in allergic dogs before and after feeding with FUH for eight weeks. Forty skin allergic dogs were evaluated clinically before and after the diet. Unresponsive dogs were classified as canine atopic dermatitis (CAD); responsive dogs relapsing after challenge with previous foods were classified as being food reactive (AFR), and those not relapsing as doubtful (D). Sequencing of feces collected pre- and post-diet was performed, with comparisons between and within groups, pre- and post-diet, and correlations to possible altered metabolic pathways were sought. Microbiota in all dogs was dominated by Bacteroidota, Fusobacteriota, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria, albeit with large interindividual variations and with some prevalence changes after the diet. In general, bacteria producing short-chain fatty acids were increased in all samples. CAD dogs showed pre-and post-diet microbiota patterns different from the other two groups. Bacteria taxa were enriched post-diet only in the AFR group. Changes in metabolic pathways were observed mainly in the CAD group. FUH may be able to improve intestinal microbiota and thus clinical signs of skin allergy.

Evaluation of the theoretical risk of cross-reactivity among recently identified food allergens for dogs

BACKGROUND

There is increasing evidence of cross-reactivity between allergens of close or distant species. The A-RISC (Allergens'-Relative Identity, Similarity and Cross-reactivity) index helps evaluate the risk of theoretical cross-reactivity between proteins of the same family among different species.

OBJECTIVES

To report the A-RISC indices for several food allergens of dogs between multiple food sources.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We selected several recently characterised food allergens for dogs from fish and chicken (ACTA1, ALDOA, CKM, ENO3, GAPDH, PKM and TPI1), fish (TPM1/2), beef/lamb (PGM1) and corn/potato (WAXY). When quality sequence data were available, A-RISC indices were calculated between multiple animal and plant species that can be used as food sources. For the TPM subunits, A-RISC indices also were calculated with the environmental allergens Bla g 4 and Der f 10, and the Toxocara canis nematode.

RESULTS

The A-RISC indices suggest a substantial theoretical risk of cross-reactivity between species for all allergens considered. For TPM, this risk also extends to the environmental and nematode allergens.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

There is a high theoretical risk of cross-reactivity between allergens of different species used as food sources. The clinical relevance of these elevated A-RISC indices should be studied further.

Identification of major and minor chicken allergens in dogs

BACKGROUND

Allergens targeted by serum-specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE) in dogs clinically allergic to chicken have not been reported.

OBJECTIVES

To characterise the allergens targeted by sIgE in dogs sensitised and allergic to chicken.

ANIMALS

Sera from three dogs not sensitised to chicken, from 10 chicken sensitised dogs and from 12 chicken allergic dogs.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblotting with a commercial chicken extract were utilized. The bands identified on immunoblotting were sequenced by mass spectrometry for allergen characterization.

RESULTS

Using ELISA, we detected chicken-sIgE above the positive threshold in zero of three (0%) nonsensitised dogs, five of five (100%) chicken-sensitised dogs (a selection criterion), and in seven of 12 (58%) chicken-allergic dogs. Immunoblotting performed with the same extract revealed IgE-bound protein bands in 100% of all chicken-sensitised and -allergic dogs, respectively. To identify the allergens, we excised the corresponding bands on the electrophoretic gel, and submitted them for sequencing by mass spectrometry. We conclusively identified seven major allergens (serum albumin, pyruvate kinase M, enolase 3, creatine kinase M, lactate dehydrogenase A, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and triose-phosphate isomerase) and one minor allergen (troponin C), which are relevant to dogs.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

We identified herein seven major chicken allergens for dogs, several of which are known to be cross-reactive allergens for humans. Based on their degree of sequence identity, these allergens exhibit the theoretical potential to be cross-reactive between poultry and mammalian meats; six of these allergens already are known to be cross-reactive between chicken and fish species. Future studies should address the clinical relevance and cross-reactivity potential of these chicken allergens in dogs.

Enterocytes in Food Hypersensitivity Reactions

Simple Summary

Hypersensitivity to food, affecting both animals and humans, is increasing. Until a decade ago, it was thought that enterocytes, the most abundant constituent of the intestinal surface mucosa layer, served only to absorb digested food and prevent foreign and non-digested substances from passing below the intestinal layer. Growing evidence supports the involvement of enterocytes in immunological responses. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the new roles of enterocytes in food hypersensitivity conducted in animal models in order to better understand complicated immune pathological conditions. In addition, resources for further work in this area are suggested, along with a literature overview of the specific roles of enterocytes in maintaining oral tolerance. Lastly, it will be beneficial to investigate the various animal models involved in food hypersensitivity to reach the needed momentum necessary for the complete and profound understanding of the mechanisms of the ever-growing number of food allergies in animal and human populations.

Abstract

Food hypersensitivity reactions are adverse reactions to harmless dietary substances, whose causes are hidden within derangements of the complex immune machinery of humans and mammals. Until recently, enterocytes were considered as solely absorptive cells providing a physical barrier for unwanted lumen constituents. This review focuses on the enterocytes, which are the hub for innate and adaptive immune reactions. Furthermore, the ambiguous nature of enterocytes is also reflected in the fact that enterocytes can be considered as antigen-presenting cells since they constitutively express major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules. Taken together, it becomes clear that enterocytes have an immense role in maintaining oral tolerance to foreign antigens. In general, the immune system and its mechanisms underlying food hypersensitivity are still unknown and the involvement of components belonging to other anatomical systems, such as enterocytes, in these mechanisms make their elucidation even more difficult. The findings from studies with animal models provide us with valuable information about allergic mechanisms in the animal world, while on the other hand, these models are used to extrapolate results to the pathological conditions occurring in humans. There is a constant need for studies that deal with this topic and can overcome the glitches related to ethics in working with animals.

Successful nutritional control of scratching and clinical signs associated with adverse food reaction: A randomized controlled COSCAD'18 adherent clinical trial in dogs in the United States

Background

Adverse reactions to food are a common dermatological condition in dogs, requiring nutritional intervention using a novel or hydrolysate protein‐based food.

Objective

To evaluate a therapeutic food containing egg and phytonutrients in dogs with food allergies using an activity monitor and core outcome set for canine atopic dermatitis (COSCAD'18) guidelines and in a controlled double‐masked, multicenter, prospective clinical trial.

Animals

Adult dogs with a history of adverse food reaction as diagnosed by a food elimination trial were recruited from general practices.

Methods

After a 21‐day baseline period, dogs were randomized to test or positive control (hydrolyzed protein) food for 21 days. Owner (pruritus visual analog score [PVAS], coat quality, food acceptance, and satisfaction) and veterinarian (canine atopic dermatitis lesion index [CADLI], physical examination) assessments were completed on days 0, 21, and 42. Dogs wore a collar‐mounted activity monitor to record scratching and shaking behavior throughout the study. Statistical analysis included within‐group comparison to baseline and between‐group comparison at study end using a significance threshold of alpha = 0.05.

Results

At the end of the treatment period, all results were similar between groups for CADLI, PVAS, owner satisfaction, activity, and questionnaire data. Scores for hair dullness, brittleness, amount of dandruff, feces quality, and food acceptance were positive and not statistically different between groups.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

The therapeutic test food was well‐accepted and efficacious in managing signs of adverse reactions to food compared to baseline as well as compared to the positive control food.

Successful nutritional control of scratching and clinical signs associated with adverse food reaction: A randomized controlled COSCAD'18 adherent clinical trial in dogs in the United Kingdom

Background

Adverse reactions to food are a common dermatological condition in dogs, requiring nutritional intervention using novel or hydrolysate protein‐based foods.

Objective

To evaluate a therapeutic food containing egg and phytonutrients in dogs with food allergies using an activity monitor and core outcome set for canine atopic dermatitis (COSCAD'18) in a controlled double‐masked, multicenter, prospective clinical trial.

Animals

Adult dogs with a history of adverse food reaction as diagnosed by a food elimination trial were recruited from general practices.

Methods

After a 21‐day baseline period, dogs were randomized to test or positive control (hydrolyzed protein) food for 21 days. Owner (pruritus visual analog score [PVAS], coat quality, food acceptance, and satisfaction) and veterinarian (canine atopic dermatitis lesion index [CADLI], physical examination) assessments were completed on days 0, 21, and 42. Dogs wore a collar‐mounted activity monitor to record sleep, scratching, and shaking behavior throughout the study. Statistical analysis included within‐group comparison to baseline and between‐group comparison at study end using a significance threshold of alpha = 0.05.

Results

At the end of the treatment period, all results were similar between groups for CADLI, PVAS, owner satisfaction, activity, and questionnaire data. Scores for hair dullness, brittleness, amount of dandruff, feces quality, and food acceptance were positive and were not statistically different between groups.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

The therapeutic test food was well‐accepted and efficacious in managing signs of adverse reactions to food compared to baseline as well as compared to the positive control food.

The usefulness of a hydrolysed fish and rice starch elimination diet for the diagnosis of adverse food reactions in cats: an open clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis of adverse food reaction (AFR) is based on an eight week elimination diet (ED) and is confirmed by relapse upon re-challenge with the previously fed diet. Hydrolysed EDs are commonly used for this purpose.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the commercially available hydrolysed fish protein and rice starch ED Farmina UltraHypo (FUH) for the diagnosis of feline AFR.

ANIMALS

Thirty-two nonseasonally pruritic cats.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Pruritus was assessed with a new dual Visual Analog Scale, lesions with the Scoring Feline Allergic Dermatitis scale and Quality of Life with a validated questionnaire on days 0 and 56. Short-acting corticosteroids or oclacitinib were permitted during the first six weeks. Cats showing 50% pruritus and/or lesional improvement were separately challenged with their prior diet, fish and rice. Cats not responding to the study diet were fed another hydrolysed diet for two months.

RESULTS

Twenty-five cats completed the ED: four dropped out due to vomiting and/or diarrhoea, one owing to low palatability and two were lost to follow-up. In 17 cats, pruritus improved by >50% and these underwent dietary challenges. Of these, nine reacted to their prior diet and/or fish and/or rice and were diagnosed with AFR, while eight did not relapse (and a diagnosis of AFR was considered to be doubtful). Of the eight cats in which pruritus did not improve, four underwent a second ED with no improvement.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

FUH may be a useful ED for the diagnosis of feline AFR, even in cats reacting to fish or rice.

Results of food challenge in dogs with cutaneous adverse food reactions

BACKGROUND

Elimination diet trials and food challenge tests remain the gold standard for diagnosing cutaneous adverse food reaction (CAFR) in dogs. However, food challenge tests are difficult to perform owing to a lack of definite information on expected clinical signs and the time frame within which they develop after challenge.

OBJECTIVES

To report the results of the food challenge test carried out in client-owned dogs under observation.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A retrospective evaluation of the medical records of dogs presenting with pruritus was performed. Skin infections and/or parasites were treated before inclusion in the study. Dogs that underwent an elimination diet with clinical improvement and relapse with food challenge tests were included in this study. A pruritus Visual Analog scale score was recorded as an index of pruritus before and at the end of the elimination diet trial before challenge. The onset of time to relapse of clinical signs and the body sites affected after food challenge testing were recorded by the owners.

RESULTS

We examined the medical records of 310 dogs with pruritus. Of these, 46 dogs with a diagnosis of CAFR were enrolled in this study. Significant clinical improvement was observed after the elimination diet trial (P < 0.0001). All dogs exhibited pruritus, and none exhibited anaphylaxis after food challenge testing. Among these dogs, 60.9% developed pruritus within 12 h of food challenge. Notably, 23.9% of the dogs developed pruritus within 3-6 h. The limbs exhibited the highest frequency of pruritus (56.5%), followed by the face (26.1%).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This study is the first to report details of the time to onset of clinical signs and body site affected after food challenge testing in dogs. These results will assist veterinarians and dog owners in the decision-making process regarding food challenge testing.

Sensitivity and specificity of a shortened elimination diet protocol for the diagnosis of food-induced atopic dermatitis (FIAD)

BACKGROUND

The gold standard to diagnose food allergy in dogs is an eight week elimination diet trial (EDT) followed by a re-challenge. A recent study demonstrated that a shorter EDT is possible if prednisolone is administered initially.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

The goal was to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the EDT based on the number of relapses after prednisolone discontinuation. In addition, the aim was to determine whether the initial treatment length or the replacement of prednisolone with oclacitinib would influence the outcome.

ANIMALS

Eighty-seven dogs with atopic dermatitis.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Dogs were fed an elimination diet and treated with either prednisolone or oclacitinib for two to three weeks. Relapsing dogs were treated a second time. In the absence of a relapse after two weeks off medication, dogs then were challenged. Dogs never achieving two weeks off treatment without relapse received the regular EDT.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight of 87 dogs completed the study. Thirty-nine of 58 dogs received prednisolone; 21 of these were diagnosed with FIAD and had no relapse (n = 14), one relapse (n = 6) or two relapses (n = 1). Nineteen of 58 dogs received oclacitinib; 11 of these were deemed food-allergic and had no relapse (n = 7) or two relapses (n = 4). The initial treatment duration did not influence the outcome. The threshold of one relapse or less for the diagnosis of FIAD was associated with a sensitivity of 95% for prednisolone and 63% for oclacitinib. The specificity was 100% for both drugs.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Initial prednisolone or oclacitinib use in EDT shortens the time to diagnosis of FIAD.

Detection of DNA from undeclared animal species in commercial canine and feline raw meat diets using qPCR

The best diagnostic test for cutaneous adverse food reactions (CAFR) in companion animals is an elimination diet and subsequent provocation trials. Many commercial diets contain novel protein ingredients used in elimination diets, and selection is based on label ingredients. Raw meat-based diets (RMBD) have become increasingly commercially available, gaining popularity despite potential health risks. Reliability of RMBD based on label ingredients has not been investigated. Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), 9 canine and 9 feline commercial RMBD were assessed for reliability of species-specific animal DNA. Two separate batches of each diet were assessed for content consistency. The DNA of 1 or more unlisted animal species was identified in > 60% of diets, as was discrepancy between batches. The unlisted DNA most frequently detected was lamb in canine diets and turkey in feline diets. Based on these findings, use of commercially available RMBD cannot be recommended as an elimination diet in clinical diagnosis of CAFR.

Detection of allergen-specific antibody-secreting cells in dogs by ELISPOT

Current laboratory tests are unable to distinguish healthy from allergic dogs. Unlike serum antibody responses, circulating antibody-secreting cells (ASC) are temporarily induced after each contact with the antigen. These ASC can be identified using ELISPOT and the observation of allergen-specific ASC might correlate with the causative allergens in dogs with an allergic dermatitis. In this study, blood was sampled from six privately-owned allergic dogs and six non-allergic laboratory beagles to determine the frequency of circulating allergen-specific ASC for common allergens. Blood IgE+, IgA + and IgG + cells were magnetically isolated to determine the number of allergen-specific ASC with ELISPOT for Dermatophagoides farinae, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, Alternaria alternata, birch, timothy grass, wheat, cow's milk, bovine, chicken and lamb meat. For IgA and IgG, allergen-specific spots were observed, however for IgE, no spots were detected for any of the allergens. ELISPOT could not differentiate allergic from non-allergic dogs. When the responses to the different allergens were compared, more IgA ASC for D. pteronyssinus were observed compared to some of the other allergens which was statistically significant for the non-allergic dogs and approached significance in the allergic dogs. These findings indicate that ELISPOT can be used to identify circulating allergen-specific IgA- and IgG-secreting cells. The technique did however not detect allergen-specific IgE ASC and was unable to distinguish allergic from non-allergic dogs. Only a small number of studies have studied allergen-specific IgA in dogs. The finding that dogs have higher numbers of D. pteronyssinus-specific IgA ASC points out that apart from IgE and IgG, it might be interesting to include IgA measurements for certain allergens to analyse the complete spectrum of both the protective and pro-allergic antibody responses.

Use of the Health Belief Model to identify factors associated with owner adherence to elimination diet trial recommendations in dogs

OBJECTIVE

To use the Health Belief Model to identify factors associated with owner adherence to elimination diet trial (EDT) recommendations by veterinarians for dogs with suspected cutaneous adverse food reactions (CAFRs).

SAMPLE

192 owners of dogs prescribed an EDT between April 1, 2012, and April 1, 2017.

PROCEDURES

Owners of dogs prescribed an EDT to diagnose CAFRs were identified through review of medical records from a single veterinary dermatology specialty practice. Identified owners were invited to participate in an anonymous online survey that was developed on the basis of the Health Belief Model. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate associations between potential predictor variables and 100% adherence to EDT recommendations.

RESULTS

665 owners were invited to participate, and 192 (28.9%) completed the survey. Of the 192 respondents, 77 (40.1%) reported 100% adherence to EDT recommendations, and 115 (59.9%) reported < 100% adherence. Results indicated that the odds of owners reporting 100% adherence to EDT recommendations were significantly decreased by owner perception of barriers (adjusted OR [OR_a] = 0.86) and were significantly increased by owner knowledge regarding diets and CAFRs in dogs (OR_a = 1.30) and by self-efficacy or confidence in performing an EDT as directed (ORa = 1.18).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Findings indicated that most prescribed EDTs were not followed strictly. Interventions to help owners reduce perceived barriers, increase self-efficacy, and improve related knowledge could improve adherence to EDT recommendations and, thereby, increase the diagnostic utility of EDTs.

Critically appraised topic on adverse food reactions of companion animals (9): time to flare of cutaneous signs after a dietary challenge in dogs and cats with food allergies

BACKGROUND

At this time, elimination diets followed by oral food challenges (OFCs) represent the "gold standard" for diagnosing skin-manifesting food allergies (FA) in dogs and cats. Regrettably, there is no clear consensus on how long one should wait for clinical signs to flare after an OFC before diagnosing or ruling-out a FA in a dog or a cat.

RESULTS

We searched two databases on October 23, 2019 to look for specific information on the time for a flare of clinical signs to occur during OFCs after elimination diets in dogs and cats with skin-manifesting FAs. Altogether, we reviewed the study results of nine papers that included 234 dogs and four articles containing data from 83 cats. As multiple OFCs could be done in the same patient and not all animals included were subjected to an OFC, we were able to compile 315 and 72 times to flare (TTF) after an OFC in dogs and cats, respectively. When regrouping all cases together, about 9% of dogs and 27% of cats exhibited a flare of clinical signs in the first day after an OFC; 21% of dogs and 29% of cats had such relapse by the end of the second day. The time needed for 50 and 90% of dogs to exhibit a deterioration of clinical signs (TTF50 and TTF90) was 5 and 14, respectively; in cats, these times were 4 and 7 days, respectively. By 14 days after an OFC, nearly all food-allergic patients from both species had had a relapse of clinical signs. These results are limited by the likely under-reporting of flares that occur on the first day immediately following an OFC, the time in which IgE-mediated acute allergic reactions typically develop.

CONCLUSION

Veterinary clinicians performing an OFC need to wait for 14 and 7 days for more than 90% of dogs and cats with a skin-manifesting FA to have a flare of clinical signs, respectively.

Combined IMIG and Immune Ig Attenuate Allergic Responses in Beagle Dogs

Background

We previously reported attenuation of serum OVA-specific IgE levels and of lymphocyte-derived IL-4, both nominal markers of allergic immunity, following injection of a combination of homologous (mouse) polyclonal anti-idiotypic immunoglobulin (Ig) and immune Ig in BALB/c mice. We predicted this might generalize to other species and using heterologous mixtures of Igs. This was assessed in mice using OVA sensitization in the presence of human Igs as a source of both anti-idiotype Ig and immune Ig and in dogs with peanut butter-induced allergic responses.

Methods

Eight-week-old BALB/c mice received OVA immunization and 5 weekly injections of immune Ig or anti-idiotype Ig from either homologous (mouse) or heterologous (human) sources. Five-month-old Beagles received weekly topical exposure (on the abdomen) to peanut butter and treatment with pooled dog Ig and dog antirabies immune Ig, or a combination of human IMIG and human anti-Tet. All mice/dogs thereafter received a final allergen challenge, and serum IgG, IgE, and allergen-induced IL-2/IL-4 and IL-31 production in 72 hr cultures was measured.

Results

In mice attenuation of OVA-induced allergy (IgE-specific Ig and OVA-induced IL-4) was seen using both mouse and human Ig mixtures, without effect on OVA serum IgG or OVA-induced IL-2. Attenuation of concanavalin A- (ConA-) induced IL-4 : IL-2 production and of peanut butter-induced IL-4 and IL-31 was seen in dogs receiving combinations of both heterologous and homologous immune Igs and anti-idiotype Igs, with no decline in IL-2 production. Allergen-specific IgE/IgG was not detectable in dog serum, but there was a trend to lower total serum IgE levels (and decreased IgE : IgG ratios).

Conclusion

Homologous and heterologous combinations of polyclonal IMIG and immune Ig attenuate allergic responses in mice and dogs. This treatment protocol represents a novel approach which can be adapted for allergic desensitization in veterinary and human use.

Serum IgE and IgG responses to dietary antigens in dogs with and without cutaneous adverse food reactions

BACKGROUND

It is suspected that many canine cutaneous adverse food reactions (CAFR) are true immunological hypersensitivities; however, few specific dietary allergens have been identified.

OBJECTIVE

To compare serum immunoglobulin (Ig)E and IgG reactivity to specific food antigens in privately owned dogs with and without CAFR.

ANIMALS

Eighteen adult dogs with nonseasonal pruritus recruited from a hospital population.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Dogs were fed an extensively hydrolysed poultry-based diet exclusively for 12 weeks. Serum was collected at the beginning of the trial. Canine atopic dermatitis extent and severity index and pruritus Visual Analog Scale scoring were performed at the beginning and end of the trial. Immunoblotting was performed to identify IgE and/or IgG binding to specific proteins in beef, egg, milk, chicken, pork, soy and wheat extracts.

RESULTS

A CAFR (defined as an unequivocal relapse of pruritus after dietary challenge) was diagnosed in 10 dogs, with 60% relapsing when fed chicken-based diets. Binding of subjects' IgG to almost all proteins in all extracts was seen regardless of reported dietary history. Few proteins were exclusively or predominantly bound by IgE in CAFR dogs. Exceptions included a 42 kDa band (chicken), a 52 kDa band (beef), a 46 kDa band (beef and milk) and a poorly defined high molecular weight protein or proteins (beef and milk).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated three protein bands and a poorly defined band predominantly recognized by sera from dogs with CAFR relative to non-CAFR dog sera. Almost all proteins were bound by IgG in all dogs, suggesting prior exposure to unreported foods.

Critically Appraised Topic on Adverse Food Reactions of Companion Animals (8): Storage Mites in Commercial Pet foods

Background

Dogs with year-round atopic dermatitis are often sensitized to Dermatophagoides house dust mites (HDM). Storage mites (SM) are known to grow on cereal-rich foods. Tyrophagus SM can exacerbate clinical signs of allergy in laboratory dogs sensitized to HDM. Consequently, atopic dogs with high-levels of HDM-specific IgE are likely to have a flare of signs after eating a food contaminated with SM; the development of such flares would lead to a false positive diagnosis of food allergy. Herein, we reviewed the published evidence about the growth of SM on commercial dry pet foods.

Results

We searched two databases on January 25, 2019 for articles providing original information on the growth of SM on commercial dog foods. We found ten articles, five reporting results of laboratory experiments and five from field studies. Storage mites, especially Tyrophagus putrescentiae, can multiply on protein- and fat-rich dog foods. The population growth is higher when the initial mite density is high and when kibbles are crushed. When storage conditions lead to the overgrowth of molds on the kibbles, the mite proliferation is higher. Storage mites do not bore holes in food packages but invade bags via defective seals. In the field, SM contamination usually is undetectable in newly-opened commercial dog foods, and, if present, their number is low. When newly-purchased bags are stored in temperate conditions indoors, little overgrowth—if any—of SM occurs. However, when kept in environmental conditions with higher temperature and humidity, Tyrophagus mites will enter and proliferate in sealed food packages.

Conclusions

Commercial dry pet foods should be kept indoors and sealed to decrease the risk of contamination with SM. When performing dietary restriction (elimination) and provocation trials for the diagnosis of food allergies in dogs, it seems preferable to choose newly-purchased bags—of both original and testing diets—to reduce the probability of their contamination with SM, especially Tyrophagus putrescentiae. In case of doubt about the presence of SM in any of these foods, one should perform food challenges with single home-cooked ingredients. Storage mite contamination might lead to an erroneous diagnosis of food allergy in HDM-sensitized dogs.

The usefulness of short-course prednisolone during the initial phase of an elimination diet trial in dogs with food-induced atopic dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Food allergy is a possible cause of atopic dermatitis (AD) in dogs; it is typically diagnosed following an eight-week elimination diet trial (EDT) and a provocation with the original diet. This lengthy procedure is difficult for owners and its interpretation may be unclear.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To test the effect of prednisolone used in the first weeks of an EDT in order to reduce the total time period for diagnosis. The goal was to perform food challenges earlier than after the traditionally recommended eight weeks.

ANIMALS

Fifty-three dogs with AD were included in the study.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

All dogs were fed a commercially available extensively hydrolyzed protein-based commercial pet food and treated with prednisolone for at least two weeks to control pruritus and inflammation. Dogs were challenged two weeks after prednisolone finished, provided that no flare had occurred. Dogs with relapsing signs were fed the hydrolyzate for at least eight weeks with or without further prednisolone treatment.

RESULTS

Ten of 53 dogs (19%) had no relapse after two weeks off prednisolone: they were subsequently challenged with their regular food, had a relapse of signs and were diagnosed with a food-induced AD within four to six weeks of starting the EDT. In the other dogs, signs remained uncontrolled without prednisolone or relapsed rapidly after its discontinuation: they were considered nonfood-allergic after an eight week EDT.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

This study demonstrates that a shorter EDT is possible if the allergic pruritus and inflammation are initially controlled with a short course of glucocorticoids. This shortened trial is likely to improve owner adherence and facilitate the diagnosis of food allergy.

Critically appraised topic on adverse food reactions of companion animals (7): signalment and cutaneous manifestations of dogs and cats with adverse food reactions

BACKGROUND

Outside of pruritus, there is no clear consensus on the nature and prevalence of cutaneous manifestations of adverse food reactions (AFRs) in dogs and cats.

RESULTS

We searched two databases on August 7, 2018, for articles reporting detailed data on the signalment and clinical signs of at least one dog or cat with a cutaneous AFR (CAFR). We identified 233 and 407 citations from which were selected 32 articles reporting original information. Twenty-two articles included data on 825 dogs with CAFRs. The reported age of onset varied from less than one to 13 years of age; a beginning of signs by 6 or 12 months of age was noted in 22 to 38% of dogs, respectively. The female-to-male ratio also varied considerably. Four breeds (German shepherd dogs, West Highland white terriers, Labrador and golden retrievers) accounted for about 40% of affected dogs. Most dogs diagnosed with a CAFR were pruritic, most often in a generalized pattern, with the ears, feet, and abdomen also being frequently affected; the perineum was uncommonly targeted, however. Canine CAFRs presented mainly as recurrent bacterial skin infections, otitis externa and atopic dermatitis. Twelve articles reported novel information on 210 cats with this syndrome. There was no apparent breed and gender predisposition for feline CAFRs, but cats appeared to develop signs later than dogs with the same syndrome. Most cats with a CAFR were pruritic, especially on the head/face and neck, with the abdomen and ears also commonly involved. Symmetric self-induced alopecia, a head-and-neck self-traumatic dermatitis, miliary dermatitis and variants of eosinophilic diseases were the most common manifestations of feline CAFRs.

CONCLUSIONS

CAFRs affect dogs and cats of any age, any breed, and both genders, with the proportion of juvenile dogs diagnosed about twice that of cats. There are no reliable breed predisposition data. Most patients are pruritic, with half the dogs having generalized pruritus and half the cats scratching their face/head or neck. Canine CAFRs most often manifest as bacterial skin infections, otitis externa or atopic dermatitis; cats with CAFRs will exhibit the expected clinical phenotypes associated with feline hypersensitivity dermatitides.

Assessment of dog owners' knowledge relating to the diagnosis and treatment of canine food allergies

Canine food allergies are the result of an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction to dietary proteins and can manifest as a variety of dermatologic and/or gastrointestinal clinical signs. Food elimination trials followed by provocation tests are used to diagnose food allergies; however, no research has been conducted to determine whether elimination trials and provocation tests are being properly implemented by pet owners. The objectives of this study were to determine the level of knowledge of dog owners regarding food allergies, and to investigate how dog owners approach diagnosis and treatment with their veterinarians. This information will provide veterinary teams with insight on how to work with dog owners to obtain successful diagnosis and treatment. The results indicate that appropriate diet selection for the food elimination trial, owner education on compliance during the trial, and re-challenging with the previous diet should be the focal points for veterinarians suspecting food allergies in a canine patient.

Serum IgE cross-reactivity between fish and chicken meats in dogs

BACKGROUND

In humans, a cross-reactive clinical allergy has been reported between three chicken and fish meat proteins: beta-enolase, aldolase A and parvalbumin.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate if IgE cross-reactivity between chicken and fish also existed in the dog.

ANIMALS

Sera from dogs with suspected allergic skin disease and with IgE against chicken and fish.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Sera were analysed by ELISA and immunoblotting with chicken, white fish (haddock and cod) and salmon extracts. Reciprocal inhibition ELISAs and inhibition immunoblots were then performed. Protein sequencing of bands identified on multiple extracts was determined by mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Out of 53 archived canine sera tested by ELISA against chicken, white fish or salmon, 15 (28%), 12 (23%) and 26 (49%), respectively, had elevated IgE against one, two or all three of these extracts. Seven of the triple-reactive sera were subjected to reciprocal inhibition ELISAs. A >50% inhibition was found between chicken-fish, chicken-salmon and fish-salmon in seven, four and five of seven dogs, respectively. Immunoblotting identified multiple IgE-binding proteins of identical molecular weights in the three extracts; these were partially to fully cross-reactive by inhibition immunoblotting. Mass spectrometry identified nine cross-reactive proteins as: pyruvate kinase, creatine kinase, alpha-actin, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, beta-enolase, aldolase, malate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase and triose-phosphate isomerase 1. All of these have been reported previously as fish, shellfish and/or chicken allergens for humans.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Whether any of these newly identified IgE cross-reactive chicken-fish allergens is the cause of clinical allergy needs to be determined in dogs reacting to at least two of these common food sources.

Cross-contamination in canine and feline dietetic limited-antigen wet diets

Background

Adverse food reactions (AFRs) are defined as abnormal responses to an ingested food or food additive. Diagnosis and treatment of AFRs consist of the complete elimination of these ingredients in the dietary trial. Previous studies have demonstrated the presence of undeclared ingredients in commercial limited-antigen dry food diets that can compromise the results and efficacy of dietary elimination trails. The aim of this study was to assess a selection of commercial canine and feline dietetic limited-antigen wet foods for the potential cross-contamination of animal proteins from origins not mentioned on the label.

Results

Eleven canine and feline dietetic limited-antigen wet foods (9 novel animal protein foods, 1 vegetarian and 1 hydrolyzed) were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect the presence DNA of animal and vegetal origins. PCR analysis confirmed the contamination of 6 of the 11 (54.5%) limited-antigen wet diets with undeclared animal protein. One of these 6 diets was solely composed of animal protein sources completely unrelated to those declared on the label. None of the foods containing horse meat or fish were contaminated, and neither were the vegetarian or the hydrolyzed food products. Moreover, the results show that had zoological class primers only been used to check for cross-class contaminations, as are generally used in the pet food industry for in-house checks, the apparent contamination rate would have been significantly underestimated: less than 20% (3/11), instead of the actual rate of 54.7% using species-specific primers.

Conclusion

This study reveals a high rate of cross-contamination in dietetic limited-antigen wet canine and feline foods, as previously described for dietetic dry limited-antigen foods (reported to be more than 80%). These results add new fuel to the discussion about the potential causes underlying the failure of elimination diets, since animal protein contaminants may actually be present in the commercial dietetic limited-antigen diets. AFRs may therefore occur as a result of inadequate practices in the pet food industry.

An open label clinical trial to evaluate the utility of a hydrolysed fish and rice starch elimination diet for the diagnosis of adverse food reactions in dogs

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of adverse food reaction (AFR) is based on an eight week elimination diet (ED) and is confirmed by relapse upon re-challenge with the previously fed diet. Hydrolysed EDs are commonly used for this purpose.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a commercially available hydrolysed fish protein and rice starch ED for the diagnosis of AFR.

ANIMALS

Fifty nonseasonally pruritic dogs.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Pruritus was assessed with a Visual Analog Scale, lesions with the Canine Atopic Dermatitis Lesions Index and quality of life with a validated questionnaire on days 0 and 56. Antimicrobial treatments were permitted during the first four weeks, and corticosteroids and oclacitinib during the first six weeks. Dogs showing at least 50% pruritus improvement were separately challenged with their prior diet, fish and rice.

RESULTS

Thirty eight dogs completed the ED, four were dropped out due to worsening clinical signs, three to low palatability and five were lost to follow-up. In 24 dogs, pruritus improved by >50% and 22 underwent dietary challenges. Of these, 15 reacted to their prior diets and were diagnosed with AFR, whereas seven did not relapse (and a diagnosis of AFR was considered to be doubtful). Five dogs reacted to fish and four to rice. Of the 14 dogs in which pruritus did not improve, some underwent a second ED and others were successfully treated for atopic dermatitis.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

The hydrolysed fish and rice diet seemed to be a useful ED for the diagnosis of AFR, even in dogs allergic to fish or rice.

Cornstarch is less allergenic than corn flour in dogs and cats previously sensitized to corn

Background

Corn appears to be an uncommon food source of allergens in dogs and cats. There is limited information on the nature of the corn allergens in dogs and cats and their presence in the various foodstuffs used in commercial pet foods. The aim of this study was to determine if serum IgE from corn-sensitized dogs and cats recognized proteins in corn flour and cornstarch, which are common sources of carbohydrates in pet foods.

Results

We selected archived sera from allergy-suspected dogs (40) and cats (40) with either undetectable, low, medium or high serum levels of corn-specific IgE. These sera were tested then by ELISA on plates coated with extracts made from corn kernels, corn flour, cornstarch and the starch used in the commercially-available extensively-hydrolyzed pet food Anallergenic (Royal Canin). Immunoblotting was then performed on the same extracts with some of the sera from moderate-to-high corn-sensitized dogs and cats. Using ELISA, it is mostly the dogs and cats with moderate and high corn-specific IgE levels that also had IgE identifying allergens in the flour (dogs: 20/30 sera, 67% - cats: 20/29, 69%). In contrast, none of the tested sera had measurable IgE against proteins isolated from the cornstarch. Immunoblotting confirmed the existence of numerous major corn allergens in the corn kernel extract, fewer in that of the corn flour, while such allergens were not detectable using this technique in the two cornstarch extracts.

Conclusions

In this study, ELISA and immunoblotting results suggest that IgE from corn-sensitized dogs are less likely to recognize allergens in cornstarch than in kernel and flour extracts. As corn is not a common allergen source in dogs and cats, and as its starch seems to be less allergenic than its flour, pet foods containing cornstarch as a carbohydrate source are preferable for dogs and cats suspected of suffering from corn allergy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12917-018-1538-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Outstanding animal studies in allergy I. From asthma to food allergy and anaphylaxis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Animal models published within the past 18 months on asthma, food allergy and anaphylaxis, all conditions of rising public health concern, were reviewed.

RECENT FINDINGS

While domestic animals spontaneously develop asthma, food allergy and anaphylaxis, in animal models, divergent sensitization and challenge routes, dosages, intervals and antigens are used to induce asthmatic, food allergic or anaphylactic phenotypes. This must be considered in the interpretation of results. Instead of model antigens, gradually relevant allergens such as house dust mite in asthma, and food allergens like peanut, apple and peach in food allergy research were used. Novel engineered mouse models such as a mouse with a T-cell receptor for house dust mite allergen Der p 1, or with transgenic human hFcγR genes, facilitated the investigation of single molecules of interest. Whole-body plethysmography has become a state-of-the-art in-vivo readout in asthma research. In food allergy and anaphylaxis research, novel techniques were developed allowing real-time monitoring of in-vivo effects following allergen challenge. Networks to share tissues were established as an effort to reduce animal experiments in allergy which cannot be replaced by in-vitro measures.

SUMMARY

Natural and artificial animal models were used to explore the pathophysiology of asthma, food allergy and anaphylaxis and to improve prophylactic and therapeutic measures. Especially the novel mouse models mimicking molecular aspects of the complex immune network in asthma, food allergy and anaphylaxis will facilitate proof-of-concept studies under controlled conditions.

Cutaneous Hypersensitivity Dermatoses in the Feline Patient: A Review of Allergic Skin Disease in Cats

Feline allergic skin disease presents a unique set of challenges to the veterinary practitioner. Although there is some similarity to what is seen in the allergic canine patient, cutaneous hypersensitivity dermatoses in cats can manifest with strikingly different clinical signs, treatment options and outcomes, and secondary complications/disease entities. Additionally, less is known about the pathogenesis of feline allergic skin diseases, particularly "feline atopic syndrome" when compared to dogs or people. This article aims to review what is currently known in regards to allergic skin disease in the feline patient, with focus on non-flea, non-food hypersensitivity dermatitis.