Analysis of the main active ingredients and bioactivities of essential oil from Osmanthus fragrans Var. thunbergii using a complex network approach

Bioactive compounds, nanoparticles synthesis, health benefits and potential utilization of edible flowers for the development of functional dairy products: a review

The food sector faces difficulty meeting the expectations for high-quality food items with safe and clean perceptions in light of customers' increased concern and economic sanctions of synthetic and hazardous chemicals. Besides their widespread use as decoration, flowers are known to be consumed as a traditional food or a component of complementary therapy in many different civilizations worldwide. Because of their nutritional importance as a source of nutrients, proteins, essential amino acids, bioactive compounds, etc., many edible flowers can be viewed as a food source rather than just a delicacy or decoration. Polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids are the phytochemicals that make up the bioactive components of edible flowers. These substances have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties that can improve the nutritional profile of dairy products. Nanoparticles have become a cutting-edge strategy to make use of these advantages. In addition to encapsulating and protecting medicinal substances, nanoparticles made from edible flowers also enable regulated release, increasing bioavailability and durability. Numerous opportunities exist for the addition of edible flower- nanoparticles to dairy products. Their inclusion can add distinctive flavours, colours, and sensations, boosting the consumer's sensory perception. This review quotes the recent studies and discusses different aspects such as nanoparticle synthesis, quantification and characterization, health benefits, novel ingredient for the development of functional food, and the bioactive compounds for different varieties of edible flowers.Kindly check and confirm the edit made in the title.  The final title  is : "Bioactive compounds,nanoparticles synthesis, health benefits andpotential utilization of edible flowers for thedevelopment of functional dairy products: areview".

Graphical abstract

FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Sage oil, Orris Root Extract and Tagetes Oil and related flavoring ingredients

In recent years, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) has conducted a program to re-evaluate the safety of natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavor ingredients. This publication, twelfth in the series, details the re-evaluation of NFCs whose constituent profiles are characterized by alicyclic or linear ketones. In its re-evaluation, the Expert Panel applies a scientific constituent-based procedure for the safety evaluation of NFCs in commerce using a congeneric group approach. Estimated intakes of each congeneric group of the NFC are evaluated using the well-established and conservative Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) approach. In addition, studies on the toxicity and genotoxicity of members of the congeneric groups and the NFCs under evaluation are reviewed. The scope of the safety evaluation of the NFCs contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Thirteen (13) NFCs derived from the Boronia, Cinnamomum, Thuja, Ruta, Salvia, Tagetes, Hyssopus, Iris, Perilla and Artemisia genera are affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under conditions of their intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.

Glycolipid-enriched fraction of Osmanthus fragrans inhibits LPS-induced expression of inflammatory genes, COX-2, E-selectin, and Interleukin-8

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Osmanthus fragrans Lour. is a small ornamental tree native to the Southeastern parts of China. It is mainly cultivated because of its characteristic fragrance, and used in the food and perfume industry. Besides, its flowers are used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat a variety of diseases including those related to inflammation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was to investigate in more detail the anti-inflammatory properties of O. fragrans flowers, and to characterize their active principles and mechanisms of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

O. fragrans flowers were successively extracted with n-hexane, dichloromethane and methanol. The extracts were further fractionated by chromatographic separation. COX-2 mRNA expression in PMA-differentiated, LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells was used as lead assay for activity-guided fractionation. The most potent fraction was chemically analyzed by LC-HRMS. The pharmacological activity was also evaluated in other inflammation-related in-vitro models, such as analysis of IL-8 secretion and E-selectin expression in HUVECtert cells and selective inhibition of COX-isoenzymes.

RESULTS

n-Hexane and dichloromethane extracts of O. fragrans flowers significantly inhibited COX-2 (PTGS2) mRNA expression. Additionally, both extracts inhibited COX-2 enzyme activity, whereas COX-1 enzyme activity was affected to a significantly lower extent. Fractionation of the extracts led to a highly active, glycolipid-containing fraction. In total, 10 glycolipids were tentatively annotated by LC-HRMS. This fraction also inhibited LPS-induced COX-2 mRNA expression, IL-8 secretion and E-selectin expression. The effects were limited to LPS-induced inflammation and not observed when inflammatory genes were induced by TNF-α, IL-1β or FSL-1. Since all these inducers of inflammation act via different receptors, it is likely that the fraction interferes with the binding of LPS to the TLR4-receptor, which mediates pro-inflammatory effects of LPS.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the results demonstrate the anti-inflammatory potential of O. fragrans flower extracts in general, and of the glycolipid-enriched fraction in particular. The effects of glycolipid-enriched fraction are potentially mediated via the inhibition of the TLR4 receptor complex.

Comparative Analysis of Active Ingredients and Potential Bioactivities of Essential Oils from Artemisia argyi and A. verlotorum

Artemisia argyi H. Lév. and Vaniot is a variety of Chinese mugwort widely cultured in central China. A. verlotorum Lamotte, another variety of Chinese mugwort, has been used in the southern region of China since ancient times. Despite their similar uses in traditional medicine, little is known about the differences in their active ingredients and potential benefits. Herein, the chemical compositions of the essential oils (EOs) from both varieties were analyzed using chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A series of databases, such as the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology database (TCMSP), SuperPred database and R tool, were applied to build a networking of the EOs. Our results revealed significant differences in the chemical compositions of the two Artemisia EOs. However, we found that they shared similar ingredient-target-pathway networking with diverse bioactivities, such as neuroprotective, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory. Furthermore, our protein connection networking analysis showed that transcription factor p65 (RELA), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase regulatory subunit alpha (PIK3R1) and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) are crucial for the biological activity of Artemisia EOs. Our findings provided evidence for the use of A. verlotorum as Chinese mugwort in southern China.

Two new sesquiterpenoids from plant endophytic fungus Flammulina velutipes

Two new sesquiterpenoids, flammupin A (1) and flammupin B (2), along with two known compounds, enokipodin C (3) and 5,5'-dibuthoxy-2,2'-bifuran (4) were obtained from Flammulina velutipes, an endophytic fungus isolated from the roots of Caulophyllum robustum Maxim. The structures were elucidated by the combination of HR-ESI-MS, NMR, and ECD analyses. Compound 3 exhibited moderate to potent cytotoxicity against A549, HeLa, and SMMC-7721 cells with IC₅₀ values ranged from 3.69 to 11.84 μM.

Evaluation of the Antioxidant Properties of Carvacrol as a Prospective Replacement for Crude Essential Oils and Synthetic Antioxidants in Food Storage

The phenolic structural analogues of synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) in essential oils have been reported to exhibit antioxidant properties. Additionally, their lipophilicity makes them suitable for use in lipid-rich foods. This study evaluated the antioxidant capacity of carvacrol, a monoterpenoid antioxidant compound in the Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) seed essential oil, compared to the seed essential oil and BHT. In vitro studies (ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), metal chelating activity (MCA), and nitric oxide scavenging activity (NOSA)) were conducted to ascertain if the antioxidant capacity of carvacrol was comparable to that of the seed essential oil. The potential binding affinity and molecular interactions between carvacrol and lipoxygenase (LOX) and its homologous model were investigated in silico. The molecular docking was performed using Autodock Vina, and the best poses were subjected to molecular dynamics simulation. The IC₅₀ for MCA and NOSA were: carvacrol 50.29 µL/mL, seed essential oil (SEO) 71.06 µL/mL; and carvacrol 127.61 µL/mL, SEO 165.18 µL/mL, respectively. The LOX model was Ramachandran favoured (97.75%) and the overall quality factor in the ERRAT plot was 95.392. The results of the molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that lipoxygenase has a higher affinity (-22.79 kcal/mol) for carvacrol compared to BHT. In the LOX-BHT and LOX-carvacrol complexes, the root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), root-mean-square fluctuation (RMSF), and the radius of gyration (RoG) were not significantly different, indicating similar molecular interactions. The results obtained from this study suggest that carvacrol exhibits an antioxidant capacity that may be explored as an alternative for crude essential oils and synthetic compounds during the storage of lipid-rich foods.

Traditional uses, phytochemical constituents and pharmacological properties of Osmanthus fragrans: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Osmanthus fragrans Lour., is a medicinal plant distributed widely in some Asian countries including Japan and Korea and southwestern China. It has been used traditionally for the treatment of weakened vision, halitosis, panting, asthma, cough, toothache, stomachache, diarrhea, rheumatism, physique pain and hepatitis.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Recent advances in traditional uses, botanical characteristics, distribution, taxonomy, phytochemical constituents, biological effects as well as the toxicities of O. fragrans are comprehensively presented and critically evaluated, and the underlying mechanism associated with the bioactivities of extracts, essential oil and components from this plant is also well summarized. In order to provide comprehensive scientific basis for the medical application and help interested researchers discover food and medicinal natural products from O. fragrans.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All information was systematically gathered from globally accepted scientific databases by Internet databases, including Elsevier, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Web of Science, Wiley, Springer, SciFinder, ACS Publications, CNKI, WanFang, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, The Plant List Database, and other literature sources (Ph.D. and MSc dissertations). All published contributions on O. fragrans different languages were included and cited. The chemical structures of all isolated compounds were drawn by using ChemBioDraw Ultra 14.0 software.

RESULTS

To date, more than 183 compounds were isolated and structurally identified from different plant parts of O. fragrans. Among them, ionone, ionol, flavonoids, polyphenols and iridoids, as the major bioactive substances, have been extensively studied and displayed the best bioactivity. Pharmacological studies demonstrated that O. fragrans and its active components had a wide range of biological activities, such as antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-thrombotic, anti-melanogenesis, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective activities, etc. CONCLUSION: O. fragrans, as a food and medicinal resource, has a good health care function and important edible and medicinal value, and thus has good prospects for utilization. However, many studies on biological activities were mainly based on extracts and the bioactive ingredients of this plant, and the mechanism responsible for these extracts and ingredients have not been well identified and there is a gap in research regarding clinical effect and safety. Therefore, the detail in vitro and in vivo studies on the mechanisms of action of the pure bioactive compounds and more clinical studies are encouraged to be conducted to ensure safety and effectiveness of the plant for human use.

Chemical Diversity and Potential Target Network of Woody Peony Flower Essential Oil from Eleven Representative Cultivars (Paeonia × suffruticosa Andr.)

Woody peony (Paeonia × suffruticosa Andr.) has many cultivars with genetic variances. The flower essential oil is valued in cosmetics and fragrances. This study was to investigate the chemical diversity of essential oils of eleven representative cultivars and their potential target network. Hydro-distillation afforded yields of 0.11–0.25%. Essential oils were analyzed by GC-MS and GC-FID which identified 105 compounds. Three clusters emerged from multivariate analysis, representative of phloroglucinol trimethyl ether (‘Caihui’), citronellol (‘Jingyu’, ‘Zhaofen’ and ‘Baiyuan Zhenghui’) and mixed (the rest of the cultivars) chemotypes. ‘Zhaofen’ and ‘Jingyu’ also exhibited low levels of other rose-related compounds. The main components were subjected to a target network approach. Drug-likeness screening gave 20 compounds with predictive blood–brain barrier permeation. Compound target network identified six key compounds, namely nerol, citronellol, geraniol, geranic acid, cis-3-hexen-1-ol and 1-hexanol. Top enriched terms in GO, KEGG and DisGeNET were mostly related to the central nervous system (CNS). Protein—protein interactions revealed a core network of 14 targets, 11 of which were CNS-related (targets for antidepressants, analgesics, antipsychotics, anti-Alzheimer’s and anti-Parkinson’s agents). This work provides useful information on the production of woody peony essential oils with specific chemotypes and reveals their potential importance in aromatherapy for alternative treatment of CNS disorders.

Bioactivity assessment of essential oils of Cymbopogon species using a network pharmacology approach

Essential oils of Cymbopogon species have wide commercial applications in fragrance, perfumery, and pharmaceuticals as they exhibit a horizon of bioactivities. Here, essential oils of C. flexuosus and C. martinii were analysed to identify bioactive constituents and bioactivities using a network pharmacology approach. Essential oils were isolated using hydro-distillation in a mini Clevenger apparatus. Analysis of essential oils by GC-MS revealed 20 and 15 chemical constituents in C. flexuosus and C. martinii, respectively. An ingredient-target protein-pathway network was constructed comprising 10 oil constituents (citral, geraniol, geranyl acetate, limonene, linalool, α-terpineol, borneol, α-pinene, myrcene, and n-decanol), 14 target proteins, 51 related pathways, and 108 connections. Analyses of the network showed geraniol, geranyl acetate, limonene, linalool, and citral as major active constituents. A core sub-network constructed from the ingredient-target protein-pathway network revealed bioactivities including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective. The protein association network pointed out the major target proteins viz., THRB, FXR, ALOX15, and TSHR and pathways like metabolic, and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathways of essential oil constituents. The target proteins and pathways provided insights into the mechanism of action of bioactive constituents. Based on the results of the study, geraniol was correlated with neuroprotective, citral to chemo-preventive, and limonene to anti-inflammatory activities. Thus, the study offers a new way for the assessment of the bioactivities of Cymbopogon species essential oils leading to the development of new biomedicines.

Deciphering functional biomolecule potential of marine diatoms through complex network approach

Marine diatoms are unique reservoirs of bioactive compounds having enormous applications in therapeutics. But high-throughput screening methods are needed to elucidate the interaction between numerous biomolecules and their targets, facilitating rapid screening for novel drug molecules. So, in the present study chemical constituents were extracted from five marine diatoms using un-targeted metabolite profiling and in-silico virtual screening bioinformatics was employed to predict their bioactivity and molecular targets. A total of 17 chemical constituents out of 51 showed interactions with 76 protein targets associated with 213 pathways. Ingredient-target-pathway network revealed oleic acid, linoleic acid and cholest-5-en-3-ol as major active constituents. Core subnetwork and protein association network showed involvement of these compounds in key metabolic pathways related to cell signaling, cell growth and metabolism of xenobiotics. Thus, the present study for the first time revealed the main active ingredients and their associated pathways from marine diatoms using complex network approach.

Microencapsulation of Osmanthus essential oil by interfacial polymerization: Optimization, characterization, release kinetics, and storage stability of essential oil from microcapsules

In this paper, the interface polymerization method was used to prepare Osmanthus essential oil microcapsules. The optimal preparation process of Osmanthus essential oil microcapsules was explored as follows: the dosage ratio of Osmanthus essential oil to N100 was 6:1, the reaction temperature was 70°C, and the reaction time was 2 h. The encapsulation efficiency of Osmanthus essential oil microcapsules could reach 80.31%. The particle size distribution, morphology, chemical structure, and thermal stability of the obtained microcapsules were characterized by laser particle size analyzer, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The release kinetics and storage stability experiments of the microcapsules were studied. The results showed that the average volume diameter of the microcapsules was 101.2 µm. The microcapsules were in the shape of full spheres, with a smooth surface, low viscosity, and high elasticity. Microencapsulation improved the thermal stability of Osmanthus essential oil and promoted the slow release of essential oil. The synthesized microcapsules showed good storage stability under refrigerated and dark conditions, which indicated that microcapsules had broad application prospects in food, medicine, and other fields. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study, we prepared a polyurea membrane to encapsulate Osmanthus essential oil microcapsules by interfacial polymerization. The encapsulation conditions of the microcapsules were optimized and the structure of the microcapsules was characterized in this study. The results showed that microcapsules had a full spherical shape with a smooth surface, high elasticity, good sustained-release ability, good thermal stability, and storage stability. These properties indicated that microcapsules have good application prospects and can be used as a high-quality flavor with a long residual effect and high thermal stability for food and cosmetic scope.

Effects of Different Drying Methods on the Contents of Nine Components and Immunomodulatory Activities of Four Components in Osmamthus fragrans Flowers

The effects of drying methods on the contents of four nonvolatile and five volatile components and the immunoregulatory activities of four components in Osmamthus fragrans flowers were investigated. In general, microwaving preserved more nonvolatile components than the other methods, while the sun or shade method preserved more volatile components. Nonvolatile components such as salidroside and acteoside and volatile ingredients such as linalool and linalool oxide exhibited better immunoregulatory activity than the other ingredients. Taken together, O. fragrans flowers dried by microwaving resulted in the best immunoregulatory activity. This study provides evidence for the optimal drying method for O. fragrans flowers as food and medicine.

Comparative Evaluation of Key Aroma-Active Compounds in Sweet Osmanthus (Osmanthus fragrans Lour.) with Different Enzymatic Treatments

Sweet osmanthus (Osmanthus fragrans Lour.) (OF) is one of the ten most famous flowers in China for its unique and delicate fragrance. A combined solid-phase microextraction and solvent-assisted flavor evaporation method was used to accurately capture the overall aromatic profile and characterize the predominant odorants of fresh osmanthus with the help of gas chromatography (GC)-olfactometry and comprehensive two-dimensional GC-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-QTOF-MS). Twenty-six volatiles were identified for the first time in OF. A total of 23 potent odorants, dominated by monoterpene oxides and C₆ aliphatic aldehydes, were identified. The efficacy of pectinase, β-glucosidase, and their combination on the aroma enhancement of OF was evaluated by quantitation of the target aroma components using GC-triple quadrupole-MS. The total concentration of key aroma components increased in all three enzyme treatment groups, and the increase was more significant in two β-glucosidase-treated groups. Changes in odor activity values and odor spectrum values of key odorants indicated that the pectinase-treated sample had more prominent floral, green, and potato-like scents. In contrast, the β-glucosidase-treated sample had more dominant floral, woody, almond-like, and fruity notes but less green odor, which was confirmed by sensory evaluation. β-Glucosidase and pectinase complement one another very well, and together, promote a remarkable aroma enhancement in OF.

An update on the health benefits promoted by edible flowers and involved mechanisms

The aim of this review is to provide new findings on health effects of edible flowers since 2015. The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-osteoporosis, anti-obesity, and anti-hypertensive have been reviewed, and the effective concentrations of flower extracts have been summarized. Among all the health benefits mentioned, anti-osteoporosis, anti-obesity, and anti-hypertensive have rarely been mentioned before 2015. Some health benefits mechanisms of edible flowers were discussed frequently after 2015. Some newly found phytochemicals such as polysaccharides were shown to be beneficial to human health. Species of Rosa, Chrysanthemum, and Osmanthus have been reported to exert different health effects on human. For the toxicity studies, the safe level of flower extracts in cell and animal models were at hundreds of parts per million (ppm) level. In consideration of health promoting effects and toxicities of edible flowers, they could serve as potential natural health products for different health benefits.

A systematic analysis of natural α-glucosidase inhibitors from flavonoids of Radix scutellariae using ultrafiltration UPLC-TripleTOF-MS/MS and network pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Flavonoids from plant medicines are supposed to be viable alternatives for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D) as less toxicity and side effects. Radix scutellariae (RS) is a widely used traditional medicine in Asia. It has shown great potential in the research of T2D. However, the pharmacological actions remain obscured due to the complex chemical nature of plant medicines.

METHODS

In the present study, a systematic method combining ultrafiltration UPLC-TripleTOF-MS/MS and network pharmacology was developed to screen α-glucosidase inhibitors from flavonoids of RS, and explore the underlying mechanism for the treatment of T2D.

RESULTS

The n-butanol part of ethanol extract from RS showed a strong α-glucosidase inhibition activity (90.55%, IC50 0.551 mg/mL) against positive control acarbose (90.59%, IC50 1.079 mg/mL). A total of 32 kinds of flavonoids were identified from the extract, and their ESI-MS/MS behaviors were elucidated. Thirteen compounds were screened as α-glucosidase inhibitors, including viscidulin III, 2',3,5,6',7-pentahydroxyflavanone, and so on. A compound-target-pathway (CTP) network was constructed by integrating these α-glucosidase inhibitors, target proteins, and related pathways. This network exhibited an uneven distribution and approximate scale-free property. Chrysin (k = 87), 5,8,2'-trihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone (k = 21) and wogonin (k = 20) were selected as the main active constituents with much higher degree values. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) weighted network was built for target proteins of these α-glucosidase inhibitors and drug targets of T2D. PPARG (Cd = 0.165, Cb = 0.232, Cc = 0.401), ACACB (Cd = 0.155, Cb = 0.184, Cc = 0.318), NFKB1 (Cd = 0.233, Cb = 0.161, Cc = 0.431), and PGH2 (Cd = 0.194, Cb = 0.157, Cc = 0.427) exhibited as key targets with the highest scores of centrality indices. Furthermore, a core subnetwork was extracted from the CTP and PPI weighted network. Type II diabetes mellitus (hsa04930) and PPAR signaling pathway (hsa03320) were confirmed as the critical pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

These results improved current understanding of natural flavonoids on the treatment of T2D. The combination of ultrafiltration UPLC-TripleTOF-MS/MS and network pharmacology provides a novel strategy for the research of plant medicines and complex diseases.

Green synthesis of carbon dots using the flowers of Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour. as precursors: application in Fe3+ and ascorbic acid determination and cell imaging

In this work, dried flowers of Osmanthus fragrans Lour. were applied as green precursors to synthesize carbon dots (CDs) by a green hydrothermal method for the first time. The CDs showed strong blue fluorescence at 410 nm under 340-nm excitation with a quantum yield of approximately 18.53%. Furthermore, the CDs were applied for the sensitive detection of Fe³⁺. The linear response of Fe³⁺ ranged from 10 nM to 50 μM with a limit of detection as low as 5 nM. In addition, other ions were used as competitive substances to explore the selectivity of CDs for Fe³⁺. The fluorescence quenching effect of Fe³⁺ was much stronger, which demonstrated that the CDs had high selectivity for Fe³⁺ and they can be employed for the selective detection of Fe³⁺. The potential fluorescence quenching mechanism between CDs and Fe³⁺ was identified as the inner filter effect. The CDs were then used as a fluorescent sensor for the detection of Fe³⁺ in water samples and human serum; the recovery range was 93.76-113.80% (relative standard deviation less than 0.79%). These results indicate that the CDs can be applied for the sensitive and selective detection of Fe³⁺ in real samples. Moreover, on the basis of the redox reaction between Fe³⁺ and ascorbic acid (AA), the CD-Fe³⁺ system can be used as a fluorescent "off-on" sensor for the detection of AA with a limit of detection of 5 μM. What is more, because of their low toxicity and biocompatibility, the CDs can also be used for cell imaging and acted as a fluorescent probe for fluorescence imaging of Fe³⁺ and AA in living cells. These results demonstrate that the CDs have great potential for application in the fields of sensing, bioimaging, and even disease diagnosis.

Brain Complex Network Characteristic Analysis of Fatigue during Simulated Driving Based on Electroencephalogram Signals

Fatigued driving is one of the major causes of traffic accidents. Frequent repetition of driving behavior for a long time may lead to driver fatigue, which is closely related to the central nervous system. In the present work, we designed a fatigue driving simulation experiment and collected the electroencephalogram (EEG) signals. Complex network theory was introduced to study the evolution of brain dynamics under different rhythms of EEG signals during several periods of the simulated driving. The results show that as the fatigue degree deepened, the functional connectivity and the clustering coefficients increased while the average shortest path length decreased for the delta rhythm. In addition, there was a significant increase of the degree centrality in partial channels on the right side of the brain for the delta rhythm. Therefore, it can be concluded that driving fatigue can cause brain complex network characteristics to change significantly for certain brain regions and certain rhythms. This exploration may provide a theoretical basis for further finding objective and effective indicators to evaluate the degree of driving fatigue and to help avoid fatigue driving.

The chromosome-level quality genome provides insights into the evolution of the biosynthesis genes for aroma compounds of Osmanthus fragrans

Sweet osmanthus (Osmanthus fragrans) is a very popular ornamental tree species throughout Southeast Asia and USA particularly for its extremely fragrant aroma. We constructed a chromosome-level reference genome of O. fragrans to assist in studies of the evolution, genetic diversity, and molecular mechanism of aroma development. A total of over 118 Gb of polished reads was produced from HiSeq (45.1 Gb) and PacBio Sequel (73.35 Gb), giving 100× depth coverage for long reads. The combination of Illumina-short reads, PacBio-long reads, and Hi-C data produced the final chromosome quality genome of O. fragrans with a genome size of 727 Mb and a heterozygosity of 1.45 %. The genome was annotated using de novo and homology comparison and further refined with transcriptome data. The genome of O. fragrans was predicted to have 45,542 genes, of which 95.68 % were functionally annotated. Genome annotation found 49.35 % as the repetitive sequences, with long terminal repeats (LTR) being the richest (28.94 %). Genome evolution analysis indicated the evidence of whole-genome duplication 15 million years ago, which contributed to the current content of 45,242 genes. Metabolic analysis revealed that linalool, a monoterpene is the main aroma compound. Based on the genome and transcriptome, we further demonstrated the direct connection between terpene synthases (TPSs) and the rich aromatic molecules in O. fragrans. We identified three new flower-specific TPS genes, of which the expression coincided with the production of linalool. Our results suggest that the high number of TPS genes and the flower tissue- and stage-specific TPS genes expressions might drive the strong unique aroma production of O. fragrans.

Network pharmacology-based strategy to investigate pharmacological mechanisms of Zuojinwan for treatment of gastritis

BACKGROUND

Zuojinwan (ZJW), a classic herbal formula, has been extensively used to treat gastric symptoms in clinical practice in China for centuries. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of ZJW still remain vague to date.

METHODS

In the present work, a network pharmacology-based strategy was proposed to elucidate its underlying multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway mode of action against gastritis. First we collected putative targets of ZJW based on TCMSP and STITCH databases, and a network containing the interactions between the putative targets of ZJW and known therapeutic targets of gastritis was built. Then four topological parameters, "degree", "betweenness", "closeness", and "coreness" were calculated to identify the major targets in the network. Furthermore, the major hubs were imported to the Metacore database to perform a pathway enrichment analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 118 nodes including 59 putative targets of ZJW were picked out as major hubs in terms of their topological importance. The results of pathway enrichment analysis indicated that putative targets of ZJW mostly participated in various pathways associated with anti-inflammation response, growth and development promotion and G-protein-coupled receptor signaling. More importantly, five putative targets of ZJW (EGFR, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and MCP-1) and two known therapeutic targets of gastritis (CCKBR and IL-12β) and a link target NF-κB were recognized as active factors involved in the main biological functions of treatment, implying the underlying mechanisms of ZJW acting on gastritis.

CONCLUSION

ZJW could alleviate gastritis through the molecular mechanisms predicted by network pharmacology, and this research demonstrates that the network pharmacology approach can be an effective tool to reveal the mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) from a holistic perspective.