BTNET : boosted tree based gene regulatory network inference algorithm using time-course measurement data

GRNMOPT: Inference of gene regulatory networks based on a multi-objective optimization approach

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The reconstruction of gene regulatory networks (GRNs) stands as a vital approach in deciphering complex biological processes. The application of nonlinear ordinary differential equations (ODEs) models has demonstrated considerable efficacy in predicting GRNs. Notably, the decay rate and time delay are pivotal in authentic gene regulation, yet their systematic determination in ODEs models remains underexplored. The development of a comprehensive optimization framework for the effective estimation of these key parameters is essential for accurate GRN inference.

METHOD

This study introduces GRNMOPT, an innovative methodology for inferring GRNs from time-series and steady-state data. GRNMOPT employs a combined use of decay rate and time delay in constructing ODEs models to authentically represent gene regulatory processes. It incorporates a multi-objective optimization approach, optimizing decay rate and time delay concurrently to derive Pareto optimal sets for these factors, thereby maximizing accuracy metrics such as AUROC (Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve) and AUPR (Area Under the Precision-Recall curve). Additionally, the use of XGBoost for calculating feature importance aids in identifying potential regulatory gene links.

RESULTS

Comprehensive experimental evaluations on two simulated datasets from DREAM4 and three real gene expression datasets (Yeast, In vivo Reverse-engineering and Modeling Assessment [IRMA], and Escherichia coli [E. coli]) reveal that GRNMOPT performs commendably across varying network scales. Furthermore, cross-validation experiments substantiate the robustness of GRNMOPT.

CONCLUSION

We propose a novel approach called GRNMOPT to infer GRNs based on a multi-objective optimization framework, which effectively improves inference accuracy and provides a powerful tool for GRNs inference.

Big data and artificial intelligence-aided crop breeding: Progress and prospects

The past decade has witnessed rapid developments in gene discovery, biological big data (BBD), artificial intelligence (AI)-aided technologies, and molecular breeding. These advancements are expected to accelerate crop breeding under the pressure of increasing demands for food. Here, we first summarize current breeding methods and discuss the need for new ways to support breeding efforts. Then, we review how to combine BBD and AI technologies for genetic dissection, exploring functional genes, predicting regulatory elements and functional domains, and phenotypic prediction. Finally, we propose the concept of intelligent precision design breeding (IPDB) driven by AI technology and offer ideas about how to implement IPDB. We hope that IPDB will enhance the predictability, efficiency, and cost of crop breeding compared with current technologies. As an example of IPDB, we explore the possibilities offered by CropGPT, which combines biological techniques, bioinformatics, and breeding art from breeders, and presents an open, shareable, and cooperative breeding system. IPDB provides integrated services and communication platforms for biologists, bioinformatics experts, germplasm resource specialists, breeders, dealers, and farmers, and should be well suited for future breeding.

Nonlinear causal network learning via Granger causality based on extreme support vector regression

For complex networked systems, based on the consideration of nonlinearity and causality, a novel general method of nonlinear causal network learning, termed extreme support vector regression Granger causality (ESVRGC), is proposed. The nonuniform time-delayed influence of the driving nodes on the target node is particularly considered. Then, the restricted model and the unrestricted model of Granger causality are, respectively, formulated based on extreme support vector regression, which uses the selected time-delayed components of system variables as the inputs of kernel functions. The nonlinear conditional Granger causality index is finally calculated to confirm the strength of a causal interaction. Generally, based on the simulation of a nonlinear vector autoregressive model and nonlinear discrete time-delayed dynamic systems, ESVRGC demonstrates better performance than other popular methods. Also, the validity and robustness of ESVRGC are also verified by the different cases of network types, sample sizes, noise intensities, and coupling strengths. Finally, the superiority of ESVRGC is successful verified by the experimental study on real benchmark datasets.

CNNGRN: A Convolutional Neural Network-Based Method for Gene Regulatory Network Inference From Bulk Time-Series Expression Data

Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) participate in many biological processes, and reconstructing them plays an important role in systems biology. Although many advanced methods have been proposed for GRN reconstruction, their predictive performance is far from the ideal standard, so it is urgent to design a more effective method to reconstruct GRN. Moreover, most methods only consider the gene expression data, ignoring the network structure information contained in GRN. In this study, we propose a supervised model named CNNGRN, which infers GRN from bulk time-series expression data via convolutional neural network (CNN) model, with a more informative feature. Bulk time series gene expression data imply the intricate regulatory associations between genes, and the network structure feature of ground-truth GRN contains rich neighbor information. Hence, CNNGRN integrates the above two features as model inputs. In addition, CNN is adopted to extract intricate features of genes and infer the potential associations between regulators and target genes. Moreover, feature importance visualization experiments are implemented to seek the key features. Experimental results show that CNNGRN achieved competitive performance on benchmark datasets compared to the state-of-the-art computational methods. Finally, hub genes identified based on CNNGRN have been confirmed to be involved in biological processes through literature.

From time-series transcriptomics to gene regulatory networks: A review on inference methods

Inference of gene regulatory networks has been an active area of research for around 20 years, leading to the development of sophisticated inference algorithms based on a variety of assumptions and approaches. With the ever increasing demand for more accurate and powerful models, the inference problem remains of broad scientific interest. The abstract representation of biological systems through gene regulatory networks represents a powerful method to study such systems, encoding different amounts and types of information. In this review, we summarize the different types of inference algorithms specifically based on time-series transcriptomics, giving an overview of the main applications of gene regulatory networks in computational biology. This review is intended to give an updated reference of regulatory networks inference tools to biologists and researchers new to the topic and guide them in selecting the appropriate inference method that best fits their questions, aims, and experimental data.

Machine learning bridges omics sciences and plant breeding

Some of the biological knowledge obtained from fundamental research will be implemented in applied plant breeding. To bridge basic research and breeding practice, machine learning (ML) holds great promise to translate biological knowledge and omics data into precision-designed plant breeding. Here, we review ML for multi-omics analysis in plants, including data dimensionality reduction, inference of gene-regulation networks, and gene discovery and prioritization. These applications will facilitate understanding trait regulation mechanisms and identifying target genes potentially applicable to knowledge-driven molecular design breeding. We also highlight applications of deep learning in plant phenomics and ML in genomic selection-assisted breeding, such as various ML algorithms that model the correlations among genotypes (genes), phenotypes (traits), and environments, to ultimately achieve data-driven genomic design breeding.

Identification of Gene Regulatory Networks Using Variational Bayesian Inference in the Presence of Missing Data

The identification of gene regulatory networks (GRN) from gene expression time series data is a challenge and open problem in system biology. This paper considers the structure inference of GRN from the incomplete and noisy gene expression data, which is a not well-studied issue for GRN inference. In this paper, the dynamical behavior of the gene expression process is described by a stochastic nonlinear state-space model with unknown noise information. A variational Bayesian (VB) framework are proposed to estimate the parameters and gene expression levels simultaneously. One of the advantages of this method is that it can easily handle the missing observations by generating the prediction values. Considering the sparsity of GRN, the smoothed gene data are modeled by the extreme gradient boosting tree, and the regulatory interactions among genes are identified by the importance scores based on the tree model. The proposed method is tested on the artificial DREAM4 datasets and one real gene expression dataset of yeast. The comparative results show that the proposed method can effectively recover the regulatory interactions of GRN in the presence of missing observations and outperforms the existing methods for GRN identification.

An approach of gene regulatory network construction using mixed entropy optimizing context-related likelihood mutual information

MOTIVATION

The question of how to construct gene regulatory networks has long been a focus of biological research. Mutual information can be used to measure nonlinear relationships, and it has been widely used in the construction of gene regulatory networks. However, this method cannot measure indirect regulatory relationships under the influence of multiple genes, which reduces the accuracy of inferring gene regulatory networks.

APPROACH

This work proposes a method for constructing gene regulatory networks based on mixed entropy optimizing context-related likelihood mutual information (MEOMI). First, two entropy estimators were combined to calculate the mutual information between genes. Then, distribution optimization was performed using a context-related likelihood algorithm to eliminate some indirect regulatory relationships and obtain the initial gene regulatory network. To obtain the complex interaction between genes and eliminate redundant edges in the network, the initial gene regulatory network was further optimized by calculating the conditional mutual inclusive information (CMI2) between gene pairs under the influence of multiple genes. The network was iteratively updated to reduce the impact of mutual information on the overestimation of the direct regulatory intensity.

RESULTS

The experimental results show that the MEOMI method performed better than several other kinds of gene network construction methods on DREAM challenge simulated datasets (DREAM3 and DREAM5), three real Escherichia coli datasets (E.coli SOS pathway network, E.coli SOS DNA repair network and E.coli community network) and two human datasets.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

Source code and dataset are available at https://github.com/Dalei-Dalei/MEOMI/ and http://122.205.95.139/MEOMI/.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Inferring causal gene regulatory network via GreyNet: From dynamic grey association to causation

Gene regulatory network (GRN) provides abundant information on gene interactions, which contributes to demonstrating pathology, predicting clinical outcomes, and identifying drug targets. Existing high-throughput experiments provide rich time-series gene expression data to reconstruct the GRN to further gain insights into the mechanism of organisms responding to external stimuli. Numerous machine-learning methods have been proposed to infer gene regulatory networks. Nevertheless, machine learning, especially deep learning, is generally a “black box,” which lacks interpretability. The causality has not been well recognized in GRN inference procedures. In this article, we introduce grey theory integrated with the adaptive sliding window technique to flexibly capture instant gene–gene interactions in the uncertain regulatory system. Then, we incorporate generalized multivariate Granger causality regression methods to transform the dynamic grey association into causation to generate directional regulatory links. We evaluate our model on the DREAM4 in silico benchmark dataset and real-world hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) time-series data. We achieved competitive results on the DREAM4 compared with other state-of-the-art algorithms and gained meaningful GRN structure on HCC data respectively.

Data-Driven Boolean Network Inference Using a Genetic Algorithm With Marker-Based Encoding

The inference of Boolean networks is crucial for analyzing the topology and dynamics of gene regulatory networks. Many data-driven approaches using evolutionary algorithms have been proposed based on time-series data. However, the ability to infer both network topology and dynamics is restricted by their inflexible encoding schemes. To address this problem, we propose a novel Boolean network inference algorithm for inferring both network topology and dynamics simultaneously. The main idea is that, we use a marker-based genetic algorithm to encode both regulatory nodes and logical operators in a chromosome. By using the markers and introducing more logical operators, the proposed algorithm can infer more diverse candidate Boolean functions. The proposed algorithm is applied to five networks, including two artificial Boolean networks and three real-world gene regulatory networks. Compared with other algorithms, the experimental results demonstrate that our proposed algorithm infers more accurate topology and dynamics.

Chelidonium majus Induces Apoptosis of Human Ovarian Cancer Cells via ATF3-Mediated Regulation of Foxo3a by Tip60

Forkhead transcription factor 3a (Foxo3a) is believed to be a tumor suppressor as its inactivation leads to cell transformation and tumor development. However, further investigation is required regarding the involvement of the activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3)-mediated Tat-interactive protein 60 (Tip60)/Foxo3a pathway in cancer cell apoptosis. This study demonstrated that Chelidonium majus upregulated the expression of ATF3 and Tip60 and promoted Foxo3a nuclear translocation, ultimately increasing the level of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) protein. ATF3 overexpression stimulated Tip60 expression, while ATF3 inhibition by siRNA repressed Tip60 expression. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated Tip60 inhibition significantly promoted Foxo3a phosphorylation, leading to blockade of Foxo3a translocation into the nucleus. Thus, we were able to deduce that ATF3 mediates the regulation of Foxo3a by Tip60. Moreover, siRNA-mediated Foxo3a inhibition suppressed the expression of Bax and subsequent apoptosis. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Chelidonium majus induces SKOV-3 cell death by increasing ATF3 levels and its downstream proteins Tip60 and Foxo3a. This suggests a potential therapeutic role of Chelidonium majus against ovarian cancer.

Estimation of Gene Regulatory Networks from Cancer Transcriptomics Data

Cancer is a genetic disease in which multiple genes are perturbed. Thus, information about the regulatory relationships between genes is necessary for the identification of biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In this review, methods for inference of gene regulatory networks (GRNs) from transcriptomics data that are used in cancer research are introduced. The methods are classified into three categories according to the analysis model. The first category includes methods that use pair-wise measures between genes, including correlation coefficient and mutual information. The second category includes methods that determine the genetic regulatory relationship using multivariate measures, which consider the expression profiles of all genes concurrently. The third category includes methods using supervised and integrative approaches. The supervised approach estimates the regulatory relationship using a supervised learning method that constructs a regression or classification model for predicting whether there is a regulatory relationship between genes with input data of gene expression profiles and class labels of prior biological knowledge. The integrative method is an expansion of the supervised method and uses more data and biological knowledge for predicting the regulatory relationship. Furthermore, simulation and experimental validation of the estimated GRNs are also discussed in this review. This review identified that most GRN inference methods are not specific for cancer transcriptome data, and such methods are required for better understanding of cancer pathophysiology. In addition, more systematic methods for validation of the estimated GRNs need to be developed in the context of cancer biology.

KFGRNI: A robust method to inference gene regulatory network from time-course gene data based on ensemble Kalman filter

A central problem of systems biology is the reconstruction of Gene Regulatory Networks (GRNs) by the use of time series data. Although many attempts have been made to design an efficient method for GRN inference, providing a best solution is still a challenging task. Existing noise, low number of samples, and high number of nodes are the main reasons causing poor performance of existing methods. The present study applies the ensemble Kalman filter algorithm to model a GRN from gene time series data. The inference of a GRN is decomposed with p genes into p subproblems. In each subproblem, the ensemble Kalman filter algorithm identifies the weight of interactions for each target gene. With the use of the ensemble Kalman filter, the expression pattern of the target gene is predicted from the expression patterns of all the remaining genes. The proposed method is compared with several well-known approaches. The results of the evaluation indicate that the proposed method improves inference accuracy and demonstrates better regulatory relations with noisy data.

Causal Network Inference for Neural Ensemble Activity

Interactions among cellular components forming a mesoscopic scale brain network (microcircuit) display characteristic neural dynamics. Analysis of microcircuits provides a system-level understanding of the neurobiology of health and disease. Causal discovery aims to detect causal relationships among variables based on observational data. A key barrier in causal discovery is the high dimensionality of the variable space. A method called Causal Inference for Microcircuits (CAIM) is proposed to reconstruct causal networks from calcium imaging or electrophysiology time series. CAIM combines neural recording, Bayesian network modeling, and neuron clustering. Validation experiments based on simulated data and a real-world reaching task dataset demonstrated that CAIM accurately revealed causal relationships among neural clusters.

Chelidonine Induces Apoptosis via GADD45a-p53 Regulation in Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Chelidonium majus has been used as a traditional medicine in China and western countries for various diseases, including inflammation and cancer. However, the anti-cancer effect of chelidonine, a major compound of C. majus extracts, on pancreatic cancer remains poorly understood. In this study, we found that treatment with chelidonine inhibited proliferation of BxPC-3 and MIA PaCa-2 human pancreatic cancer cells. Annexin-V/propidium iodide staining assay showed that this growth inhibitory effect of chelidonine was induced through apoptosis. We found that chelidonine treatment upregulated mRNA levels and transcription factor activity in both cell lines. Increases in protein expression levels of p53, GADD45A, p21 and cleaved caspase-3 were also observed, with more distinct changes in MIA PaCa-2 cells compared to the BxPC-3 cells. These results suggest that chelidonine induces pancreatic cancer apoptosis through the p53 and GADD45A pathways. Our findings provide new insights into the use of chelidonine for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

A neuro-evolution approach to infer a Boolean network from time-series gene expressions

SUMMARY

In systems biology, it is challenging to accurately infer a regulatory network from time-series gene expression data, and a variety of methods have been proposed. Most of them were computationally inefficient in inferring very large networks, though, because of the increasing number of candidate regulatory genes. Although a recent approach called GABNI (genetic algorithm-based Boolean network inference) was presented to resolve this problem using a genetic algorithm, there is room for performance improvement because it employed a limited representation model of regulatory functions.In this regard, we devised a novel genetic algorithm combined with a neural network for the Boolean network inference, where a neural network is used to represent the regulatory function instead of an incomplete Boolean truth table used in the GABNI. In addition, our new method extended the range of the time-step lag parameter value between the regulatory and the target genes for more flexible representation of the regulatory function. Extensive simulations with the gene expression datasets of the artificial and real networks were conducted to compare our method with five well-known existing methods including GABNI. Our proposed method significantly outperformed them in terms of both structural and dynamics accuracy.

CONCLUSION

Our method can be a promising tool to infer a large-scale Boolean regulatory network from time-series gene expression data.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

The source code is freely available at https://github.com/kwon-uou/NNBNI.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Inference of gene regulatory networks based on nonlinear ordinary differential equations

Motivation

Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) capture the regulatory interactions between genes, resulting from the fundamental biological process of transcription and translation. In some cases, the topology of GRNs is not known, and has to be inferred from gene expression data. Most of the existing GRNs reconstruction algorithms are either applied to time-series data or steady-state data. Although time-series data include more information about the system dynamics, steady-state data imply stability of the underlying regulatory networks.

Results

In this article, we propose a method for inferring GRNs from time-series and steady-state data jointly. We make use of a non-linear ordinary differential equations framework to model dynamic gene regulation and an importance measurement strategy to infer all putative regulatory links efficiently. The proposed method is evaluated extensively on the artificial DREAM4 dataset and two real gene expression datasets of yeast and Escherichia coli. Based on public benchmark datasets, the proposed method outperforms other popular inference algorithms in terms of overall score. By comparing the performance on the datasets with different scales, the results show that our method still keeps good robustness and accuracy at a low computational complexity.

Availability and implementation

The proposed method is written in the Python language, and is available at: https://github.com/lab319/GRNs_nonlinear_ODEs

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Nectandrin B-mediated activation of the AMPK pathway prevents cellular senescence in human diploid fibroblasts by reducing intracellular ROS levels

Nectandrin B (NecB) is a bioactive lignan compound isolated from Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), which functions as an activator of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Because we recently found that treatment with NecB increased the cell viability of old human diploid fibroblasts (HDFs), the underlying molecular mechanism was investigated. NecB treatment in old HDFs reduced the activity staining of senescence-associated β-galactosidase and the levels of senescence markers, such as the Ser¹⁵ phosphorylated p53, caveolin-1, p21^waf1, p16^ink4a, p27^kip1, and cyclin D1. NecB treatment increased that in S phase, indicating a enhancement of cell cycle entry. Interestingly, NecB treatment ameliorated age-dependent activation of AMPK in old HDFs. Moreover, NecB reversed the age-dependent expression and/or activity changes of certain sirtuins (SIRT1-5), and cell survival/death-related proteins. The transcriptional activity of Yin-Yang 1 and the expression of downstream proteins were elevated in NecB-treated old HDFs. In addition, NecB treatment exerted a radical scavenging effect in vitro, reduced cellular ROS levels, and increased antioxidant enzymes in old HDFs. Moreover, NecB-mediated activation of the AMPK pathway reduced intracellular ROS levels. These results suggest that NecB-induced protection against cellular senescence is mediated by ROS-scavenging through activation of AMPK. NecB might be useful in ameliorating age-related diseases and extending human lifespan.

Identification of a master transcription factor and a regulatory mechanism for desiccation tolerance in the anhydrobiotic cell line Pv11

Water is essential for living organisms. Terrestrial organisms are incessantly exposed to the stress of losing water, desiccation stress. Avoiding the mortality caused by desiccation stress, many organisms acquired molecular mechanisms to tolerate desiccation. Larvae of the African midge, Polypedilum vanderplanki, and its embryonic cell line Pv11 tolerate desiccation stress by entering an ametabolic state, anhydrobiosis, and return to active life after rehydration. The genes related to desiccation tolerance have been comprehensively analyzed, but transcriptional regulatory mechanisms to induce these genes after desiccation or rehydration remain unclear. Here, we comprehensively analyzed the gene regulatory network in Pv11 cells and compared it with that of Drosophila melanogaster, a desiccation sensitive species. We demonstrated that nuclear transcription factor Y subunit gamma-like, which is important for drought stress tolerance in plants, and its transcriptional regulation of downstream positive feedback loops have a pivotal role in regulating various anhydrobiosis-related genes. This study provides an initial insight into the systemic mechanism of desiccation tolerance.

Coordinated Activity of Transcriptional Networks Responding to the Pattern of Action Potential Firing in Neurons

Transcriptional responses to the appropriate temporal pattern of action potential firing are essential for long-term adaption of neuronal properties to the functional activity of neural circuits and environmental experience. However, standard transcriptome analysis methods can be too limited in identifying critical aspects that coordinate temporal coding of action potential firing with transcriptome response. A Pearson correlation analysis was applied to determine how pairs of genes in the mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons are coordinately expressed in response to stimulation producing the same number of action potentials by two different temporal patterns. Analysis of 4728 distinct gene-pairs related to calcium signaling, 435,711 pairs of transcription factors, 820 pairs of voltage-gated ion channels, and 86,862 pairs of calcium signaling genes with transcription factors indicated that genes become coordinately activated by distinct action potential firing patterns and this depends on the duration of stimulation. Moreover, a measure of expression variance revealed that the control of transcripts abundances is sensitive to the pattern of stimulation. Thus, action potentials impact intracellular signaling and the transcriptome in dynamic manner that not only alter gene expression levels significantly (as previously reported) but also affects the control of their expression fluctuations and profoundly remodel the transcriptional networks.

PropaNet: Time-Varying Condition-Specific Transcriptional Network Construction by Network Propagation

Transcription factor (TF) has a significant influence on the state of a cell by regulating multiple down-stream genes. Thus, experimental and computational biologists have made great efforts to construct TF gene networks for regulatory interactions between TFs and their target genes. Now, an important research question is how to utilize TF networks to investigate the response of a plant to stress at the transcription control level using time-series transcriptome data. In this article, we present a new computational network, PropaNet, to investigate dynamics of TF networks from time-series transcriptome data using two state-of-the-art network analysis techniques, influence maximization and network propagation. PropaNet uses the influence maximization technique to produce a ranked list of TFs, in the order of TF that explains differentially expressed genes (DEGs) better at each time point. Then, a network propagation technique is used to select a group of TFs that explains DEGs best as a whole. For the analysis of Arabidopsis time series datasets from AtGenExpress, we used PlantRegMap as a template TF network and performed PropaNet analysis to investigate transcriptional dynamics of Arabidopsis under cold and heat stress. The time varying TF networks showed that Arabidopsis responded to cold and heat stress quite differently. For cold stress, bHLH and bZIP type TFs were the first responding TFs and the cold signal influenced histone variants, various genes involved in cell architecture, osmosis and restructuring of cells. However, the consequences of plants under heat stress were up-regulation of genes related to accelerating differentiation and starting re-differentiation. In terms of energy metabolism, plants under heat stress show elevated metabolic process and resulting in an exhausted status. We believe that PropaNet will be useful for the construction of condition-specific time-varying TF network for time-series data analysis in response to stress. PropaNet is available at http://biohealth.snu.ac.kr/software/PropaNet.

Data Integration of Hybrid Microarray and Single Cell Expression Data to Enhance Gene Network Inference

Background:

Gene Regulatory Network (GRN) inference algorithms aim to explore casual interactions between genes and transcriptional factors. High-throughput transcriptomics data including DNA microarray and single cell expression data contain complementary information in network inference.

Objective:

To enhance GRN inference, data integration across various types of expression data becomes an economic and efficient solution.

Method:

In this paper, a novel E-alpha integration rule-based ensemble inference algorithm is proposed to merge complementary information from microarray and single cell expression data. This paper implements a Gradient Boosting Tree (GBT) inference algorithm to compute importance scores for candidate gene-gene pairs. The proposed E-alpha rule quantitatively evaluates the credibility levels of each information source and determines the final ranked list.

Results:

Two groups of in silico gene networks are applied to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed E-alpha integration. Experimental outcomes with size50 and size100 in silico gene networks suggest that the proposed E-alpha rule significantly improves performance metrics compared with single information source.

Conclusion:

In GRN inference, the integration of hybrid expression data using E-alpha rule provides a feasible and efficient way to enhance performance metrics than solely increasing sample sizes.

Computational prediction of gene regulatory networks in plant growth and development

Plants integrate a wide range of cellular, developmental, and environmental signals to regulate complex patterns of gene expression. Recent advances in genomic technologies enable differential gene expression analysis at a systems level, allowing for improved inference of the network of regulatory interactions between genes. These gene regulatory networks, or GRNs, are used to visualize the causal regulatory relationships between regulators and their downstream target genes. Accordingly, these GRNs can represent spatial, temporal, and/or environmental regulations and can identify functional genes. This review summarizes recent computational approaches applied to different types of gene expression data to infer GRNs in the context of plant growth and development. Three stages of GRN inference are described: first, data collection and analysis based on the dataset type; second, network inference application based on data availability and proposed hypotheses; and third, validation based on in silico, in vivo, and in planta methods. In addition, this review relates data collection strategies to biological questions, organizes inference algorithms based on statistical methods and data types, discusses experimental design considerations, and provides guidelines for GRN inference with an emphasis on the benefits of integrative approaches, especially when a priori information is limited. Finally, this review concludes that computational frameworks integrating large-scale heterogeneous datasets are needed for a more accurate (e.g. fewer false interactions), detailed (e.g. discrimination between direct versus indirect interactions), and comprehensive (e.g. genetic regulation under various conditions and spatial locations) inference of GRNs.