Saturated fatty acids in human visceral adipose tissue are associated with increased 11- β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase type 1 expression

Gestational Weight Gain Is Associated with the Expression of Genes Involved in Inflammation in Maternal Visceral Adipose Tissue and Offspring Anthropometric Measures

BACKGROUND

Adequate gestational weight gain (GWG) is essential for maternal and fetal health. GWG may be a sign of higher visceral adipose tissue (VAT) accretion. A higher proportion of VAT is associated with an inflammatory process that may play a role in the fetal programming of obesity. This study aimed to (1) compare the expression of genes involved in inflammatory responses (TLR2, TLR4, NFκB, IKKβ, IL-1RA, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α) in the VAT of pregnant women according to GWG and (2) explore whether VAT inflammation and GWG are related to offspring anthropometric measures.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

50 women scheduled for cesarean section who delivered term infants were included in the study. We collected maternal omental VAT, and the expression of genes was examined with RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

Women with excessive and with adequate GWG had significantly higher expressions of most inflammatory genes than women with insufficient GWG. Neonates from mothers with excessive GWG had greater birth weight and chest circumference than those from mothers with insufficient GWG. GWG was positively correlated with fetal birth weight.

CONCLUSIONS

The VAT expression of most genes associated with inflammatory pathways was higher in excessive and adequate GWG than in pregnant women with insufficient GWG. Moreover, GWG was found to be positively associated with newborn weight.

Adipose tissue fatty acids as biomarkers for metabolic dysfunction in obese females: Implication of menopause and ageing

Fatty acids (FA) are biomarkers of metabolic dysfunction. Adipose tissue is the largest reservoir of FA and acts differently in obese individuals. Menopause by itself significantly alters metabolism, lipid metabolism dysregulation, and adipose tissue distribution. How adipose tissue FA alters an obese individual's metabolism depending on a female's menopausal status is yet poorly understood. Hence, the subcutaneous (scAT) and visceral adipose tissue (vAT) FA profile for 173 obese premenopausal and postmenopausal women was measured and associated with biochemical parameters. scAT and vAT FA profiles were distinct by themselves and in menopause. In total 816 associations were found with biochemical parameters, where only 58 were independent of the menopausal status. The associations found to emphasize the importance of assessing the adipose tissue FA profile and how their behavior changes with menopause. The FA are crucial in metabolic processes and can be helpful biomarkers in the prevention/treatment and follow-up of female obesity.

Fatty Acids in Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue of Pregnant Women with and without Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Are Associated with Genes Related to Steroidogenesis: A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

The qualitative analysis of adipose tissue (AT) is an exciting area for research and clinical applications in several diseases and it is emerging along with the quantitative approach to research on overweight and obese people. While the importance of steroid metabolism in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) has been reported, limited data exists on the effective roles of AT in pregnant women suffering from PCOS. The aim of this study was to determine association of fatty acid (FA) profiles with expression of 14 steroid genes in abdominal subcutaneous AT of PCOS vs. non-PCOS pregnant women.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this case-control study, the AT samples of 36 non-PCOS pregnant women and 12 pregnant women with PCOS (3:1 ratio control: case) who underwent cesarean section were collected. Relationship of expressing gene targets and different features were performed using Pearson correlation analysis on the R 3.6.2 software. The ggplot2 package in R tool was used to draw the plots.

RESULTS

Age (31.4 and 31.5 years, P=0.99), body mass index (BMI) (prior pregnancy 26 and 26.5 kg.m-2, P=0.62) and at delivery day (30.1 and 31, P=0.94), gestational period (264 and 267 days, P=0.70) and parity (1.4 and 1.4, P=0.42) of non-PCOS and PCOS pregnant women were similar. Expression of steroidogenic acute regulator (STAR) and 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11BHSD2) in non-PCOS pregnant women showed the highest association with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 n-3, r=0.59, P=0.001) and (r=0.66, P=0.001), respectively. In the all participants, STAR mRNA level showed the greatest association with the EPA fatty acid concentration (P=0.001, r=0.51).

CONCLUSION

Our results showed a link between the genes involved in steroid metabolism and fatty acids in AT of pregnant women, especially for omega-3 FA and the gene involved in the first step of steroidogenesis in subcutaneous AT. These findings warrant further studies.

An integrative exploration of loquat leaf total sesquiterpene glycosides in treating insulin-resistant mice by serum and urine untargeted metabolomics analysis

Loquat leaf is approved to be beneficial in the treatment of diabetes. Total sesquiterpene glycosides (TSG), a major chemical component cluster, has potential ability to improve insulin-resistant diabetes syndrome. Its therapeutic mechanism using metabolomics in vivo is worth to be investigated. This study aimed to reveal the underlying therapeutic mechanism of TSG on insulin-resistant mice by untargeted metabolomics, and to explore the lipid metabolism differences in vivo. High-fat diet was used to induce insulin-resistant mice model. Biochemical indicators were applied to evaluate the model validity and related treatment effect. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was utilized to accomplish serum and urine untargeted metabolomics. Oral administration of TSG had a therapeutic effect on high-fat diet induced insulin-resistant mice. Four hundred forty-two metabolites in serum and 1732 metabolites in urine were annotated. Principal component analysis screened 324 differential metabolic signatures in serum sample and 1408 in urine sample. The pathway mainly involved purine metabolism and biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. Lipidomic analysis of urine and serum confirmed that most lipid metabolites were fatty acyls, sterol lipids and polyketides.

Bidirectional communication between brain and visceral white adipose tissue: Its potential impact on Alzheimer's disease

A variety of axes between brain and abdominal organs have been reported, but the interaction between brain and visceral white adipose tissue (vWAT) remains unclear. In this review, we summarized human studies on the association between brain and vWAT, and generalized their interaction and the underlying mechanisms according to animal and cell experiments. On that basis, we come up with the concept of the brain-vWAT axis (BVA). Furthermore, we analyzed the potential mechanisms of involvement of BVA in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), including vWAT-derived fatty acids, immunological properties of vWAT, vWAT-derived retinoic acid and vWAT-regulated insulin resistance. The proposal of BVA may expand our understanding to some extent of how the vWAT impacts on brain health and diseases, and provide a novel approach to study the pathogenesis and treatment strategies of neurodegenerative disorders.

Dietary fatty acids modulate cortisol concentrations and social dominance during social confrontations in adolescent male guinea pigs

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis and related glucocorticoid concentrations regulate physiology and behavior, which can be modulated by nutritional conditions, particularly by the dietary fatty acid composition. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been shown to promote hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis functions, whereas saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in general produce adverse effects and even increase baseline glucocorticoid concentrations. Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) were further documented to modulate the establishment of dominance relationships, while the involvement of dietary fatty acids remains understudied. This study focused on different effects of PUFAs and SFAs on cortisol concentrations and social dominance in male guinea pigs. Three groups of animals were maintained on diets high in PUFAs (10 % w/w walnut oil), SFAs (10 % w/w coconut fat), or on an untreated control diet starting already prenatally. During adolescence, at an age of 60, 90, and 120 days, each individual's saliva cortisol concentrations and hierarchy index (calculated by initiated and received agonistic behavior) were measured during basal group housing conditions and stressful social confrontations with unfamiliar individuals of the other groups. SFA males showed highest baseline cortisol concentrations, lowest cortisol responses to social confrontations, and became subdominant. PUFA and control males showed significant cortisol responses. However, while control males became dominant during social confrontations, the hierarchy index in PUFA males decreased with age. Individual hierarchy indices during consecutive social confrontations revealed a high consistency. The findings presented here indicate that dietary fatty acids differently affect HPA-axis functions and social dominance but the underlying mechanisms remain to be determined.

Differences in fatty acid profiles and desaturation indices of abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue between pregnant women with and without PCOS

The objective was to determine the differences in fatty acid (FA) profiles in subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT) between pregnant women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and those without PCOS. FA profiles of AT samples from 13 PCOS and 32 non-PCOS, all of whom underwent caesarean section were compared using gas chromatography. Age and BMI in the two groups were similar. Twenty-one FAs were detected and the total saturated FA percentage of experimental groups was similar. While the total monounsaturated FA (MUFA) (p < 0.0004) and desaturase index (18:1 cis-9/18:0; p < 0.03) were higher in PCOS women than non-PCOS women, total polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) was lower in PCOS than non-PCOS women (p < 0.004). Docosahexaenoic acid level of the two groups was similar while α-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid levels were significantly (p < 0.05) lower in PCOS. Total trans-FA, C18:1 t9 and C18:2t were lower in PCOS women (p < 0.05). These results indicate differences in desaturase index, MUFA and PUFA, especially n-3 FA in AT between age and BMI-matched pregnant PCOS and non-PCOS pregnant subjects. Further studies are warranted to replicate these findings and to investigate potential changes in these profiles in non-pregnant PCOS women.

Effects of dietary fatty acids on the social life of male Guinea pigs from adolescence to adulthood

Dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) or saturated fatty acids (SFAs) differently modulates neurophysiological and behavioral functions in response to altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis activity and an individual's development. In this context, an individual's social environment, including social interactions and social hierarchies, is closely related to hormone concentrations and possibly interacts with dietary fatty acid effects. We investigated if dietary supplementation with walnut oil (high in PUFAs) and coconut fat (high in SFAs), compared to a control group, affects body mass gain, cortisol and testosterone concentrations, plasma fatty acids, and social behavior in male domestic guinea pigs from adolescence to adulthood. For analyses of cortisol and testosterone concentrations, social interactions were included as covariates in order to consider effects of social behavior on hormone concentrations. Our results revealed that SFAs increased escalated conflicts like fights and stimulated cortisol and testosterone concentrations, which limited body mass gain and first-year survival. PUFAs did not remarkably affect social behavior and hormone concentrations, but enabled the strongest body mass gain, which probably resulted from an energetic advantage. Neither sociopositive nor agonistic behaviors explained age-specific differences in hormone concentrations between groups. However, a high number of subdominant individuals and lower testosterone concentrations were related to increased cortisol concentrations in adult PUFA males. Our findings demonstrate the importance of dietary fatty acids regarding behavioral and endocrine developmental processes and adaptations to the social environment by modulating HPA-axis function and body homeostasis.

Fatty acids, food groups and semen variables in men referring to an Italian Fertility Clinic: Cross-sectional analysis of a prospective cohort study

Diet has been suggested as a factor affecting sperm quality, both in healthy and infertile men. To study whether specific food groups and fatty acids (FA) intake were associated with sperm parameters of men from couples referring to an Italian Fertility Clinic, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis. A semen sample was collected and analysed before proceeding with assisted reproduction. To evaluate food groups and fatty acids intake, we used a questionnaire of food frequency. We calculated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for abnormal semen parameters. Among 323 men, 19% had semen volume (SV) <1.5 ml, 31% sperm concentration (SC) <15 mil/mL, 33% total sperm count (TSC) <39 mil and 27% sperm progressive motility <32%. Low SC was more frequent in men with higher saturated FA (SFA) and polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) intake. Better SC and TSC were related to higher monounsaturated FA (MUFA)/SFA ratio. Monounsaturated FA and linoleic/linolenic acid ratio were not related to any considered parameters. Low TSC was associated with low vegetable intake. In conclusion, normal sperm parameters were more frequent in men with low intake of SFA and PUFA, and high vegetable intake. Higher MUFA/SFA ratio was associated with better sperm quality parameters.

Visceral adipose tissue alteration of PI3KR1 expression is associated with gestational diabetes but not promoter DNA methylation

Obesity and diabetes are at an epidemic rate, as well as growing incidences of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) which causes pregnancy risks, and harm in both maternal and child health. It remains unclear which molecular mechanisms are driving the functional differences between visceral and subcutaneous fat and how these types directly affect an individual’s health outcome. Paired abdominal subcutaneous and omental visceral adipose tissue were collected from women with GDM (n = 20) and with normal glucose tolerance (NGT, n = 22) during planned caesarian section. Both groups had similar maternal age (average 32.5 years) and BMI at delivery (average 33.3 kg/m²). Adipose tissue mRNA expression analyses of insulin signalling genes: PI3KCA, PI3KR1, IRS1 and IRS2 showed significantly decreased PI3KR1 expression (−23%) in visceral fat in GDM with no association to promoter DNA methylation. Reduced visceral fat PI3KR1 expression appears to be a pathogenic factor in GDM but not through altered promoter methylation.

Regulation of metabolism during hibernation in brown bears (Ursus arctos): Involvement of cortisol, PGC-1α and AMPK in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle

The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in expression of known cellular regulators of metabolism during hyperphagia (Sept) and hibernation (Jan) in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue of brown bears and determine whether signaling molecules and transcription factors known to respond to changes in cellular energy state are involved in the regulation of these metabolic adaptations. During hibernation, serum levels of cortisol, glycerol, and triglycerides were elevated, and protein expression and activation of AMPK in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue were reduced. mRNA expression of the co-activator PGC-1α was reduced in all tissues in hibernation whereas mRNA expression of the transcription factor PPAR-α was reduced in the vastus lateralis muscle and adipose tissue only. During hibernation, gene expression of ATGL and CD36 was not altered; however, HSL gene expression was reduced in adipose tissue. During hibernation gene expression of the lipogenic enzyme DGAT in all tissues and the expression of the FA oxidative enzyme LCAD in the vastus lateralis muscle were reduced. Gene and protein expression of the glucose transporter GLUT4 was decreased in adipose tissue in hibernation. Our data suggest that high cortisol levels are a key adaptation during hibernation and link cortisol to a reduced activation of the AMPK/PGC-1α/PPAR-α axis in the regulation of metabolism in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Moreover, our results indicate that during this phase of hibernation at a time when metabolic rate is significantly reduced metabolic adaptations in peripheral tissues seek to limit the detrimental effects of unduly large energy dissipation.

The impact of dietary fatty acids on human adipose tissue

Nutrition is a major variable factor in human environments. The composition of nutrients has changed markedly in recent decades which may contribute to the increased prevalence of metabolic diseases, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. Fat is an important component of the diet which comes in various forms with fatty acids (FA) of different carbon chain lengths and saturation degrees. In addition to being an energy supply, FA function as potent signalling molecules and influence transcriptional activity. Among other tissues, dietary FA target white adipose tissue function, which is central in maintaining metabolic health. This review focuses on the possible role of dietary FA composition and its effect on human white adipose tissue expandability and transcriptional response. Altogether, the existing literature suggests that unsaturated fat has more benign effects on adipose tissue distribution when compared to long-chain saturated fat. However, the mechanisms of action remain poorly characterised.

Dietary trans and saturated fatty acids effects on semen quality, hormonal levels and expression of genes related to steroid metabolism in mouse adipose tissue

Our objectives were to assess sperm alteration and adipose tissue (AT) genes expression related to steroid metabolism subsequent to fatty acids consumption. Twenty-nine mature male mice were divided into: fat diet (FD; n = 15) and the control group (n = 14). FD group was fed with low level of trans and saturated fatty acids source for 60 days. Sperm parameters, levels of hormones and the mRNA abundance of the target genes in AT were assessed. The sperm concentration, total and progressive motilities were lower in FD group compared to that of control (p < 0.01). Blood estradiol levels increased in FD (p < 0.001), whereas no significant difference was observed in testosterone. The mRNA levels of StAR, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, 17βHSD7 and 17βHSD12 in AT of FD were higher than those of the control (p < 0.05). In contrast, mRNA level of Cyp19a1 in FD was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than that of control. 17βHSD12 and 17βHSD7 (as oestrogenic genes) increased, while 17βHSD5 and 17βHSD3 (as androgenic genes) remained unchanged, indicating that dietary trans/saturated fatty acids affect AT genes expression. Probably, sperm parameters were altered by increment of expression level of genes involved in oestrogenic metabolism rather than those engaged in androgenic metabolism after fatty acids consumption.

Neonatal overfeeding induced glucocorticoid overexposure accelerates hepatic lipogenesis in male rats

Background

Postnatal overfeeding activates tissue glucocorticoid (GC) activity by up-regulating 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 (11β-HSD1) and increasing sensitivity to high-fat (HF) diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of postnatal overfeeding on GC regulation and lipogenesis in the liver and to observe the impact of GC on hepatocyte lipid metabolism.

Methods

In vivo, Male Sprague-Dawley rat pup litters were adjusted to litter sizes of three (small litter, SL) or ten (normal litter, NL) on postnatal day 3 and then given standard chow from postnatal week 3 (W3) to W13. In vitro, HepG2 cells were stimulated by GC, mifepristone (Mi) or GC + Mi within 48 h, followed by sodium oleate (OA) intervention (or not) for 24 h. Intracellular lipid droplets, triglyceride (TG) concentrations and gene expression related to lipid metabolism were measured in hepatic tissues or HepG2 cells.

Results

In vivo, weight gain in the body and liver and TG concentrations in the liver were significantly increased in the SL rats compared to the NL rats at W3 and W13 (p < 0.05); mRNA expression of hepatic 11β-HSD1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC), stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1), fatty acid synthase (FASN) and their nuclear transcription factor, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) (p < 0.05), was also increased. In vitro, intracellular lipid droplets and TG content in HepG2 cells increased under stimulation with GC or OA (p < 0.05); the increase was more significant following treatment with GC and OA together (p < 0.05). The ACC, SCD1, FASN and SREBP-1c mRNA expression changes were highly similar to the changes in TG content in cells. All the changes induced by GC disappeared when the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) was blocked by Mi.

Conclusions

Postnatal overfeeding induced GC overexposure through 11β-HSD1 up-regulation in the liver. GC activated hepatic de novo lipogenesis (DNL) via GR and led to hepatic lipid accumulation, which increased the risk of NAFLD during adulthood.

Depot-specific differences in fatty acid composition and distinct associations with lipogenic gene expression in abdominal adipose tissue of obese women

Cardiometabolic diseases are primarily linked to enlarged visceral adipose tissue (VAT). However, some data suggest heterogeneity within the subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) depot with potential metabolic differences between the superficial SAT (sSAT) and deep SAT (dSAT) compartments. We aimed to investigate the heterogeneity of these three depots with regard to fatty acid (FA) composition and gene expression. Adipose tissue biopsies were collected from 75 obese women undergoing laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery. FA composition and gene expression were determined with gas chromatography and quantitative real-time-PCR, respectively. Stearoyl CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1) activity was estimated by product-to-precursor FA ratios. All polyunsaturated FAs (PUFA) with 20 carbons were consistently lower in VAT than either SAT depots, whereas essential PUFA (linoleic acid, 18:2n-6 and α-linolenic acid, 18:3n-3) were similar between all three depots. Lauric and palmitic acid were higher and lower in VAT, respectively. The SCD-1 product palmitoleic acid as well as estimated SCD-1 activity was higher in VAT than SAT. Overall, there was a distinct association pattern between lipid metabolizing genes and individual FAs in VAT. In conclusion, SAT and VAT are two distinct depots with regard to FA composition and expression of key lipogenic genes. However, the small differences between sSAT and dSAT suggest that FA metabolism of SAT is rather homogenous.

Fatty acid composition in serum cholesterol esters and phospholipids is linked to visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue content in elderly individuals: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and truncal fat predict cardiometabolic disease. Intervention trials suggest that saturated fatty acids (SFA), e.g. palmitic acid, promote abdominal and liver fat storage whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), e.g. linoleic acid, prevent fat accumulation. Such findings require investigation in population-based studies of older individuals. We aimed to investigate the relationships of serum biomarkers of PUFA intake as well as serum levels of palmitic acid, with abdominal and total adipose tissue content.

METHODS

In a population-based sample of 287 elderly subjects in the PIVUS cohort, we assessed fatty acid composition in serum cholesterol esters (CE) and phospholipids (PL) by gas chromatography and the amount of VAT and abdominal subcutaneous (SAT) adipose tissue by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), liver fat by MR spectroscopy (MRS), and total body fat, trunk fat and leg fat by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Insulin resistance was estimated by HOMA-IR.

RESULTS

VAT and trunk fat showed the strongest correlation with insulin resistance (r = 0.49, P < 0.001). Linoleic acid in both CE and PL was inversely related to all body fat depots (r = -0.24 to -0.33, P < 0.001) including liver fat measured in a sub-group (r = -0.26, P < 0.05, n = 73), whereas n-3 PUFA showed weak inverse (18:3n-3) or positive (20:5n-3) associations. Palmitic acid in CE, but not in PL, was directly correlated with VAT (r = 0.19, P < 0.001) and trunk fat (r = 0.18, P = 0.003). Overall, the significant associations remained after adjusting for energy intake, height, alcohol, sex, smoking, education and physical activity. The inverse correlation between linoleic acid and VAT remained significant after further adjustment for total body fat.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum linoleic acid is inversely related to body fat storage including VAT and trunk fat whereas palmitic acid was less consistently but directly associated, in line with recent feeding studies. Considering the close link between VAT and insulin resistance, a potential preventive role of plant-based PUFA in VAT accumulation warrants further study.

Serum Fatty Acids, Desaturase Activities and Abdominal Obesity - A Population-Based Study of 60-Year Old Men and Women

Abdominal obesity is a key contributor of metabolic disease. Recent trials suggest that dietary fat quality affects abdominal fat content, where palmitic acid and linoleic acid influence abdominal obesity differently, while effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are less studied. Also, fatty acid desaturation may be altered in abdominal obesity. We aimed to investigate cross-sectional associations of serum fatty acids and desaturases with abdominal obesity prevalence in a population-based cohort study. Serum cholesteryl ester fatty acids composition was measured by gas chromatography in 60-year old men (n = 1883) and women (n = 2015). Cross-sectional associations of fatty acids with abdominal obesity prevalence and anthropometric measures (e.g., sagittal abdominal diameter) were evaluated in multivariable-adjusted logistic and linear regression models, respectively. Similar models were employed to investigate relations between desaturase activities (estimated by fatty acid ratios) and abdominal obesity. In logistic regression analyses, palmitic acid, stearoyl-CoA-desaturase and Δ6-desaturase indices were associated with abdominal obesity; multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for highest versus lowest quartiles were 1.45 (1.19–1.76), 4.06 (3.27–5.05), and 3.07 (2.51–3.75), respectively. Linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, docohexaenoic acid, and Δ5-desaturase were inversely associated with abdominal obesity; multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals): 0.39 (0.32–0.48), 0.74 (0.61–0.89), 0.76 (0.62–0.93), and 0.40 (0.33–0.49), respectively. Eicosapentaenoic acid was not associated with abdominal obesity. Similar results were obtained from linear regression models evaluating associations with different anthropometric measures. Sex-specific and linear associations were mainly observed for n3-polyunsaturated fatty acids, while associations of the other exposures were generally non-linear and similar across sexes. In accordance with findings from short-term trials, abdominal obesity was more common among individuals with relatively high proportions of palmitic acid, whilst the contrary was true for linoleic acid. Further trials should examine the potential role of linoleic acid and its main dietary source, vegetable oils, in abdominal obesity prevention.