Targeted micelles with chemotherapeutics and gene drugs to inhibit the G1/S and G2/M mitotic cycle of prostate cancer

Self-Assembled Micelles Based on Ginsenoside Rg5 for the Targeted Treatment of PTX-Resistant Tumors

Paclitaxel (PTX) is one of the first-line drugs for prostate cancer (PC) treatment. However, the poor water solubility, inadequate specific targeting ability, multidrug resistance, and severe neurotoxicity are far from being fully resolved, despite diverse PTX formulations in the market, such as the gold-standard PTX albumin nanoparticle (Abraxane) and polymer micelles (Genexol-PM). Some studies attempting to solve the multiple problems of chemotherapy delivery fall into the trap of an extremely complicated formulation design and sacrifice druggability. To better address these issues, this study designed an efficient, toxicity-reduced paclitaxel-ginsenoside polymeric micelle (RPM). With the aid of the inherent amphiphilic molecular structure and pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Rg5, the prepared RPM enhances the water solubility and active targeting of PTX, inhibiting chemotherapy resistance in cancer cells. Moreover, the polymeric micelles demonstrated favorable anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects, providing ideas for the development of new clinical anti-PC preparations.

β-1,3-d-glucan particles-based "nest" protected co-loaded Rhein and Emodin regulates microbiota and intestinal immunity for ulcerative colitis treatment

Herein, a β-1,3-D-glucan based yeast cell wall loaded with co-loaded nanoparticles of Rhein (RH) and Emodin (EMO), was developed for the combined treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC) by modulating gut microbiota and the Th17/Treg cell balance. This was achieved through an oral "nano-in-micro" advanced drug delivery system. Specifically, RH was grafted onto the HA chain via disulfide bonds to synthesize a reduction-sensitive carrier material and then used to encapsulate EMO to form nanoparticles with a specific drug ratio (denoted as HA-RH/EMO NPs). As anticipated, HA-RH/EMO NPs were encased within the "nests"-yeast cell wall microparticles (YPs), efficiently reach the colon and then released gradually, this occurs mainly due to the degradation of β-1,3-D-glucan by β-glucanase. Additionally, HA-RH/EMO NPs demonstrated a significant reduction-sensitive effect in GSH stimulation evaluations and a remarkable ability to target macrophages in in vitro cell uptake studies. Notably, HA-RH/EMO NYPs reduced inflammatory responses by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Even more crucially, the oral delivery and drug combination methods significantly enhanced the regulatory effects of HA-RH/EMO NYPs on gut microbiota and the Th17/Treg balance. Overall, this research marks the first use of YPs to encapsulate two components, RH and EMO, presenting a promising therapeutic strategy for UC.

Modulation of excited state intramolecular proton transfer and intramolecular charge transfer pathways of symmetrical azines through micellar medium

The photophysical studies of fluorescent probes in micellar medium can give a better insight about their interaction with biological membranes. This study attempts to access the photophysical properties of the dual emitting azine based probe diethylamino salicylidene azine dimer (DEASAD) in micellar media. DEASAD showed dual charge transfer emission due to the presence of open enol (480 nm) and closed enol (510 nm) forms in polar protic solvents. Upon increasing the concentration of ionic surfactants, there is a significant increase in the emission intensity of both the enol forms of DEASAD until premicellar concentration. After micellization, occurrence of a new anomalous keto form emission through excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) was observed around 530 nm in ionic micelles and its intensity changes depend on the micellar surface charge. The emission studies revealed the position and interaction of DEASAD with the charge of micellar stern layer as confirmed through interaction of metal ion with the probe and control molecules with and without ESIPT and ICT moieties. In contrast, the new anomalous longer wavelength keto form of DEASAD emission was absent in neutral micelles like Triton X-100.

Recent advances and future perspectives in the therapeutics of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the most common cancers in males and the fifth leading reason of death. Age, ethnicity, family history, and genetic defects are major factors that determine the aggressiveness and lethality of PC. The African population is at the highest risk of developing high-grade PC. It can be challenging to distinguish between low-risk and high-risk patients due to the slow progression of PC. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a revolutionary discovery for the identification of PC. However, it has led to an increase in over diagnosis and over treatment of PC in the past few decades. Even if modifications are made to the standard PSA testing, the specificity has not been found to be significant. Our understanding of PC genetics and proteomics has improved due to advances in different fields. New serum, urine, and tissue biomarkers, such as PC antigen 3 (PCA3), have led to various new diagnostic tests, such as the prostate health index, 4K score, and PCA3. These tests significantly reduce the number of unnecessary and repeat biopsies performed. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and prostatectomy are standard treatment options. However, newer novel hormone therapy drugs with a better response have been identified. Androgen deprivation and hormonal therapy are evolving as new and better options for managing hormone-sensitive and castration-resistant PC. This review aimed to highlight and discuss epidemiology, various risk factors, and developments in PC diagnosis and treatment regimens.

Paclitaxel and docetaxel resistance in prostate cancer: Molecular mechanisms and possible therapeutic strategies

Prostate cancer is among most malignant tumors around the world and this urological tumor can be developed as result of genomic mutations and their accumulation during progression towards advanced stage. Due to lack of specific symptoms in early stages of prostate cancer, most cancer patients are diagnosed in advanced stages that tumor cells display low response to chemotherapy. Furthermore, genomic mutations in prostate cancer enhance the aggressiveness of tumor cells. Docetaxel and paclitaxel are suggested as well-known compounds for chemotherapy of prostate tumor and they possess a similar function in cancer therapy that is based on inhibiting depolymerization of microtubules, impairing balance of microtubules and subsequent delay in cell cycle progression. The aim of current review is to highlight mechanisms of paclitaxel and docetaxel resistance in prostate cancer. When oncogenic factors such as CD133 display upregulation and PTEN as tumor-suppressor shows decrease in expression, malignancy of prostate tumor cells enhances and they can induce drug resistance. Furthermore, phytochemicals as anti-tumor compounds have been utilized in suppressing chemoresistance in prostate cancer. Naringenin and lovastatin are among the anti-tumor compounds that have been used for impairing progression of prostate tumor and enhancing drug sensitivity. Moreover, nanostructures such as polymeric micelles and nanobubbles have been utilized in delivery of anti-tumor compounds and decreasing risk of chemoresistance development. These subjects are highlighted in current review to provide new insight for reversing drug resistance in prostate cancer.

Recent Advances on PEO-PCL Block and Graft Copolymers as Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery Applications

Poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PEO-PCL) is a family of block (or graft) copolymers with several biomedical applications. These types of copolymers are well-known for their good biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, being ideal for biomedical applications and for the formation of a variety of nanosystems intended for controlled drug release. The aim of this review is to present the applications and the properties of different nanocarriers derived from PEO-PCL block and graft copolymers. Micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, drug conjugates, nanocapsules, and hybrid polymer-lipid nanoparticles, such as hybrid liposomes, are the main categories of PEO-PCL based nanocarriers loaded with different active ingredients. The advantages and the limitations in preclinical studies are also discussed in depth. PEO-PCL based nanocarriers could be the next generation of delivery systems with fast clinical translation. Finally, current challenges and future perspectives of the PEO-PCL based nanocarriers are highlighted.

Protective effect of spore oil-functionalized nano-selenium system on cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by regulating oxidative stress-mediated pathways and activating immune response

In clinical practice, cisplatin is the most commonly used chemotherapy drug to treat a range of malignancies. Severe ROS-regulated nephrotoxicity, however, restricts its applicability. Currently, the main mechanisms leading to cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in clinical settings involve hydration or diuresis. However, not all patients can be treated with massive hydration or diuretics. Therefore, it is crucial to develop a treatment modality that can effectively reduce nephrotoxicity through a foodborne route. Selenium has been reported to have strong antioxidant as well as anticancer effects when administered as spore oil. Herein, we established cellular and animal models of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity and synthesized spore oil-functionalized nano-selenium (GLSO@SeNPs). We found that GLSO@SeNPs inhibit the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway by maintaining oxidative homeostasis and regulating related signaling pathways (the MAPK, caspase, and AKT signaling pathways). In vivo, GLSO@SeNPs could effectively improve cisplatin-induced renal impairment, effectively maintaining oxidative homeostasis in renal tissues and thus inhibiting the process of renal injury. In addition, GLSO@SeNPs were converted into selenocysteine (SeCys2), which may exert protective effects. Furthermore, GLSO@SeNPs could effectively modulate the ratio of immune cells in kidneys and spleen, reducing the proportions of CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells, CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells, and M1 phenotype macrophages and increasing the proportion of anti-inflammatory regulatory T cells. In summary, in this study, we synthesized food-derived spore oil-functionalized nanomaterials, and we explored the mechanisms by which GLSO@SeNPs inhibit cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. Our study provides a basis and rationale for the inhibition of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by food-derived nutrients.

Nanotherapeutic Approach to Delivery of Chemo- and Gene Therapy for Organ-Confined and Advanced Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

Treatments for late-stage prostate cancer (CaP) have not been very successful. Frequently, advanced CaP progresses to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), with 50#37;-70% of patients developing bone metastases. CaP with bone metastasis-associated clinical complications and treatment resistance presents major clinical challenges. Recent advances in the formulation of clinically applicable nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted attention in the fields of medicine and pharmacology with applications to cancer and infectious and neurological diseases. NPs have been rendered biocompatible, pose little to no toxicity to healthy cells and tissues, and are engineered to carry large therapeutic payloads, including chemo- and genetic therapies. Additionally, if required, targeting specificity can be achieved by chemically coupling aptamers, unique peptide ligands, or monoclonal antibodies to the surface of NPs. Encapsulating toxic drugs within NPs and delivering them specifically to their cellular targets overcomes the problem of systemic toxicity. Encapsulating highly labile genetic therapeutics such as RNA within NPs provides a protective environment for the payload during parenteral administration. The loading efficiencies of NPs have been maximized while the controlled their therapeutic cargos has been released. Theranostic ("treat and see") NPs have developed combining therapy with imaging capabilities to provide real-time, image-guided monitoring of the delivery of their therapeutic payloads. All of these NP accomplishments have been applied to the nanotherapy of late-stage CaP, offering a new opportunity for a previously dismal prognosis. This article gives an update on current developments in the use of nanotechnology for treating late-stage, castration-resistant CaP.

Amphiphilic Graft Copolymers for Time-Delayed Release of Hydrophobic Fragrances

When a controlled or retarded release of perfumes is required such as in cosmetics or cleaning products, polymers can be applied as encapsulation agents. With regard to such applications, we investigated two amphiphilic graft copolymers featuring a polydehydroalanine (PDha) backbone and different hydrophobic side chains. Hereby, grafting of aliphatic octyl side chains (PDha-g-EOct) enabled the adsorption of the aliphatic fragrance tetrahydrolinalool with moderate loads, whereas benzyl side chains (PDha-g-BGE) allowed taking up aromatic fragrances, for example, amylsalicylate-n with exceptionally high loads of up to 8 g g^-1. The side-chain density was studied as well but had no significant influence on the loading. In addition, the characterization and quantification of the load by NMR and thermogravimetric analysis were compared, and it was also possible to load the aromatic model fragrance into the graft copolymer with aliphatic side chains. After 3 months, the load had decreased by 40-50% and, hence, such systems are of interest for a long-term release of perfumes over months. Although this study is a proof-of-concept, we foresee that such polyampholytic graft copolymers can be tailored for the adsorption of a variety of hydrophobic perfumes simply by altering polarity and chemistry of the side chain.

OxMIF: a druggable isoform of macrophage migration inhibitory factor in cancer and inflammatory diseases

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a proinflammatory cytokine with a pleiotropic spectrum of biological functions implicated in the pathogenesis of cancer and inflammatory diseases. MIF is constitutively present in several cell types and non-lymphoid tissues and is secreted after acute stress or inflammation. MIF triggers the release of proinflammatory cytokines, overrides the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids, and exerts chemokine function, resulting in increased migration and recruitment of leukocytes into inflamed tissue. Despite this, MIF is a challenging target for therapeutic intervention because of its ubiquitous nature and presence in the circulation and tissue of healthy individuals. Oxidized MIF (oxMIF) is an immunologically distinct disease-related structural isoform found in the plasma and tissues of patients with inflammatory diseases and in solid tumor tissues. MIF converts to oxMIF in an oxidizing, inflammatory environment. This review discusses the biology and activity of MIF and the potential for autoimmune disease and cancer modification by targeting oxMIF. Anti-oxMIF antibodies reduce cancer cell invasion/migration, angiogenesis, proinflammatory cytokine production, and ERK and AKT activation. Anti-oxMIF antibodies also elicit apoptosis and alter immune cell function and/or migration. When co-administered with a glucocorticoid, anti-oxMIF antibodies produced a synergistic response in inflammatory models. Anti-oxMIF antibodies therefore counterregulate biological activities attributed to MIF. oxMIF expression has been observed in inflammatory diseases (eg, sepsis, psoriasis, asthma, inflammatory bowel disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus) and oxMIF has been detected in ovarian, colorectal, lung, and pancreatic cancers. In contrast to MIF, oxMIF is specifically detected in plasma and/or tissues of diseased patients, but not in healthy individuals. Therefore, as a druggable isoform of MIF, oxMIF represents a potential new therapeutic target in inflammatory diseases and cancer. Fully human, monoclonal anti-oxMIF antibodies have been shown to selectively bind oxMIF in preclinical and phase I studies; however, additional clinical assessments are necessary to validate their use as either a monotherapy or in combination with standard-of-care regimens (ie, immunomodulatory agents/checkpoint inhibitors, anti-angiogenic drugs, chemotherapeutics, and glucocorticoids).

GNL3 is an evolutionarily conserved stem cell gene influencing cell proliferation, animal growth and regeneration in the hydrozoan Hydractinia

Nucleostemin (NS) is a vertebrate gene preferentially expressed in stem and cancer cells, which acts to regulate cell cycle progression, genome stability and ribosome biogenesis. NS and its paralogous gene, GNL3-like (GNL3L), arose in the vertebrate clade after a duplication event from their orthologous gene, G protein Nucleolar 3 (GNL3). Research on invertebrate GNL3, however, has been limited. To gain a greater understanding of the evolution and functions of the GNL3 gene, we have performed studies in the hydrozoan cnidarian Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus, a colonial hydroid that continuously generates pluripotent stem cells throughout its life cycle and presents impressive regenerative abilities. We show that Hydractinia GNL3 is expressed in stem and germline cells. The knockdown of GNL3 reduces the number of mitotic and S-phase cells in Hydractinia larvae of different ages. Genome editing of Hydractinia GNL3 via CRISPR/Cas9 resulted in colonies with reduced growth rates, polyps with impaired regeneration capabilities, gonadal morphological defects, and low sperm motility. Collectively, our study shows that GNL3 is an evolutionarily conserved stem cell and germline gene involved in cell proliferation, animal growth, regeneration and sexual reproduction in Hydractinia, and sheds new light into the evolution of GNL3 and of stem cell systems.

Probiotic Engineering and Targeted Sonoimmuno-Therapy Augmented by STING Agonist

Tumor targeting and effective immunomodulation are of critical significance during tumor treatment by sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Herein, the probiotic engineering of the clinically approved sonosensitizer (hematoporphyrin monomethyl ether (HMME)) is reported onto the probiotic bacterium Bifidobacteria Longum (BiL) for sonosensitive bifidobacterium construction (HMME@BiL cells). Based on the hypoxic tropism feature of the strain, effective tumor-targeted sonodynamic therapeutics can be achieved both in vitro and in vivo. To improve the immunological responses against tumor during sonodynamics, a recently-developed stimulator of interferon genes immune agonist SR717 has been employed to improve the anti-tumor immunity with prominent activities, eradicating both primary and metastatic tumors with high efficiency and satisfied biocompatibility. The present work provides a promising paradigm of microbiotic nanomedicine in a sophisticated sonoimmunotherapeutic strategy against malignant tumors.

Recent Progress in Nanostructured Smart Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy: A Review

Traditional treatment approaches for cancer involve intravenous chemotherapy or other forms of drug delivery. These therapeutic measures suffer from several limitations such as nonspecific targeting, poor biodistribution, and buildup of drug resistances. However, significant technological advancements have been made in terms of superior modes of drug delivery over the last few decades. Technical capability in analyzing the molecular mechanisms of tumor biology, nanotechnology─particularly the development of biocompatible nanoparticles, surface modification techniques, microelectronics, and material sciences─has increased. As a result, a significant number of nanostructured carriers that can deliver drugs to specific cancerous sites with high efficiency have been developed. This particular maneuver that enables the introduction of a therapeutic nanostructured substance in the body by controlling the rate, time, and place is defined as the nanostructured drug delivery system (NDDS). Because of their versatility and ability to incorporate features such as specific targeting, water solubility, stability, biocompatibility, degradability, and ability to reverse drug resistance, they have attracted the interest of the scientific community, in general, and nanotechnologists as well as biomedical scientists. To keep pace with the rapid advancement of nanotechnology, specific technical aspects of the recent NDDSs and their prospects need to be reported coherently. To address these ongoing issues, this review article provides an overview of different NDDSs such as lipids, polymers, and inorganic nanoparticles. In addition, this review also reports the challenges of current NDDSs and points out the prospective research directions of these nanocarriers. From our focused review, we conclude that still now the most advanced and potent field of application for NDDSs is lipid-based, while other significantly potential fields include polymer-based and inorganic NDDSs. However, despite the promises, challenges remain in practical implementations of such NDDSs in terms of dosage and stability, and caution should be exercised regarding biocompatibility of materials. Considering these aspects objectively, this review on NDDSs will be particularly of interest for small-to-large scale industrial researchers and academicians with expertise in drug delivery, cancer research, and nanotechnology.

Peptide-Assisted Nucleic Acid Delivery Systems on the Rise

Concerns associated with nanocarriers' therapeutic efficacy and side effects have led to the development of strategies to advance them into targeted and responsive delivery systems. Owing to their bioactivity and biocompatibility, peptides play a key role in these strategies and, thus, have been extensively studied in nanomedicine. Peptide-based nanocarriers, in particular, have burgeoned with advances in purely peptidic structures and in combinations of peptides, both native and modified, with polymers, lipids, and inorganic nanoparticles. In this review, we summarize advances on peptides promoting gene delivery systems. The efficacy of nucleic acid therapies largely depends on cell internalization and the delivery to subcellular organelles. Hence, the review focuses on nanocarriers where peptides are pivotal in ferrying nucleic acids to their site of action, with a special emphasis on peptides that assist anionic, water-soluble nucleic acids in crossing the membrane barriers they encounter on their way to efficient function. In a second part, we address how peptides advance nanoassembly delivery tools, such that they navigate delivery barriers and release their nucleic acid cargo at specific sites in a controlled fashion.

Forward Precision Medicine: Micelles for Active Targeting Driven by Peptides

Precision medicine is based on innovative administration methods of active principles. Drug delivery on tissue of interest allows improving the therapeutic index and reducing the side effects. Active targeting by means of drug-encapsulated micelles decorated with targeting bioactive moieties represents a new frontier. Between the bioactive moieties, peptides, for their versatility, easy synthesis and immunogenicity, can be selected to direct a drug toward a considerable number of molecular targets overexpressed on both cancer vasculature and cancer cells. Moreover, short peptide sequences can facilitate cellular intake. This review focuses on micelles achieved by self-assembling or mixing peptide-grafted surfactants or peptide-decorated amphiphilic copolymers. Nanovectors loaded with hydrophobic or hydrophilic cytotoxic drugs or with gene silence sequences and externally functionalized with natural or synthetic peptides are described based on their formulation and in vitro and in vivo behaviors.

Progress in gene therapy treatments for prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is one of the predominant cancers affecting men and has been widely reported. In the past, various therapies and drugs have been proposed to treat prostate cancer. Among these treatments, gene therapy has been considered to be an optimal and widely applicable treatment. Furthermore, due to the increased specificity of gene sequence complementation, the targeted delivery of complementary gene sequences may represent a useful treatment in certain instances. Various gene therapies, including tumor-suppressor gene therapy, suicide gene therapy, immunomodulation gene therapy and anti-oncogene therapies, have been established to treat a wide range of diseases, such as cardiac disease, cystic fibrosis, HIV/AIDS, diabetes, hemophilia, and cancers. To this end, several gene therapy clinical trials at various phases are underway. This overview describes the developments and progress in gene therapy, with a special focus being placed on prostate cancer.

S100A14 inhibits cell growth and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in prostate cancer through FAT1-mediated Hippo signaling pathway

Prostate cancer (PCA) is an epithelial malignant tumor occurring in the prostate gland. It is the second most common male cancer in the world and one of the top five cancer deaths in men. To combat this disease, it is needed to identify important tumor suppressor genes and elucidate the molecular mechanisms. S100 calcium-binding protein A14 (S100A14), a member of the S100 family, is located on chromosome 1q21.3 and contains an EF-hand motif that binds calcium. S100A14 is involved in a variety of tumor biological processes in several types of cancers. Its expression level and related biological functions are tissue or tumor specific. However, its possible effects on prostate cancer are still unclear. Herein, we found the low expression of S100A14 in human prostate cancer tissues and cell lines. S100A14 suppressed the proliferation of prostate cancer cells and promoted cell apoptosis. Additionally, S100A14 suppressed the motility and EMT processes of prostate cancer cells. We further found S100A14 promoted the expression of FAT1 and activated the Hippo pathway, which, therefore, suppressed the prostate cancer progression. The in vivo assays confirmed that S100A14 suppressed tumor growth of prostate cancer cells through FAT1-mediated Hippo pathway in mice. In conclusion, we clarified the mechanism underlying S100A14 suppressing prostate cancer progression and, therefore, we thought S100A14 could serve as a tumor suppressor protein.