Nanocarriers surface engineered with cell membranes for cancer targeted chemotherapy

Current advance of nanotechnology in diagnosis and treatment for malignant tumors

Cancer remains a significant risk to human health. Nanomedicine is a new multidisciplinary field that is garnering a lot of interest and investigation. Nanomedicine shows great potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Specifically engineered nanoparticles can be employed as contrast agents in cancer diagnostics to enable high sensitivity and high-resolution tumor detection by imaging examinations. Novel approaches for tumor labeling and detection are also made possible by the use of nanoprobes and nanobiosensors. The achievement of targeted medication delivery in cancer therapy can be accomplished through the rational design and manufacture of nanodrug carriers. Nanoparticles have the capability to effectively transport medications or gene fragments to tumor tissues via passive or active targeting processes, thus enhancing treatment outcomes while minimizing harm to healthy tissues. Simultaneously, nanoparticles can be employed in the context of radiation sensitization and photothermal therapy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of malignant tumors. This review presents a literature overview and summary of how nanotechnology is used in the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. According to oncological diseases originating from different systems of the body and combining the pathophysiological features of cancers at different sites, we review the most recent developments in nanotechnology applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the prospects and challenges of nanotechnology in cancer.

Biomaterials with cancer cell-specific cytotoxicity: challenges and perspectives

Significant advances have been made in materials for biomedical applications, including tissue engineering, bioimaging, cancer treatment, etc. In the past few decades, nanostructure-mediated therapeutic strategies have been developed to improve drug delivery, targeted therapy, and diagnosis, maximizing therapeutic effectiveness while reducing systemic toxicity and side effects by exploiting the complicated interactions between the materials and the cell and tissue microenvironments. This review briefly introduces the differences between the cells and tissues of tumour or normal cells. We summarize recent advances in tumour microenvironment-mediated therapeutic strategies using nanostructured materials. We then comprehensively discuss strategies for fabricating nanostructures with cancer cell-specific cytotoxicity by precisely controlling their composition, particle size, shape, structure, surface functionalization, and external energy stimulation. Finally, we present perspectives on the challenges and future opportunities of nanotechnology-based toxicity strategies in tumour therapy.

Engineered Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles: New Strategies in Glioma Targeted Therapy and Immune Modulation

Gliomas, the most prevalent primary brain tumors, pose considerable challenges due to their heterogeneity, intricate tumor microenvironment (TME), and blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restrict the effectiveness of traditional treatments like surgery and chemotherapy. This review provides an overview of engineered cell membrane technologies in glioma therapy, with a specific emphasis on targeted drug delivery and modulation of the immune microenvironment. This study investigates the progress in engineered cell membranes, encompassing physical, chemical, and genetic alterations, to improve drug delivery across the BBB and effectively target gliomas. The examination focuses on the interaction of engineered cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (ECM-NPs) with the TME in gliomas, emphasizing their potential to modulate glioma cell behavior and TME to enhance therapeutic efficacy. The review further explores the involvement of ECM-NPs in immunomodulation techniques, highlighting their impact on immune reactions. While facing obstacles related to membrane stability and manufacturing scalability, the review outlines forthcoming research directions focused on enhancing membrane performance. This review underscores the promise of ECM-NPs in surpassing conventional therapeutic constraints, proposing novel approaches for efficacious glioma treatment.

Biomimetic Oil-in-Water Nanoemulsions as a Suitable Drug Delivery System to Target Inflamed Endothelial Cells

Currently, the biomimetic approach of drawing inspiration from nature has frequently been employed in designing drug nanocarriers (NCs) of actively target various diseases, ranging from cancer to neuronal and inflammation pathologies. The cell-membrane coating can confer upon the inner nanomaterials a biological identity and the functions exhibited by the cells from which the membrane is derived. Monocyte- and macrophage-membrane-coated nanomaterials have emerged as an ideal delivery system to target inflamed vasculature. Herein, we developed two biomimetic NCs using a human-derived leukaemia monocytic cell line (THP-1), either undifferentiated or differentiated by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) into adherent macrophage-like cells as membrane sources for NC coating. We employed a secondary oil-in-water nano-emulsion (SNE) as the inner core, which served as an optimal NC for high payloads of lipophilic compounds. Two different biomimetic systems were produced, combining the biomimetic features of biological membranes with the physicochemical and nano-sized characteristics of SNEs. These systems were named Monocyte NEsoSome (M-NEsoSome) and Macrophage NEsoSome (M0-NEsoSome). Their uptake ability was investigated in tumour necrosis factor alfa (TNFα)-treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), selected as a model of inflamed endothelial cells. The M0 membrane coating demonstrated accelerated internalisation compared with the monocyte coating and notably surpassed the uptake rate of bare NCs. In conclusion, M0-NEsoSome NCs could be a therapeutic system for targeting inflamed endothelial cells and potentially delivering anti-inflammatory drugs in vascular inflammation.

Lipid-based nanosystems: the next generation of cancer immune therapy

Immunotherapy has become an important part of the oncotherapy arsenal. Its applicability in various cancer types is impressive, as well as its use of endogenous mechanisms to achieve desired ends. However, off-target or on-target-off-tumor toxicity, limited activity, lack of control in combination treatments and, especially for solid tumors, low local accumulation, have collectively limited clinical use thereof. These limitations are partially alleviated by delivery systems. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as revolutionary carriers due to favorable physicochemical characteristics, with specific applications and strengths particularly useful in immunotherapeutic agent delivery. The aim of this review is to highlight the challenges faced by immunotherapy and how lipid-based NPs have been, and may be further utilized to address such challenges. We discuss recent fundamental and clinical applications of NPs in a range of areas and provide a detailed discussion of the main obstacles in immune checkpoint inhibition therapies, adoptive cellular therapies, and cytokine therapies. We highlight how lipid-based nanosystems could address these through either delivery, direct modulation of the immune system, or targeting of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. We explore advanced and emerging liposomal and lipid nanoparticle (LNP) systems for nucleic acid delivery, intrinsic and extrinsic stimulus-responsive formulations, and biomimetic lipid-based nanosystems in immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the key challenges relating to the clinical use of lipid-based NP immunotherapies, suggesting future research directions for the near term to realize the potential of these innovative lipid-based nanosystems, as they become the crucial steppingstone towards the necessary enhancement of the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Exploring binding modes of the selected inhibitors to SND1 by all-atom molecular dynamics simulations

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women. Previous studies have indicated that disrupting the interaction between Metadherin (MTDH) and Staphylococcal nuclease domain containing 1 (SND1) can inhibit breast cancer development. Understanding the binding mode of small molecule inhibitors with SND1 is of great significance for designing drugs targeting the MTDH-SND1 complex. In this study, we conducted all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in solution and performed binding energy calculations to gain insights into the binding mechanism of small molecules to SND1. The binding site of SND1 for small molecules is relatively rigid, and the binding of the small molecule and the mutation of key residues have little effect on the conformation of the binding site. SND1 binds more tightly to C26-A6 than to C26-A2, as C26-A2 undergoes a 180° directional change during the simulation process. The key residue mutations have a direct effect on the position and orientation of small molecule in the binding site. The key residues make primary contributions to the binding energy through van der Waals interaction and nonpolar solvation energy, although the contribution from nonpolar solvation is relatively minor. The key residue mutations also affect the formation of hydrogen bonds and ultimately the stability of the small molecule-SND1 complex.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Recent progress of iron-based nanomaterials in gene delivery and tumor gene therapy

Gene therapy aims to modify or manipulate gene expression and change the biological characteristics of living cells to achieve the purpose of treating diseases. The safe, efficient, and stable expression of exogenous genes in cells is crucial for the success of gene therapy, which is closely related to the vectors used in gene therapy. Currently, gene therapy vectors are mainly divided into two categories: viral vectors and non-viral vectors. Viral vectors are widely used due to the advantages of persistent and stable expression, high transfection efficiency, but they also have certain issues such as infectivity, high immunological rejection, randomness of insertion mutation, carcinogenicity, and limited vector capacity. Non-viral vectors have the advantages of non-infectivity, controllable chemical structure, and unlimited vector capacity, but the transfection efficiency is low. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, the unique physicochemical properties of nanomaterials have attracted increasing attention in the field of drug and gene delivery. Among many nanomaterials, iron-based nanomaterials have attracted much attention due to their superior physicochemical properties, such as Fenton reaction, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetothermal therapy, photothermal therapy, gene delivery, magnetically-assisted drug delivery, cell and tissue targeting, and so on. In this paper, the research progress of iron-based nanomaterials in gene delivery and tumor gene therapy is reviewed, and the future application direction of iron-based nanomaterials is further prospected.

Nanomedicine alleviates doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity and enhances chemotherapy synergistic chemodynamic therapy

Doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used in clinic as a broad-spectrum chemotherapy drug, which can enhance the efficacy of chemodynamic therapy (CDT) by interfering tumor-related metabolize to increase H2O2 content. However, DOX can induce serious cardiomyopathy (DIC) due to its oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes. Eliminating oxidative stress would create a significant opportunity for the clinical application of DOX combined with CDT. To address this issue, we introduced sodium ascorbate (AscNa), the main reason is that AscNa can be catalyzed to produce H2O2 by the abundant Fe3+ in the tumor site, thereby enhancing CDT. While the content of Fe3+ in heart tissue is relatively low, so the oxidation of AscNa had tumor specificity. Meanwhile, due to its inherent reducing properties, AscNa could also eliminate the oxidative stress generated by DOX, preventing cardiotoxicity. Due to the differences between myocardial tissue and tumor microenvironment, a novel nanomedicine was designed. MoS2 was employed as a carrier and CDT catalyst, loaded with DOX and AscNa, coating with homologous tumor cell membrane to construct an acid-responsive nanomedicine MoS2-DOX/AscNa@M (MDA@M). In tumor cells, AscNa enhances the synergistic therapy of DOX and MoS2. In cardiomyocytes, AscNa could effectively reduce the cardiomyopathy induced by DOX. Overall, this study enhanced the clinical potential of chemotherapy synergistic CDT.

T Cell and Natural Killer Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanoparticles for Cancer and Viral Therapies

Extensive research has been conducted on the application of nanoparticles in the treatment of cancer and infectious diseases. Due to their exceptional characteristics and flexible structure, they are classified as highly efficient drug delivery systems, ensuring both safety and targeted delivery. Nevertheless, nanoparticles still encounter obstacles, such as biological instability, absence of selectivity, recognition as unfamiliar elements, and quick elimination, which restrict their remedial capacity. To surmount these drawbacks, biomimetic nanotechnology has been developed that utilizes T cell and natural killer (NK) cell membrane-encased nanoparticles as sophisticated methods of administering drugs. These nanoparticles can extend the duration of drug circulation and avoid immune system clearance. During the membrane extraction and coating procedure, the surface proteins of immunological cells are transferred to the biomimetic nanoparticles. Such proteins present on the surface of cells confer several benefits to nanoparticles, including prolonged circulation, enhanced targeting, controlled release, specific cellular contact, and reduced in vivo toxicity. This review focuses on biomimetic nanosystems that are derived from the membranes of T cells and NK cells and their comprehensive extraction procedure, manufacture, and applications in cancer treatment and viral infections. Furthermore, potential applications, prospects, and existing challenges in their medical implementation are highlighted.

Nanotherapeutics for prostate cancer treatment: A comprehensive review

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most prevalent solid organ malignancy and seriously affects male health. The adverse effects of prostate cancer therapeutics can cause secondary damage to patients. Nanotherapeutics, which have special targeting abilities and controlled therapeutic release profiles, may serve as alternative agents for PCa treatment. At present, many nanotherapeutics have been developed to treat PCa and have shown better treatment effects in animals than traditional therapeutics. Although PCa nanotherapeutics are highly attractive, few successful cases have been reported in clinical practice. To help researchers design valuable nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment and avoid useless efforts, herein, we first reviewed the strategies and challenges involved in prostate cancer treatment. Subsequently, we presented a comprehensive review of nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment, including their targeting methods, controlled release strategies, therapeutic approaches and mechanisms. Finally, we proposed the future prospects of nanotherapeutics for PCa treatment.

Genetically engineered macrophages as living cell drug carriers for targeted cancer therapy

Precise targeting is a major prerequisite for effective cancer therapy because it ensures a sufficient therapeutic dosage in tumors while minimizing off-target side effects. Herein, we report a live-macrophage-based therapeutic system for high-efficiency tumor therapy. As a proof of concept, anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) affibodies were genetically engineered onto the extracellular membrane of macrophages (AE-Mφ), which further internalized doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (NPs) to produce a macrophage-based therapeutic system armed with anti-HER2 affibodies. NPs(DOX)@AE-Mφ were able to target HER2+ cancer cells and specifically elicit affibody-mediated cell therapy. Most importantly, the superior HER2 + -targeting capability of NPs(DOX)@AE-Mφ greatly guaranteed high accumulation at the tumor site for improved chemotherapy, which acted synergistically with cell therapy to significantly enhance anti-tumor efficacy. This study suggests that NPs(DOX)@AE-Mφ could be utilized as an innovative 'living targeted drug' platform for combining both macrophage-mediated cell therapy and targeted chemotherapy for the individualized treatment of solid tumors.

Engineered Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications

Recent strides in nanomaterials science have paved the way for the creation of reliable, effective, highly accurate, and user-friendly biomedical systems. Pioneering the integration of natural cell membranes into sophisticated nanocarrier architectures, cell membrane camouflage has emerged as a transformative approach for regulated drug delivery, offering the benefits of minimal immunogenicity coupled with active targeting capabilities. Nevertheless, the utility of nanomaterials with such camouflage is curtailed by challenges like suboptimal targeting precision and lackluster therapeutic efficacy. Tailored cell membrane engineering stands at the forefront of biomedicine, equipping nanoplatforms with the capacity to conduct more complex operations. This review commences with an examination of prevailing methodologies in cell membrane engineering, spotlighting strategies such as direct chemical modification, lipid insertion, membrane hybridization, metabolic glycan labeling, and genetic engineering. Following this, an evaluation of the unique attributes of various nanomaterials is presented, delivering an in-depth scrutiny of the substantial advancements and applications driven by cutting-edge engineered cell membrane camouflage. The discourse culminates by recapitulating the salient influence of engineered cell membrane camouflage within nanomaterial applications and prognosticates its seminal role in transformative healthcare technologies. It is envisaged that the insights offered herein will catalyze novel avenues for the innovation and refinement of engineered cell membrane camouflaged nanotechnologies.

Cell-Based Micro/Nano-Robots for Biomedical Applications: A Review

Micro/nano-robots are powerful tools for biomedical applications and are applied in disease diagnosis, tumor imaging, drug delivery, and targeted therapy. Among the various types of micro-robots, cell-based micro-robots exhibit unique properties because of their different cell sources. In combination with various actuation methods, particularly externally propelled methods, cell-based microrobots have enormous potential for biomedical applications. This review introduces recent progress and applications of cell-based micro/nano-robots. Different actuation methods for micro/nano-robots are summarized, and cell-based micro-robots with different cell templates are introduced. Furthermore, the review focuses on the combination of cell-based micro/nano-robots with precise control using different external fields. Potential challenges, further prospects, and clinical translations are also discussed.

Cancer cell membrane biomimetic nanosystem for homologous targeted dual-mode imaging and combined therapy

HYPOTHESIS

The use of tumor cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles, specifically the multifunctional biomimetic core-shell nanosystem MPCONPs, can enhance the targeting ability and immune escape functionality of traditional chemotherapy, leading to more precise drug delivery and improved treatment outcomes.

EXPERIMENTS

Preparation of MPCONPs: Autologous tumor cell membrane (CM) fragments are collected and used to create a shell for the nanoparticles. A trypsin-sensitive cationic polylysine framework is synthesized and embedded with oxaliplatin (l-OHP) and Ce6-AuNDs (a singlet oxygen generator). The MPCONPs are formed by assembling these components.

FINDINGS

MPCONPs, as nanoparticles camouflaged with tumor CM, have enhanced cellular uptake in cancer cells and improved the efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and chemotherapy (CT). This offers great potential for their use as individualized therapeutic agents for clinical oncology treatment.

Cancer cell membrane fused liposomal platinum(IV) prodrugs overcome cisplatin resistance in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma chemotherapy

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) remains a major health challenge, with cisplatin (CDDP) being the primary chemotherapy drug, albeit accompanied by resistance development over time. This study introduces a novel platinum drug delivery system, EMLipoPt(IV), tailored to enhance platinum uptake and diminish its inactivation, providing a solution to CDDP resistance in ESCC. By synthesizing a fusion of the ESCC cell membrane with liposomal Pt(IV) prodrugs, we integrated the tumor-targeting capacity of the ESCC membrane with the inactivation resistance of Pt(IV) prodrugs. In vivo and in vitro evaluations illustrated EMLipoPt(IV)'s robustness against inactivating agents, superior tumor-targeting capacity, and remarkable ability to suppress CDDP-resistant tumor progression. Importantly, the biosafety profile of EMLipoPt(IV) surpassed existing treatments, offering a prolonged survival rate in animal models. Collectively, this work not only presents a pioneering approach in ESCC chemotherapy but also provides a blueprint for combating drug resistance in other cancers, emphasizing the broader potential for tailored drug delivery systems.

Bioinspired extracellular vesicle-coated silica nanoparticles as selective delivery systems

In recent years, there has been a breakthrough in the integration of artificial nanoplatforms with natural biomaterials for the development of more efficient drug delivery systems. The formulation of bioinspired nanosystems, combining the benefits of synthetic nanoparticles with the natural features of biological materials, provides an efficient strategy to improve nanoparticle circulation time, biocompatibility and specificity toward targeted tissues. Among others biological materials, extracellular vesicles (EVs), membranous structures secreted by many types of cells composed by a protein rich lipid bilayer, have shown a great potential as drug delivery systems themselves and in combination with artificial nanoparticles. The reason for such interest relays on their natural properties, such as overcoming several biological barriers or migration towards specific tissues. Here, we propose the use of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) as efficient and versatile nanocarriers in combination with tumor derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) for the development of selective drug delivery systems. The hybrid nanosystems demonstrated selective cellular internalization in parent cells, indicating that the EV targeting capabilities were efficiently transferred to MSNs by the developed coating strategy. As a result, EVs-coated MSNs provided an enhanced and selective intracellular accumulation of doxorubicin and a specific cytotoxic activity against targeted cancer cells, revealing these hybrid nanosystems as promising candidates for the development of targeted treatments.

Bacteria and Bacterial Components as Natural Bio-Nanocarriers for Drug and Gene Delivery Systems in Cancer Therapy

Bacteria and bacterial components possess multifunctional properties, making them attractive natural bio-nanocarriers for cancer diagnosis and targeted treatment. The inherent tropic and motile nature of bacteria allows them to grow and colonize in hypoxic tumor microenvironments more readily than conventional therapeutic agents and other nanomedicines. However, concerns over biosafety, limited antitumor efficiency, and unclear tumor-targeting mechanisms have restricted the clinical translation and application of natural bio-nanocarriers based on bacteria and bacterial components. Fortunately, bacterial therapies combined with engineering strategies and nanotechnology may be able to reverse a number of challenges for bacterial/bacterial component-based cancer biotherapies. Meanwhile, the combined strategies tend to enhance the versatility of bionanoplasmic nanoplatforms to improve biosafety and inhibit tumorigenesis and metastasis. This review summarizes the advantages and challenges of bacteria and bacterial components in cancer therapy, outlines combinatorial strategies for nanocarriers and bacterial/bacterial components, and discusses their clinical applications.

The Dysregulated MAD in Mad: A Neuro-theranostic Approach Through the Induction of Autophagic Biomarkers LC3B-II and ATG

The word mad has historically been associated with the psyche, emotions, and abnormal behavior. Dementia is a common symptom among psychiatric disorders or mad (schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder) patients. Autophagy/mitophagy is a protective mechanism used by cells to get rid of dysfunctional cellular organelles or mitochondria. Autophagosome/mitophagosome abundance in autophagy depends on microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B (LC3B-II) and autophagy-triggering gene (ATG) which functions as an autophagic biomarker for phagophore production and quick mRNA disintegration. Defects in either LC3B-II or the ATG lead to dysregulated mitophagy-and-autophagy-linked dementia (MAD). The impaired MAD is closely associated with schizophrenia, depression, and bipolar disorder. The pathomechanism of psychosis is not entirely known, which is the severe limitation of today's antipsychotic drugs. However, the reviewed circuit identifies new insights that may be especially helpful in targeting biomarkers of dementia. Neuro-theranostics can also be achieved by manufacturing either bioengineered bacterial and mammalian cells or nanocarriers (liposomes, polymers, and nanogels) loaded with both imaging and therapeutic materials. The nanocarriers must cross the BBB and should release both diagnostic agents and therapeutic agents in a controlled manner to prove their effectiveness against psychiatric disorders. In this review, we highlighted the potential of microRNAs (miRs) as neuro-theranostics in the treatment of dementia by targeting autophagic biomarkers LC3B-II and ATG. Focus was also placed on the potential for neuro-theranostic nanocells/nanocarriers to traverse the BBB and induce action against psychiatric disorders. The neuro-theranostic approach can provide targeted treatment for mental disorders by creating theranostic nanocarriers.

Biomarkers of ulcerative colitis disease activity CXCL1, CYP2R1, LPCAT1, and NEU4 and their relationship to immune infiltrates

The diagnosis and assessment of ulcerative colitis (UC) poses significant challenges, which may result in inadequate treatment and a poor prognosis for patients. This study aims to identify potential activity biomarkers for UC and investigate the role of infiltrating immune cells in the disease. To perform gene set enrichment analysis, we utilized the cluster profiler and ggplot2 packages. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes was used to analyze degenerate enrichment genes. Significant gene set enrichment was determined using the cluster profiler and ggplot2 packages. Additionally, quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) was employed to validate the expression of each marker in the ulcerative colitis model. We identified 651 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and further investigated potential UC activity biomarkers. Our analysis revealed that CXCL1 (AUC = 0.710), CYP2R1 (AUC = 0.863), LPCAT1 (AUC = 0.783), and NEU4 (AUC = 0.833) were promising activity markers for the diagnosis of UC. Using rat DSS model, we validated these markers through qRT-PCR, which showed statistically significant differences between UC and normal colon mucosa. Infiltrating immune cell analysis indicated that M1 macrophages, M2 macrophages, activated dendritic cells (DCs), and neutrophils played crucial roles in the occurrence and progression of UC. Moreover, the activity markers exhibited varying degrees of correlation with activated memory CD4 T cells, M0 macrophages, T follicular helper cells, memory B cells, and activated DCs. The potential diagnostic genes for UC activity, such as CXCL1, CYP2R1, LPCAT1, and NEU4, as well as the infiltration of immune cells, may contribute to the pathogenesis and progression of UC.

A, Gota V, Goda JS. Insight into lipid-based nanoplatform-mediated drug and gene delivery in neuro-oncology and their clinical prospects

Tumors of the Central nervous System (CNS) are a spectrum of neoplasms that range from benign lesions to highly malignant and aggressive lesions. Despite aggressive multimodal treatment approaches, the morbidity and mortality are high with dismal survival outcomes in these malignant tumors. Moreover, the non-specificity of conventional treatments substantiates the rationale for precise therapeutic strategies that selectively target infiltrating tumor cells within the brain, and minimize systemic and collateral damage. With the recent advancement of nanoplatforms for biomaterials applications, lipid-based nanoparticulate systems present an attractive and breakthrough impact on CNS tumor management. Lipid nanoparticles centered immunotherapeutic agents treating malignant CNS tumors could convene the clear need for precise treatment strategies. Immunotherapeutic agents can selectively induce specific immune responses by active or innate immune responses at the local site within the brain. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic applications of lipid-based nanoplatforms for CNS tumors with an emphasis on revolutionary approaches in brain targeting, imaging, and drug and gene delivery with immunotherapy. Lipid-based nanoparticle platforms represent one of the most promising colloidal carriers for chemotherapeutic, and immunotherapeutic drugs. Their current application in oncology especially in brain tumors has brought about a paradigm shift in cancer treatment by improving the antitumor activity of several agents that could be used to selectively target brain tumors. Subsequently, the lab-to-clinic transformation and challenges towards translational feasibility of lipid-based nanoplatforms for drug and gene/immunotherapy delivery in the context of CNS tumor management is addressed.

"Bioinspired" Membrane-Coated Nanosystems in Cancer Theranostics: A Comprehensive Review

Achieving precise cancer theranostics necessitates the rational design of smart nanosystems that ensure high biological safety and minimize non-specific interactions with normal tissues. In this regard, "bioinspired" membrane-coated nanosystems have emerged as a promising approach, providing a versatile platform for the development of next-generation smart nanosystems. This review article presents an in-depth investigation into the potential of these nanosystems for targeted cancer theranostics, encompassing key aspects such as cell membrane sources, isolation techniques, nanoparticle core selection, approaches for coating nanoparticle cores with the cell membrane, and characterization methods. Moreover, this review underscores strategies employed to enhance the multi-functionality of these nanosystems, including lipid insertion, membrane hybridization, metabolic engineering, and genetic modification. Additionally, the applications of these bioinspired nanosystems in cancer diagnosis and therapeutics are discussed, along with the recent advances in this field. Through a comprehensive exploration of membrane-coated nanosystems, this review provides valuable insights into their potential for precise cancer theranostics.

Macrophage membrane-coated nanovesicles for dual-targeted drug delivery to inhibit tumor and induce macrophage polarization

Background

Immunosuppressive M2 macrophages in the tumor microenvironment (TME) can mediate the therapeutic resistance of tumors, and seriously affect the clinical efficacy and prognosis of tumor patients. This study aims to develop a novel drug delivery system for dual-targeting tumor and macrophages to inhibit tumor and induce macrophage polarization.

Methods

The anti-tumor effects of methyltransferase like 14 (METTL14) were investigated both in vitro and in vivo. The underlying mechanisms of METTL14 regulating macrophages were also explored in this study. We further constructed the cyclic (Arg-Gly-Asp) (cRGD) peptide modified macrophage membrane-coated nanovesicles to co-deliver METTL14 and the TLR4 agonist.

Results

We found that METTL14 significantly inhibits the growth of tumor in vitro. METTL14 might downregulate TICAM2 and inhibit the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway of macrophages, meanwhile, the combination of METTL14 and the TLR4 agonist could induce M1 polarization of macrophages. Macrophage membrane-coated nanovesicles are characterized by easy modification, drug loading, and dual-targeting tumor and macrophages, and cRGD modification can further enhance its targeting ability. It showed that the nanovesicles could improve the in vivo stability of METTL14, and dual-target tumor and macrophages to inhibit tumor and induce M1 polarization of macrophages.

Conclusions

This study anticipates achieving the dual purposes of tumor inhibition and macrophage polarization, and providing a new therapeutic strategy for tumors.

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Methyltransferase like 14 (METTL14) significantly inhibits the growth of tumor in vitro.

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The combination of METTL14 and TLR4 agonist could induce M1 polarization of macrophages.

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We constructed the cyclic (Arg-Gly-Asp) (cRGD) peptide modified macrophage membrane-coated nanovesicles to co-deliver METTL14 and TLR4 agonist.

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This nanovesicles could dual-target tumor and macrophages to inhibit tumor and induce M1 polarization of macrophages.

Pancreatic Tumor-Targeting Stemsome Therapeutics

Owing to the intrinsic ability of stem cells to target the tumor environment, stem-cell-membrane-functionalized nanocarriers can target and load active anticancer drugs. In this work, a strategy that focuses on stem cells that self-target pancreatic cancer cells is developed. In particular, malignant deep tumors such as pancreatic cancer cells, one of the intractable tumors that currently have no successful clinical strategy, are available for targeting and destruction. By gaining the targeting ability of stem cells against pancreatic tumor cells, stem cell membranes can encapsulate nano-polylactide-co-glycolide loaded with doxorubicin to target and reduce deep pancreatic tumor tissues. Considering the lack of known target proteins on pancreatic tumor cells, the suggested platform technology can be utilized for targeting any malignant tumors in which surface target receptors are unavailable.

Biomaterial-based platforms for modulating immune components against cancer and cancer stem cells

Immunotherapy involves the therapeutic alteration of the patient's immune system to identify, target, and eliminate cancer cells. Dendritic cells, macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and regulatory T cells make up the tumor microenvironment. In cancer, these immune components (in association with some non-immune cell populations like cancer-associated fibroblasts) are directly altered at a cellular level. By dominating immune cells with molecular cross-talk, cancer cells can proliferate unchecked. Current clinical immunotherapy strategies are limited to conventional adoptive cell therapy or immune checkpoint blockade. Targeting and modulating key immune components presents an effective opportunity. Immunostimulatory drugs are a research hotspot, but their poor pharmacokinetics, low tumor accumulation, and non-specific systemic toxicity limit their use. This review describes the cutting-edge research undertaken in the field of nanotechnology and material science to develop biomaterials-based platforms as effective immunotherapeutics. Various biomaterial types (polymer-based, lipid-based, carbon-based, cell-derived, etc.) and functionalization methodologies for modulating tumor-associated immune/non-immune cells are explored. Additionally, emphasis has been laid on discussing how these platforms can be used against cancer stem cells, a fundamental contributor to chemoresistance, tumor relapse/metastasis, and failure of immunotherapy. Overall, this comprehensive review strives to provide up-to-date information to an audience working at the juncture of biomaterials and cancer immunotherapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer immunotherapy possesses incredible potential and has successfully transitioned into a clinically lucrative alternative to conventional anti-cancer therapies. With new immunotherapeutics getting rapid clinical approval, fundamental problems associated with the dynamic nature of the immune system (like limited clinical response rates and autoimmunity-related adverse effects) have remained unanswered. In this context, treatment approaches that focus on modulating the compromised immune components within the tumor microenvironment have garnered significant attention amongst the scientific community. This review aims to provide a critical discussion on how various biomaterials (polymer-based, lipid-based, carbon-based, cell-derived, etc.) can be employed along with immunostimulatory agents to design innovative platforms for selective immunotherapy directed against cancer and cancer stem cells.

A nanodrug combining CD47 and sonodynamic therapy efficiently inhibits osteosarcoma deterioration

Treatments for osteosarcoma (OS) with pulmonary metastases reach a bottleneck with a survival rate of 10-20%. The suppressive tumor associated macrophages(TAMs) and CD47 over-expression greatly lead to the treatment failure. Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) can generate ROS with deep tumor penetration to induce tumor cell apoptosis, which is reported to further induce M1 macrophage polarization. CD47 inhibition combined with SDT to synergistically modulate TAMs may induce superior effects for OS treatment. In this work, for the first time, a biomimetic nanodrug named MPIRx was deveploped by loading IR780 (a sonosensitizer) and RRx-001 (a CD47 inhibitor) in PEG-PCL nanomicelles and then coating with OS cell membranes. After ultrasound activation, the nanodrug significantly inhibited OS proliferation and migration, induced apoptosis and immunogenic cell death in OS cells. Furthermore, MPIRx could guide macrophage migrating towards tumor cells and promote M1-type polarization while increasing the phagocytosis activity of macrophages on OS cells. Ultimately, MPIRx showed good tumor accumulation in vivo and successfully inhibited subcutaneous OS and orthotopic tumor with deterioration of pulmonary metastasis. Overall, by creating a local oxidative microenvironment and modulating the TAMs/CD47 in tumor tissue, the MPIRx nanodrug presents a novel strategy for macrophage-related immunotherapy to successfully eliminate OS and inhibit the intractable pulmonary metastasis.

Molecular MRI-Based Monitoring of Cancer Immunotherapy Treatment Response

Immunotherapy constitutes a paradigm shift in cancer treatment. Its FDA approval for several indications has yielded improved prognosis for cases where traditional therapy has shown limited efficiency. However, many patients still fail to benefit from this treatment modality, and the exact mechanisms responsible for tumor response are unknown. Noninvasive treatment monitoring is crucial for longitudinal tumor characterization and the early detection of non-responders. While various medical imaging techniques can provide a morphological picture of the lesion and its surrounding tissue, a molecular-oriented imaging approach holds the key to unraveling biological effects that occur much earlier in the immunotherapy timeline. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a highly versatile imaging modality, where the image contrast can be tailored to emphasize a particular biophysical property of interest using advanced engineering of the imaging pipeline. In this review, recent advances in molecular-MRI based cancer immunotherapy monitoring are described. Next, the presentation of the underlying physics, computational, and biological features are complemented by a critical analysis of the results obtained in preclinical and clinical studies. Finally, emerging artificial intelligence (AI)-based strategies to further distill, quantify, and interpret the image-based molecular MRI information are discussed in terms of perspectives for the future.

Synthesis and Anti-Melanoma Activity of L-Cysteine-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Loaded with Doxorubicin

In this study, we report on the synthesis of L-Cysteine (L-Cys)-coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with doxorubicin (Dox). The Fe₃O₄-L-Cys-Dox NPs were extensively characterized for their compositional and morpho-structural features using EDS, SAED, XRD, FTIR and TEM. XPS, Mӧssbauer spectroscopy and SQUID measurements were also performed to determine the electronic and magnetic properties of the Fe₃O₄-L-Cys-Dox nanoparticles. Moreover, by means of a FO-SPR sensor, we evidenced and confirmed the binding of Dox to L-Cys. Biological tests on mouse (B16F10) and human (A375) metastatic melanoma cells evidenced the internalization of magnetic nanoparticles delivering Dox. Half maximum inhibitory concentration IC50 values of Fe₃O₄-L-Cys-Dox were determined for both cell lines: 4.26 µg/mL for A375 and 2.74 µg/mL for B16F10, as compared to 60.74 and 98.75 µg/mL, respectively, for unloaded controls. Incubation of cells with Fe₃O₄-L-Cys-Dox modulated MAPK signaling pathway activity 3 h post-treatment and produced cell cycle arrest and increased apoptosis by 48 h. We show that within the first 2 h of incubation in physiological (pH = 7.4) media, ~10-15 µM Dox/h was released from a 200 µg/mL Fe₃O₄-L-Cys-Dox solution, as compared to double upon incubation in citrate solution (pH = 3), which resembles acidic environment conditions. Our results highlight the potential of Fe₃O₄-L-Cys-Dox NPs as efficient drug delivery vehicles in melanoma therapy.

Macrophage membrane-biomimetic adhesive polycaprolactone nanocamptothecin for improving cancer-targeting efficiency and impairing metastasis

The recent remarkable success and safety of mRNA lipid nanoparticle technology for producing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccines has stimulated intensive efforts to expand nanoparticle strategies to treat various diseases. Numerous synthetic nanoparticles have been developed for pharmaceutical delivery and cancer treatment. However, only a limited number of nanotherapies have enter clinical trials or are clinically approved. Systemically administered nanotherapies are likely to be sequestered by host mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), resulting in suboptimal pharmacokinetics and insufficient drug concentrations in tumors. Bioinspired drug-delivery formulations have emerged as an alternative approach to evade the MPS and show potential to improve drug therapeutic efficacy. Here we developed a biodegradable polymer-conjugated camptothecin prodrug encapsulated in the plasma membrane of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. Polymer conjugation revived the parent camptothecin agent (e.g., 7-ethyl-10-hydroxy-camptothecin), enabling lipid nanoparticle encapsulation. Furthermore, macrophage membrane cloaking transformed the nonadhesive lipid nanoparticles into bioadhesive nanocamptothecin, increasing the cellular uptake and tumor-tropic effects of this biomimetic therapy. When tested in a preclinical murine model of breast cancer, macrophage-camouflaged nanocamptothecin exhibited a higher level of tumor accumulation than uncoated nanoparticles. Furthermore, intravenous administration of the therapy effectively suppressed tumor growth and the metastatic burden without causing systematic toxicity. Our study describes a combinatorial strategy that uses polymeric prodrug design and cell membrane cloaking to achieve therapeutics with high efficacy and low toxicity. This approach might also be generally applicable to formulate other therapeutic candidates that are not compatible or miscible with biomimetic delivery carriers.

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Macrophage membrane-biomimetic platform was exploited for nanodelivery of polycaprolactone nanocamptothecin.

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Macrophage-camouflaged nanocamptothecin exhibited tumor-tropic effects and increased tumor cell adhesion.

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The nanotherapy effectively suppressed primary tumor growth and the metastatic burden in vivo.

Liposomes for Tumor Targeted Therapy: A Review

Liposomes, the most widely studied nano-drug carriers in drug delivery, are sphere-shaped vesicles consisting of one or more phospholipid bilayers. Compared with traditional drug delivery systems, liposomes exhibit prominent properties that include targeted delivery, high biocompatibility, biodegradability, easy functionalization, low toxicity, improvements in the sustained release of the drug it carries and improved therapeutic indices. In the wake of the rapid development of nanotechnology, the studies of liposome composition have become increasingly extensive. The molecular diversity of liposome composition, which includes long-circulating PEGylated liposomes, ligand-functionalized liposomes, stimuli-responsive liposomes, and advanced cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanocarriers, endows their drug delivery with unique physiological functions. This review describes the composition, types and preparation methods of liposomes, and discusses their targeting strategies in cancer therapy.

Multifunctional Modified Tumor Cell Membranes-Coated Adjuvant PTX against Melanoma

Melanoma is the deadliest type of skin cancer. Anti-tumor immunotherapy has made great progress in increasing the overall survival of patients. However, many physiological barriers cause low bioavailability of drugs. Cell membranes are becoming increasingly prevalent for assisting drug delivery because of the significant benefits of avoiding host cell barriers. Herein, B16F10 cell membranes (BFMs) were prepared in this study. BFMs could not only act as antigens but also serve as vesicles for vaccines. To trigger potent immunity, BFMs must be taken up by dendritic cells (DCs) and combined with adjuvants to make BFMs overcome the immune tolerance. To avoid circulating BFMs into tumors and quickly internalized by DCs after subcutaneously injection, the antigen-cell penetrating fusion peptide WT(YGRKKRRQRSRRYVDFFVWL) was used to modify BFMs. Additionally, a low dosage of paclitaxel (PTX) can activate DCs via toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4). Therefore, we developed PTX-loaded micelles using Pluronic^® F127. Then, WT-modified BFMs (WT-BFMs) were coated F127-PTX to yield WT-BFMs/ F127-PTX. Optimized WT-BFMs/F127-PTX promoted the cellular uptake and showed remarkable efficacy in eliciting robust antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses.

Multifunctional nanoparticle for cancer therapy

Cancer is a complex disease associated with a combination of abnormal physiological process and exhibiting dysfunctions in multiple systems. To provide effective treatment and diagnosis for cancer, current treatment strategies simultaneously focus on various tumor targets. Based on the rapid development of nanotechnology, nanocarriers have been shown to exhibit excellent potential for cancer therapy. Compared with nanoparticles with single functions, multifunctional nanoparticles are believed to be more aggressive and potent in the context of tumor targeting. However, the development of multifunctional nanoparticles is not simply an upgraded version of the original function, but involves a sophisticated system with a proper backbone, optimized modification sites, simple preparation method, and efficient function integration. Despite this, many well-designed multifunctional nanoparticles with promising therapeutic potential have emerged recently. Here, to give a detailed understanding and analyzation of the currently developed multifunctional nanoparticles, their platform structures with organic or inorganic backbones were systemically generalized. We emphasized on the functionalization and modification strategies, which provide additional functions to the nanoparticle. We also discussed the application combination strategies that were involved in the development of nanoformulations with functional crosstalk. This review thus provides an overview of the construction strategies and application advances of multifunctional nanoparticles.

Release of Bioactive Molecules from Graphene Oxide-Alginate Hybrid Hydrogels: Effect of Crosslinking Method

To investigate the influence of crosslinking methods on the releasing performance of hybrid hydrogels, we synthesized two systems consisting of Graphene oxide (GO) as a functional element and alginate as polymer counterpart by means of ionic gelation (physical method, HA−GOP) and radical polymerization (chemical method, HA−GOC). Formulations were optimized to maximize the GO content (2.0 and 1.15% for HA−GOP and HA−GOC, respectively) and Curcumin (CUR) was loaded as a model drug at 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5% (by weight). The physico-chemical characterization confirmed the homogeneous incorporation of GO within the polymer network and the enhanced thermal stability of hybrid vs. blank hydrogels. The determination of swelling profiles showed a higher swelling degree for HA−GOC and a marked pH responsivity due to the COOH functionalities. Moreover, the application of external voltages modified the water affinity of HA−GOC, while they accelerated the degradation of HA−GOP due to the disruption of the crosslinking points and the partial dissolution of alginate. The evaluation of release profiles, extensively analysed by the application of semi-empirical mathematical models, showed a sustained release from hybrid hydrogels, and the possibility to modulate the releasing amount and rate by electro-stimulation of HA−GOC.

Immune cell-camouflaged surface-engineered nanotherapeutics for cancer management

Nanocarriers (NCs) have shown potential in delivering hydrophobic cytotoxic drugs and tumor-specific targeting. However, the inability to penetrate the tumor microenvironment and entrapment by macrophages has limited their clinical translation. Various cell-based drug delivery systems have been explored for their ability to improve circulation half-life and tumor accumulation capabilities. Tumors are characterized by high inflammation, which aids in tumor progression and metastasis. Immune cells show natural tumor tropism and penetration inside the tumor microenvironment (TME) and are a topic of great interest in cancer drug delivery. However, the TME is immunosuppressive and can polarize immune cells to pro-tumor. Thus, the use of immune cell membrane-coated NCs has gained popularity. Such carriers display immune cell-specific surface receptors for tumor-specific accumulation but lack cell machinery. The lack of immune cell machinery makes them unaffected by the immunosuppressive TME, meanwhile maintaining the inherent tumor tropism. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanism behind the movement of various immune cells toward TME, the preparation and characterization of membrane-coated NCs, and the efficacy of immune cell-mimicking NCs in tumor therapy. Regulatory guidelines and the bottlenecks in clinical translation are also highlighted. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Nanocarriers have been explored for the site-specific delivery of chemotherapeutics. However, low systemic circulation half-life, extensive entrapment by macrophages, and poor accumulation inside the tumor microenvironment prevent the clinical translation of conventional nanotherapeutics. Immune cells possess the natural tropism towards the tumor along the chemokine gradient. Hence, coating the nanocarriers with immune cell-derived membranes can improve the accumulation of nanocarriers inside the tumor. Moreover, coating with membranes derived autologous immune cells will prevent engulfment by the macrophages.

Targeted Delivery of PD-L1-Derived Phosphorylation-Mimicking Peptides by Engineered Biomimetic Nanovesicles to Enhance Osteosarcoma Treatment

Osteosarcoma is a rare malignant bone-originating tumor that usually occurs in young people. Programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1), an immune checkpoint protein, is highly expressed in osteosarcoma tissues. Several recent studies have indicated that the tumor-related role of PD-L1 in tumors, especially non-plasma membrane (NPM)-localized PD-L1, is not limited to immune regulation in osteosarcoma. Here, mass spectrometry analysis is combined with RNA-seq examination to identify the intracellular binding partners of PD-L1 and elucidate the underlying mechanism of its action. It is found that the NPM-localized PD-L1 interacted with Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP3) to promote osteosarcoma tumor growth by activating mTOR signaling. This interaction is enforced after phosphoglyceratekinase1 (PGK1)-mediated PD-L1 phosphorylation. Based on these findings, a phosphorylation-mimicking peptide is designed from PD-L1 and it is encapsulated with a Cyclic RGD (cRGD)-modified red blood cell membrane (RBCM) vesicle (Peptide@cRGD-M). The Peptide@cRGD-M precisely delivers the PD-L1-derived phosphorylation-mimicking peptide into osteosarcoma lesions and significantly promotes its therapeutic effect on the tumor. Therefore, this investigation not only highlights the function of NPM-localized PD-L1, but also uses an engineering approach to synthesize a small molecular peptide capable of inhibiting osteosarcoma growth.

Biomimetic nanoparticles for tumor immunotherapy

Currently, tumor treatment research still focuses on the cancer cells themselves, but the fact that the immune system plays an important role in inhibiting tumor development cannot be ignored. The activation of the immune system depends on the difference between self and non-self. Unfortunately, cancer is characterized by genetic changes in the host cells that lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and evade immune surveillance. Cancer immunotherapy aims to coordinate a patient's immune system to target, fight, and destroy cancer cells without destroying the normal cells. Nevertheless, antitumor immunity driven by the autoimmune system alone may be inadequate for treatment. The development of drug delivery systems (DDS) based on nanoparticles can not only promote immunotherapy but also improve the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM), which provides promising strategies for cancer treatment. However, conventional nano drug delivery systems (NDDS) are subject to several limitations in clinical transformation, such as immunogenicity and the potential toxicity risks of the carrier materials, premature drug leakage at off-target sites during circulation and drug load content. In order to address these limitations, this paper reviews the trends and progress of biomimetic NDDS and discusses the applications of each biomimetic system in tumor immunotherapy. Furthermore, we review the various combination immunotherapies based on biomimetic NDDS and key considerations for clinical transformation.

Chemotherapy Mediated by Biomimetic Polymeric Nanoparticles Potentiates Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy via Amplification of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Construction of multifunctional nanoplatforms to elevate chemotherapeutic efficacy and induce long-term antitumor immunity still remains to be an extreme challenge. Herein, the design of an advanced redox-responsive nanomedicine formulation based on phosphorus dendrimer-copper(II) complexes (1G₃ -Cu)- and toyocamycin (Toy)-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (GCT NPs) coated with cancer cell membranes (CM) are reported. The designed GCT@CM NPs with a size of 210 nm are stable under physiological conditions but are rapidly dissociated in the reductive tumor microenvironment to deplete glutathione and release drugs. The co-loading of 1G₃ -Cu and Toy within the NPs causes significant tumor cell apoptosis and immunogenic cell death through 1G₃ -Cu-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and Toy-mediated amplification of endoplasmic reticulum stress, respectively, thus effectively suppressing tumor growth, promoting dendritic cell maturation, and increasing tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Likewise, the coated CM and the loaded 1G₃ -Cu render the GCT@CM NPs with homotypic targeting and T₁ -weighted magnetic resonance imaging of tumors, respectively. With the assistance of programmed cell death ligand 1 antibody, the GCT@CM NP-mediated chemotherapy can significantly potentiate tumor immunotherapy for effective inhibition of tumor recurrence and metastasis. The developed GCT@CM NPs hold a great potential for chemotherapy-potentiated immunotherapy of different tumor types through different mechanisms or synergies.

Biomimetic Targeted Theranostic Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Treatment

The development of biomimetic drug delivery systems for biomedical applications has attracted significant research attention. As the use of cell membrane as a surface coating has shown to be a promising platform for several disease treatments. Cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles exhibit enhanced immunocompatibility and prolonged circulation time. Herein, human red blood cell (RBC) membrane-cloaked nanoparticles with enhanced targeting functionality were designed as a targeted nanotheranostic against cancer. Naturally, derived human RBC membrane modified with targeting ligands coated onto polymeric nanoparticle cores containing both chemotherapy and imaging agent. Using epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM)-positive MCF-7 breast cancer cells as a disease model, the nature-inspired targeted theranostic human red blood cell membrane-coated polymeric nanoparticles (TT-RBC-NPs) platform was capable of not only specifically binding to targeted cancer cells, effectively delivering doxorubicin (DOX), but also visualizing the targeted cancer cells. The TT-RBC-NPs achieved an extended-release profile, with the majority of the drug release occurring within 5 days. The TT-RBC-NPs enabled enhanced cytotoxic efficacy against EpCAM positive MCF-7 breast cancer over the non-targeted NPs. Additionally, fluorescence images of the targeted cancer cells incubated with the TT-RBC-NPs visually indicated the increased cellular uptake of TT-RBC-NPs inside the breast cancer cells. Taken together, this TT-RBC-NP platform sets the foundation for the next-generation stealth theranostic platforms for systemic cargo delivery for treatment and diagnostic of cancer.

Design principles of bioinspired interfaces for biomedical applications in therapeutics and imaging

In the past two decades, we have witnessed rapid developments in nanotechnology, especially in biomedical applications such as drug delivery, biosensing, and bioimaging. The most commonly used nanomaterials in biomedical applications are nanoparticles, which serve as carriers for various therapeutic and contrast reagents. Since nanomaterials are in direct contact with biological samples, biocompatibility is one of the most important issues for the fabrication and synthesis of nanomaterials for biomedical applications. To achieve specific recognition of biomolecules for targeted delivery and biomolecular sensing, it is common practice to engineer the surfaces of nanomaterials with recognition moieties. This mini-review summarizes different approaches for engineering the interfaces of nanomaterials to improve their biocompatibility and specific recognition properties. We also focus on design strategies that mimic biological systems such as cell membranes of red blood cells, leukocytes, platelets, cancer cells, and bacteria.

Cancer cell membrane-wrapped nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy: A review of current developments

Background

As the forefront of nanomedicine, bionic nanotechnology has been widely used for drug delivery in order to obtain better efficacy but less toxicity for cancer treatments. With the rise of immunotherapy, the combination of nanotechnology and immunotherapy will play a greater potential of anti-tumor therapy. Due to its advantage of homologous targeting and antigen library from source cells, cancer cell membrane (CCM)-wrapped nanoparticles (CCNPs) has become an emerging topic in the field of immunotherapy.

Key scientific concepts of review

CCNP strategies include targeting or modulating the tumor immune microenvironment and combination therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors and cancer vaccines. This review summarizes the current developments in CCNPs for cancer immunotherapy and provides insight into the challenges of transferring this technology from the laboratory to the clinic as well as the potential future of this technology.

Conclusion

This review described CCNPs have enormous potential in cancer immunotherapy, but there are still challenges in terms of translating their effects in vitro to the clinical setting. We believe that these challenges can be addressed in the future with a focus on individualized treatment with CCNPs as well as CCNPs combined with other effective treatments.

Nanoparticulate drugs and vaccines: Breakthroughs and bottlenecks of repurposing in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is a highly diagnosed and topmost cause of death in females worldwide. Drug repurposing (DR) has shown great potential against BC by overcoming major shortcomings of approved anticancer therapeutics. However, poor physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetic performance, stability, non-selectivity to tumors, and side effects are severe hurdles in repurposed drug delivery against BC. The variety of nanocarriers (NCs) has shown great promise in delivering repurposed therapeutics for effective treatment of BC via improving solubility, stability, tumor selectivity and reducing toxicity. Besides, delivering repurposed cargos via theranostic NCs can be helpful in the quick diagnosis and treatment of BC. Localized delivery of repurposed candidates through apt NCs can diminish the systemic side effects and improve anti-tumor effectiveness. However, breast tumor variability and tumor microenvironment have created several challenges to nanoparticulate delivery of repurposed cargos. This review focuses on DR as an ingenious strategy to treat BC and circumvent the drawbacks of approved anticancer therapeutics. Various nanoparticulate avenues delivering repurposed therapeutics, including non-oncology cargos and vaccines to target BC effectively, are discussed along with case studies. Moreover, clinical trial information on repurposed medications and vaccines for the treatment of BC is covered along with various obstacles in nanoparticulate drug delivery against cancer that have been so far identified. In a nutshell, DR and drug delivery of repurposed drugs via NCs appears to be a propitious approach in devastating BC.

Macrophage Cell Membrane-Cloaked Nanoplatforms for Biomedical Applications

Biomimetic approaches utilize natural cell membrane-derived nanovesicles to camouflage nanoparticles to circumvent some limitations of nanoscale materials. This emergent cell membrane-coating technology is inspired by naturally occurring intercellular interactions, to efficiently guide nanostructures to the desired locations, thereby increasing both therapeutic efficacy and safety. In addition, the intrinsic biocompatibility of cell membranes allows the crossing of biological barriers and avoids elimination by the immune system. This results in enhanced blood circulation time and lower toxicity in vivo. Macrophages are the major phagocytic cells of the innate immune system. They are equipped with a complex repertoire of surface receptors, enabling them to respond to biological signals, and to exhibit a natural tropism to inflammatory sites and tumorous tissues. Macrophage cell membrane-functionalized nanosystems are designed to combine the advantages of both macrophages and nanomaterials, improving the ability of those nanosystems to reach target sites. Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of these biomimetic nanosystems for targeted delivery of drugs and imaging agents to tumors, inflammatory, and infected sites. The present review covers the preparation and biomedical applications of macrophage cell membrane-coated nanosystems. Challenges and future perspectives in the development of these membrane-coated nanosystems are addressed.

Nanocarriers: A Reliable Tool for the Delivery of Anticancer Drugs

Nanomedicines have gained popularity due to their potential therapeutic applications, especially cancer treatment. Targeted nanoparticles can deliver drugs directly to cancer cells and enable prolonged drug release, reducing off-target toxicity and increasing therapeutic efficacy. However, translating nanomedicines from preclinical to clinical settings has been difficult. Rapid advancements in nanotechnology promise to enhance cancer therapies. Nanomedicine offers advanced targeting and multifunctionality. Nanoparticles (NPs) have several uses nowadays. They have been studied as drug transporters, tumor gene delivery agents, and imaging contrast agents. Nanomaterials based on organic, inorganic, lipid, or glycan substances and synthetic polymers have been used to enhance cancer therapies. This review focuses on polymeric nanoparticle delivery strategies for anticancer nanomedicines.

B16F10 Cell Membrane-Based Nanovesicles for Melanoma Therapy Are Superior to Hyaluronic Acid-Modified Nanocarriers

Some cancer cell membrane (CCM)-derived nanovesicles show strong homing effects and are used for targeted cancer therapy. By co-constructing the B16F10 cell membrane with a PEGylated phospholipid membrane, a new nanocarrier with a composite nanocrown structure was developed, which can evade immune recognition and actively target homologous melanoma. The nanocrowns have an encapsulation efficiency of more than 90% for paclitaxel and showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) from the PEGylated phospholipid membrane vesicles. Compared with the hyaluronic acid-modified PEGylated phospholipid membrane vesicles, the biomimetic nanocrowns enhanced the escape of nanovesicles from reticuloendothelial cells in vitro and extended the circulation time in vivo; moreover, the nanocrowns showed superior melanoma-targeted drug delivery capability and improved anticancer effects of paclitaxel as demonstrated by the inhibition of B16F10 cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis by interfering with microtubule formation. In contrast, the modification of hyaluronic acid did not increase the targeting capacity or antitumor effects of the nanocrowns, confirming that the superior targeting capacity was mediated by the exposed homologous CCMs rather than by hyaluronic acid. Our results demonstrate the potential of using biomimetic nanocrowns for active melanoma-targeted therapy.

Design and Development of a New Type of Hybrid PLGA/Lipid Nanoparticle as an Ursolic Acid Delivery System against Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cells

Despite many attempts, trials, and treatment procedures, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) still ranks among the most deadly and treatment-resistant types of cancer. Hence, there is still an urgent need to develop new molecules, drugs, and therapeutic methods against PDAC. Naturally derived compounds, such as pentacyclic terpenoids, have gained attention because of their high cytotoxic activity toward pancreatic cancer cells. Ursolic acid (UA), as an example, possesses a wide anticancer activity spectrum and can potentially be a good candidate for anti-PDAC therapy. However, due to its minimal water solubility, it is necessary to prepare an optimal nano-sized vehicle to overcome the low bioavailability issue. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymeric nanocarriers seem to be an essential tool for ursolic acid delivery and can overcome the lack of biological activity observed after being incorporated within liposomes. PLGA modification, with the addition of PEGylated phospholipids forming the lipid shell around the polymeric core, can provide additional beneficial properties to the designed nanocarrier. We prepared UA-loaded hybrid PLGA/lipid nanoparticles using a nanoprecipitation method and subsequently performed an MTT cytotoxicity assay for AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 cells and determined the hemolytic effect on human erythrocytes with transmission electron microscopic (TEM) visualization of the nanoparticles and their cellular uptake. Hybrid UA-loaded lipid nanoparticles were also examined in terms of their stability, coating dynamics, and ursolic acid loading. We established innovative and repeatable preparation procedures for novel hybrid nanoparticles and obtained biologically active nanocarriers for ursolic acid with an IC50 below 20 µM, with an appropriate size for intravenous dosage (around 150 nm), high homogeneity of the sample (below 0.2), satisfactory encapsulation efficiency (up to 70%) and excellent stability. The new type of hybrid UA-PLGA nanoparticles represents a further step in the development of potentially effective PDAC therapies based on novel, biologically active, and promising triterpenoids.

Cell-derived membrane biomimetic nanocarriers for targeted therapy of pulmonary disease

Pulmonary diseases are currently one of the major threats of human health, especially considering the recent COVID-19 pandemic. However, the current treatments are facing the challenges like insufficient local drug concentrations, the fast lung clearance and risks to induce unexpected inflammation. Cell-derived membrane biomimetic nanocarriers are recently emerged delivery strategy, showing advantages of long circulation time, excellent biocompatibility and immune escape ability. In this review, applications of using cell-derived membrane biomimetic nanocarriers from diverse cell sources for the targeted therapy of pulmonary disease were summarized. In addition, improvements of the cell-derived membrane biomimetic nanocarriers for augmented therapeutic ability against different kinds of pulmonary diseases were introduced. This review is expected to provide a general guideline for the potential applications of cell-derived membrane biomimetic nanocarriers to treat pulmonary diseases.