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Aguida B, Babo J, Baouz S, Jourdan N, Procopio M, El-Esawi MA, Engle D, Mills S, Wenkel S, Huck A, Berg-Sørensen K, Kampranis SC, Link J, Ahmad M. 'Seeing' the electromagnetic spectrum: spotlight on the cryptochrome photocycle. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1340304. [PMID: 38495372 PMCID: PMC10940379 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1340304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Cryptochromes are widely dispersed flavoprotein photoreceptors that regulate numerous developmental responses to light in plants, as well as to stress and entrainment of the circadian clock in animals and humans. All cryptochromes are closely related to an ancient family of light-absorbing flavoenzymes known as photolyases, which use light as an energy source for DNA repair but themselves have no light sensing role. Here we review the means by which plant cryptochromes acquired a light sensing function. This transition involved subtle changes within the flavin binding pocket which gave rise to a visual photocycle consisting of light-inducible and dark-reversible flavin redox state transitions. In this photocycle, light first triggers flavin reduction from an initial dark-adapted resting state (FADox). The reduced state is the biologically active or 'lit' state, correlating with biological activity. Subsequently, the photoreduced flavin reoxidises back to the dark adapted or 'resting' state. Because the rate of reoxidation determines the lifetime of the signaling state, it significantly modulates biological activity. As a consequence of this redox photocycle Crys respond to both the wavelength and the intensity of light, but are in addition regulated by factors such as temperature, oxygen concentration, and cellular metabolites that alter rates of flavin reoxidation even independently of light. Mechanistically, flavin reduction is correlated with conformational change in the protein, which is thought to mediate biological activity through interaction with biological signaling partners. In addition, a second, entirely independent signaling mechanism arises from the cryptochrome photocycle in the form of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These are synthesized during flavin reoxidation, are known mediators of biotic and abiotic stress responses, and have been linked to Cry biological activity in plants and animals. Additional special properties arising from the cryptochrome photocycle include responsivity to electromagnetic fields and their applications in optogenetics. Finally, innovations in methodology such as the use of Nitrogen Vacancy (NV) diamond centers to follow cryptochrome magnetic field sensitivity in vivo are discussed, as well as the potential for a whole new technology of 'magneto-genetics' for future applications in synthetic biology and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanche Aguida
- Unite Mixed de Recherche (UMR) Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 8256 (B2A), Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Jonathan Babo
- Unite Mixed de Recherche (UMR) Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 8256 (B2A), Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Soria Baouz
- Unite Mixed de Recherche (UMR) Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 8256 (B2A), Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Jourdan
- Unite Mixed de Recherche (UMR) Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 8256 (B2A), Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Maria Procopio
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | | | - Dorothy Engle
- Biology Department, Xavier University, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Stephen Mills
- Chemistry Department, Xavier University, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Stephan Wenkel
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Alexander Huck
- DTU Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Sotirios C. Kampranis
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environment Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Justin Link
- Physics and Engineering Department, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Margaret Ahmad
- Unite Mixed de Recherche (UMR) Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 8256 (B2A), Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Biology Department, Xavier University, Cincinnati, OH, United States
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2
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Surme S, Ergun C, Gul S, Akyel YK, Gul ZM, Ozcan O, Ipek OS, Akarlar BA, Ozlu N, Taskin AC, Turkay M, Gören AC, Baris I, Ozturk N, Guzel M, Aydin C, Okyar A, Kavakli IH. TW68, cryptochromes stabilizer, regulates fasting blood glucose levels in diabetic ob/ob and high fat-diet-induced obese mice. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 218:115896. [PMID: 37898388 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Cryptochromes (CRYs), transcriptional repressors of the circadian clock in mammals, inhibit cAMP production when glucagon activates G-protein coupled receptors. Therefore, molecules that modulate CRYs have the potential to regulate gluconeogenesis. In this study, we discovered a new molecule called TW68 that interacts with the primary pockets of mammalian CRY1/2, leading to reduced ubiquitination levels and increased stability. In cell-based circadian rhythm assays using U2OS Bmal1-dLuc cells, TW68 extended the period length of the circadian rhythm. Additionally, TW68 decreased the transcriptional levels of two genes, Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 (PCK1) and Glucose-6-phosphatase (G6PC), which play crucial roles in glucose biosynthesis during glucagon-induced gluconeogenesis in HepG2 cells. Oral administration of TW68 in mice showed good tolerance, a good pharmacokinetic profile, and remarkable bioavailability. Finally, when administered to fasting diabetic animals from ob/ob and HFD-fed obese mice, TW68 reduced blood glucose levels by enhancing CRY stabilization and subsequently decreasing the transcriptional levels of Pck1 and G6pc. These findings collectively demonstrate the antidiabetic efficacy of TW68 in vivo, suggesting its therapeutic potential for controlling fasting glucose levels in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saliha Surme
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Cagla Ergun
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Seref Gul
- Istanbul University, Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, TR-34116 Beyazit-İstanbul, Türkiye; Current address: Bezmialem Vakif University, Institute of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Beykoz, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Yasemin Kubra Akyel
- Istanbul Medipol University, School of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology, İstanbul, Türkiye; Istanbul University, Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Pharmacology, TR-34116 Beyazit-İstanbul, Türkiye
| | - Zeynep Melis Gul
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Onur Ozcan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ozgecan Savlug Ipek
- Istanbul Medipol University, Regenerative and Restorative Medicine Research Center (REMER), Kavacik Campus, Kavacik-Beykoz/İstanbul 34810, Türkiye
| | - Busra Aytul Akarlar
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Nurhan Ozlu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ali Cihan Taskin
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Metin Turkay
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, İstanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ahmet Ceyhan Gören
- Gebze Technical University, Department of Chemistry, Gebze, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Ibrahim Baris
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Nuri Ozturk
- Gebze Technical University, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Gebze, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Mustafa Guzel
- Istanbul Medipol University, Regenerative and Restorative Medicine Research Center (REMER), Kavacik Campus, Kavacik-Beykoz/İstanbul 34810, Türkiye
| | - Cihan Aydin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Alper Okyar
- Istanbul University, Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Pharmacology, TR-34116 Beyazit-İstanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ibrahim Halil Kavakli
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Koc University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Istanbul, Türkiye.
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3
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Parlak GC, Baris I, Gul S, Kavakli IH. Functional characterization of the CRY2 circadian clock component variant p.Ser420Phe revealed a new degradation pathway for CRY2. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105451. [PMID: 37951306 PMCID: PMC10731238 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptochromes (CRYs) are essential components of the circadian clock, playing a pivotal role as transcriptional repressors. Despite their significance, the precise mechanisms underlying CRYs' involvement in the circadian clock remain incompletely understood. In this study, we identified a rare CRY2 variant, p.Ser420Phe, from the 1000 Genomes Project and Ensembl database that is located in the functionally important coiled-coil-like helix (CC-helix) region. Functional characterization of this variant at the cellular level revealed that p.Ser420Phe CRY2 had reduced repression activity on CLOCK:BMAL1-driven transcription due to its reduced affinity to the core clock protein PER2 and defective translocation into the nucleus. Intriguingly, the CRY2 variant exhibited an unexpected resistance to degradation via the canonical proteasomal pathway, primarily due to the loss of interactions with E3 ligases (FBXL3 and FBXL21), which suggests Ser-420 of CRY2 is required for the interaction with E3 ligases. Further studies revealed that wild-type and CRY2 variants are degraded by the lysosomal-mediated degradation pathway, a mechanism not previously associated with CRY2. Surprisingly, our complementation study with Cry1-/-Cry2-/- double knockout mouse embryonic fibroblast cells indicated that the CRY2 variant caused a 7 h shorter circadian period length in contrast to the observed prolonged period length in CRY2-/- cell lines. In summary, this study reveals a hitherto unknown degradation pathway for CRY2, shedding new light on the regulation of circadian rhythm period length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizem Cagla Parlak
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Istanbul, Turkiye
| | - Ibrahim Baris
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Istanbul, Turkiye
| | - Seref Gul
- Institute of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Bezmialem Vakif University, Beykoz, Turkiye
| | - Ibrahim Halil Kavakli
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Istanbul, Turkiye; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul, Turkiye.
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Lin L, Huang Y, Wang J, Guo X, Yu F, He D, Wu C, Guo L, Wu B. CRY1/2 regulate rhythmic CYP2A5 in mouse liver through repression of E4BP4. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 217:115843. [PMID: 37797722 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
CYP2A5, an enzyme responsible for metabolism of diverse drugs, displays circadian rhythms in its expression and activity. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully established. Here we aimed to investigate a potential role of CRY1/2 (circadian clock modulators) in circadian regulation of hepatic CYP2A5. Regulatory effects of CRY1/2 on CYP2A5 were determined using Cry1-null and Cry2-null mice, and validated using AML-12, Hepa1-6 and HepG2 cells. CYP2A5 activities both in vivo and in vitro were assessed using coumarin 7-hydroxylation as a probe reaction. mRNA and protein levels were detected by qPCR and western blotting, respectively. Regulatory mechanism was studied using a combination of luciferase reporter assays, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP). We found that ablation of Cry1 or Cry2 in mice reduced hepatic CYP2A5 expression (at both mRNA and protein levels) and blunted its diurnal rhythms. Consistently, these knockouts showed decreased CYP2A5 activity (characterised by coumarin 7-hydroxylation) and a loss of its time-dependency, as well as exacerbated coumarin-induced hepatotoxicity. Cell-based assays confirmed that CRY1/2 positively regulated CYP2A5 expression and rhythms. Based on combined luciferase reporter, ChIP and Co-IP assays, we unraveled that CRY1/2 interacted with E4BP4 protein to repress its inhibitory effect on Cyp2a5 transcription and expression. In conclusion, CRY1/2 regulate rhythmic CYP2A5 in mouse liver through repression of E4BP4. These findings advance our understanding of circadian regulation of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luomin Lin
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuwei Huang
- Institute of Molecular Rhythm and Metabolism, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinyi Wang
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaocao Guo
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fangjun Yu
- Institute of Molecular Rhythm and Metabolism, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Di He
- Institute of Molecular Rhythm and Metabolism, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chuanbin Wu
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lianxia Guo
- Institute of Molecular Rhythm and Metabolism, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Baojian Wu
- Institute of Molecular Rhythm and Metabolism, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China.
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Vu HH, Behrmann H, Hanić M, Jeyasankar G, Krishnan S, Dannecker D, Hammer C, Gunkel M, Solov'yov IA, Wolf E, Behrmann E. A marine cryptochrome with an inverse photo-oligomerization mechanism. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6918. [PMID: 37903809 PMCID: PMC10616196 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42708-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptochromes (CRYs) are a structurally conserved but functionally diverse family of proteins that can confer unique sensory properties to organisms. In the marine bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii, its light receptive cryptochrome L-CRY (PdLCry) allows the animal to discriminate between sunlight and moonlight, an important requirement for synchronizing its lunar cycle-dependent mass spawning. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we show that in the dark, PdLCry adopts a dimer arrangement observed neither in plant nor insect CRYs. Intense illumination disassembles the dimer into monomers. Structural and functional data suggest a mechanistic coupling between the light-sensing flavin adenine dinucleotide chromophore, the dimer interface, and the C-terminal tail helix, with a likely involvement of the phosphate binding loop. Taken together, our work establishes PdLCry as a CRY protein with inverse photo-oligomerization with respect to plant CRYs, and provides molecular insights into how this protein might help discriminating the different light intensities associated with sunlight and moonlight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Ha Vu
- Institute of Molecular Physiology (IMP), Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch-Weg 17, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Heide Behrmann
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Maja Hanić
- Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Gayathri Jeyasankar
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Shruthi Krishnan
- Institute of Molecular Physiology (IMP), Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch-Weg 17, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Dennis Dannecker
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Constantin Hammer
- Institute of Molecular Physiology (IMP), Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch-Weg 17, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Monika Gunkel
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ilia A Solov'yov
- Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
- Research Center for Neurosensory Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, 26111, Oldenburg, Germany
- Center for Nanoscale Dynamics (CENAD), Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstr. 114-118, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Eva Wolf
- Institute of Molecular Physiology (IMP), Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch-Weg 17, 55128, Mainz, Germany.
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), 55128, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Elmar Behrmann
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry, Zülpicher Straße 47, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
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6
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Hanić M, Antill LM, Gehrckens AS, Schmidt J, Görtemaker K, Bartölke R, El-Baba TJ, Xu J, Koch KW, Mouritsen H, Benesch JLP, Hore PJ, Solov'yov IA. Dimerization of European Robin Cryptochrome 4a. J Phys Chem B 2023. [PMID: 37428840 PMCID: PMC10364083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c01305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Homo-dimer formation is important for the function of many proteins. Although dimeric forms of cryptochromes (Cry) have been found by crystallography and were recently observed in vitro for European robin Cry4a, little is known about the dimerization of avian Crys and the role it could play in the mechanism of magnetic sensing in migratory birds. Here, we present a combined experimental and computational investigation of the dimerization of robin Cry4a resulting from covalent and non-covalent interactions. Experimental studies using native mass spectrometry, mass spectrometric analysis of disulfide bonds, chemical cross-linking, and photometric measurements show that disulfide-linked dimers are routinely formed, that their formation is promoted by exposure to blue light, and that the most likely cysteines are C317 and C412. Computational modeling and molecular dynamics simulations were used to generate and assess a number of possible dimer structures. The relevance of these findings to the proposed role of Cry4a in avian magnetoreception is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Hanić
- Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Lewis M Antill
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-okubo, Sakura Ward, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
- Japan Science and Technology Agency, Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Angela S Gehrckens
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, U.K
| | - Jessica Schmidt
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Katharina Görtemaker
- Department of Neuroscience, Division of Biochemistry, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg D-26111, Germany
| | - Rabea Bartölke
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Tarick J El-Baba
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, U.K
- Kavli Institute for NanoScience Discovery, University of Oxford, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, Oxford OX1 3QU, U.K
| | - Jingjing Xu
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Karl-Wilhelm Koch
- Department of Neuroscience, Division of Biochemistry, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg D-26111, Germany
- Research Center for Neurosensory Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26111, Germany
| | - Henrik Mouritsen
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
- Research Center for Neurosensory Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26111, Germany
| | - Justin L P Benesch
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, U.K
- Kavli Institute for NanoScience Discovery, University of Oxford, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Building, Oxford OX1 3QU, U.K
| | - P J Hore
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, U.K
| | - Ilia A Solov'yov
- Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
- Research Center for Neurosensory Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26111, Germany
- Center for Nanoscale Dynamics (CENAD), Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstr. 114-118, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
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7
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Pelham JF, Mosier AE, Altshuler SC, Rhodes ML, Kirchhoff CL, Fall WB, Mann C, Baik LS, Chiu JC, Hurley JM. Conformational changes in the negative arm of the circadian clock correlate with dynamic interactomes involved in post-transcriptional regulation. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112376. [PMID: 37043358 PMCID: PMC10562519 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Biology is tuned to the Earth's diurnal cycle by the circadian clock, a transcriptional/translational negative feedback loop that regulates physiology via transcriptional activation and other post-transcriptional mechanisms. We hypothesize that circadian post-transcriptional regulation might stem from conformational shifts in the intrinsically disordered proteins that comprise the negative arm of the feedback loop to coordinate variation in negative-arm-centered macromolecular complexes. This work demonstrates temporal conformational fluidity in the negative arm that correlates with 24-h variation in physiologically diverse macromolecular complex components in eukaryotic clock proteins. Short linear motifs on the negative-arm proteins that correspond with the interactors localized to disordered regions and known temporal phosphorylation sites suggesting changes in these macromolecular complexes could be due to conformational changes imparted by the temporal phospho-state. Interactors that oscillate in the macromolecular complexes over circadian time correlate with post-transcriptionally regulated proteins, highlighting how time-of-day variation in the negative-arm protein complexes may tune cellular physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline F Pelham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Alexander E Mosier
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Samuel C Altshuler
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Morgan L Rhodes
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | | | - William B Fall
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Catherine Mann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Lisa S Baik
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Joanna C Chiu
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jennifer M Hurley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA; Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA.
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8
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Breen S, McLellan H, Birch PRJ, Gilroy EM. Tuning the Wavelength: Manipulation of Light Signaling to Control Plant Defense. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043803. [PMID: 36835216 PMCID: PMC9958957 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The growth-defense trade-off in plants is a phenomenon whereby plants must balance the allocation of their resources between developmental growth and defense against attack by pests and pathogens. Consequently, there are a series of points where growth signaling can negatively regulate defenses and where defense signaling can inhibit growth. Light perception by various photoreceptors has a major role in the control of growth and thus many points where it can influence defense. Plant pathogens secrete effector proteins to manipulate defense signaling in their hosts. Evidence is emerging that some of these effectors target light signaling pathways. Several effectors from different kingdoms of life have converged on key chloroplast processes to take advantage of regulatory crosstalk. Moreover, plant pathogens also perceive and react to light in complex ways to regulate their own growth, development, and virulence. Recent work has shown that varying light wavelengths may provide a novel way of controlling or preventing disease outbreaks in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Breen
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee, At James Hutton Institute, Errol Road, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Hazel McLellan
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee, At James Hutton Institute, Errol Road, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Paul R. J. Birch
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee, At James Hutton Institute, Errol Road, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
- Cell and Molecular Sciences, James Hutton Institute, Errol Road, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Eleanor M. Gilroy
- Cell and Molecular Sciences, James Hutton Institute, Errol Road, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-1382568827
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9
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Raghavan V, Eichele G, Larink O, Karin EL, Söding J. RNA sequencing indicates widespread conservation of circadian clocks in marine zooplankton. NAR Genom Bioinform 2023; 5:lqad007. [PMID: 36814456 PMCID: PMC9939569 DOI: 10.1093/nargab/lqad007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Zooplankton are important eukaryotic constituents of marine ecosystems characterized by limited motility in the water. These metazoans predominantly occupy intermediate trophic levels and energetically link primary producers to higher trophic levels. Through processes including diel vertical migration (DVM) and production of sinking pellets they also contribute to the biological carbon pump which regulates atmospheric CO2 levels. Despite their prominent role in marine ecosystems, and perhaps, because of their staggering diversity, much remains to be discovered about zooplankton biology. In particular, the circadian clock, which is known to affect important processes such as DVM has been characterized only in a handful of zooplankton species. We present annotated de novo assembled transcriptomes from a diverse, representative cohort of 17 marine zooplankton representing six phyla and eight classes. These transcriptomes represent the first sequencing data for a number of these species. Subsequently, using translated proteomes derived from this data, we demonstrate in silico the presence of orthologs to most core circadian clock proteins from model metazoans in all sequenced species. Our findings, bolstered by sequence searches against publicly available data, indicate that the molecular machinery underpinning endogenous circadian clocks is widespread and potentially well conserved across marine zooplankton taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Otto Larink
- Evolutionary Biology, Zoological Institute, Technical University Braunschweig, Spielmannstraße 7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Eli Levy Karin
- Quantitative and Computational Biology, Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, Am Fassberg 11, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
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10
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Hanić M, Schuhmann F, Frederiksen A, Langebrake C, Manthey G, Liedvogel M, Xu J, Mouritsen H, Solov'yov IA. Computational Reconstruction and Analysis of Structural Models of Avian Cryptochrome 4. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:4623-4635. [PMID: 35704801 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c00878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A recent study by Xu et al. (Nature, 2021, 594, 535-540) provided strong evidence that cryptochrome 4 (Cry4) is a key protein to endow migratory birds with the magnetic compass sense. The investigation compared the magnetic field response of Cry4 from migratory and nonmigratory bird species and suggested that a difference in magnetic sensitivity could exist. This finding prompted an in-depth investigation into Cry4 protein differences on the structural and dynamic levels. In the present study, the pigeon Cry4 (ClCry4) crystal structure was used to reconstruct the missing avian Cry4 protein structures via homology modeling for carefully selected bird species. The reconstructed Cry4 structure from European robin, Eurasian blackcap, zebra finch, chicken, and pigeon were subsequently simulated dynamically and analyzed. The studied avian Cry4 structures show flexibility in analogous regions pointing to similar activation mechanisms and/or signaling interaction partners. It can be concluded that the experimentally recorded difference in the magnetic field sensitivity of Cry4 from different birds is unlikely to be due to solely intrinsic dynamics of the proteins but requires additional factors that have not yet been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Hanić
- Department of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Fabian Schuhmann
- Department of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Anders Frederiksen
- Department of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Corinna Langebrake
- Institute of Avian Research, An der Vogelwarte 21, Wilhelmshaven 26386, Germany
| | - Georg Manthey
- Department of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany.,Institute of Avian Research, An der Vogelwarte 21, Wilhelmshaven 26386, Germany
| | - Miriam Liedvogel
- Institute of Avian Research, An der Vogelwarte 21, Wilhelmshaven 26386, Germany.,Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany.,MPRG Behavioural Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön 24306, Germany
| | - Jingjing Xu
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Henrik Mouritsen
- Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany.,Research Center for Neurosensory Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Ilia A Solov'yov
- Department of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany.,Research Center for Neurosensory Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky Straße 9-11, Oldenburg 26129, Germany.,Center for Nanoscale Dynamics (CENAD), Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Institut für Physik, Ammerländer Heerstr. 114-118, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
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11
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Protein interaction networks of the mammalian core clock proteins. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2022; 131:207-233. [PMID: 35871891 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Circadian rhythm is a 24-h cycle that regulates the biochemical and behavioral changes of organisms. It controls a wide range of functions, from gene expression to behavior, allowing organisms to anticipate daily changes in their environment. In mammals, circadian rhythm is generated by a complex transcriptional and translational feedback loop mechanism. The binding of CLOCK/BMAL1 heterodimer to the E-box of DNA located within the promoter region initiates transcription of clock control genes including the transcription of the other two core clock genes of Periods (Pers) and Cryptochromes (Crys). Then PERs and CRYs along with casein kinase 1ɛ/Δ translocate into the nucleus where they suppress CLOCK/BMAL1 transactivation and, in turn, clock-regulated gene expression. Various clock components must be operational to aid in their stabilization and period extension in circadian rhythm. In this review, we have highlighted the recent progress for the core clock interacting proteins to maintain and to stabilize circadian rhythm in mammals.
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12
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Lin C, Schneps CM, Chandrasekaran S, Ganguly A, Crane BR. Mechanistic insight into light-dependent recognition of Timeless by Drosophila Cryptochrome. Structure 2022; 30:851-861.e5. [PMID: 35397203 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2022.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cryptochrome (CRY) entrains the fly circadian clock by binding to Timeless (TIM) in light. Undocking of a helical C-terminal tail (CTT) in response to photoreduction of the CRY flavin cofactor gates TIM recognition. We present a generally applicable select western-blot-free tagged-protein interaction (SWFTI) assay that allowed the quantification of CRY binding to TIM in dark and light. The assay was used to study CRY variants with residue substitutions in the flavin pocket and correlate their TIM affinities with CTT undocking, as measured by pulse-dipolar ESR spectroscopy and evaluated by molecular dynamics simulations. CRY variants with the CTT removed or undocked bound TIM constitutively, whereas those incapable of photoreduction bound TIM weakly. In response to the flavin redox state, two conserved histidine residues contributed to a robust on/off switch by mediating CTT interactions with the flavin pocket and TIM. Our approach provides an expeditious means to quantify the interactions of difficult-to-produce proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changfan Lin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Connor M Schneps
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Abir Ganguly
- Institute for Quantitative Biomedicine, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Brian R Crane
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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13
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Stop CRYing! Inhibition of cryptochrome function by small proteins. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:773-782. [PMID: 35311888 PMCID: PMC9162457 DOI: 10.1042/bst20190062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Plants can detect the presence of light using specialised photoreceptor proteins. These photoreceptors measure the intensity of light, but they can also respond to different spectra of light and thus ‘see' different colours. Cryptochromes, which are also present in animals, are flavin-based photoreceptors that enable plants to detect blue and ultraviolet-A (UV-A) light. In Arabidopsis, there are two cryptochromes, CRYPTOCHROME 1 (CRY1) and CRYPTOCHROME 2 (CRY2) with known sensory roles. They function in various processes such as blue-light mediated inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, photoperiodic promotion of floral initiation, cotyledon expansion, anthocyanin production, and magnetoreception, to name a few. In the dark, the cryptochromes are in an inactive monomeric state and undergo photochemical and conformational change in response to illumination. This results in flavin reduction, oligomerisation, and the formation of the ‘cryptochrome complexome'. Mechanisms of cryptochrome activation and signalling have been extensively studied and found to be conserved across phylogenetic lines. In this review, we will therefore focus on a far lesser-known mechanism of regulation that is unique to plant cryptochromes. This involves inhibition of cryptochrome activity by small proteins that prevent its dimerisation in response to light. The resulting inhibition of function cause profound alterations in economically important traits such as plant growth, flowering, and fruit production. This review will describe the known mechanisms of cryptochrome activation and signalling in the context of their modulation by these endogenous and artificial small inhibitor proteins. Promising new applications for biotechnological and agricultural applications will be discussed.
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14
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Miller S, Hirota T. Structural and Chemical Biology Approaches Reveal Isoform-Selective Mechanisms of Ligand Interactions in Mammalian Cryptochromes. Front Physiol 2022; 13:837280. [PMID: 35153842 PMCID: PMC8831909 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.837280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptochromes (CRYs) are core components of the circadian feedback loop in mammals, which regulates circadian rhythmicity in a variety of physiological processes including sleep–wake cycles and metabolism. Dysfunction of CRY1 and CRY2 isoforms has been associated with a host of diseases, such as sleep phase disorder and metabolic diseases. Accumulating evidence for distinct roles of CRY1 and CRY2 has highlighted the need for CRY isoform-selective regulation; however, highly conserved sequences in CRY ligand-binding sites have hindered the design of isoform-selective compounds. Chemical biology approaches have been identifying small-molecule modulators of CRY proteins, which act in isoform-non-selective and also isoform-selective manners. In this review, we describe advances in our understanding of CRY isoform selectivity by comparing X-ray crystal structures of mammalian CRY isoforms in apo form and in complexes with compounds. We discuss how intrinsic conformational differences in identical residues of CRY1 and CRY2 contribute to unique interactions with different compound moieties for isoform selectivity.
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15
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Bondos SE, Dunker AK, Uversky VN. On the roles of intrinsically disordered proteins and regions in cell communication and signaling. Cell Commun Signal 2021; 19:88. [PMID: 34461937 PMCID: PMC8404256 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-021-00774-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
For proteins, the sequence → structure → function paradigm applies primarily to enzymes, transmembrane proteins, and signaling domains. This paradigm is not universal, but rather, in addition to structured proteins, intrinsically disordered proteins and regions (IDPs and IDRs) also carry out crucial biological functions. For these proteins, the sequence → IDP/IDR ensemble → function paradigm applies primarily to signaling and regulatory proteins and regions. Often, in order to carry out function, IDPs or IDRs cooperatively interact, either intra- or inter-molecularly, with structured proteins or other IDPs or intermolecularly with nucleic acids. In this IDP/IDR thematic collection published in Cell Communication and Signaling, thirteen articles are presented that describe IDP/IDR signaling molecules from a variety of organisms from humans to fruit flies and tardigrades ("water bears") and that describe how these proteins and regions contribute to the function and regulation of cell signaling. Collectively, these papers exhibit the diverse roles of disorder in responding to a wide range of signals as to orchestrate an array of organismal processes. They also show that disorder contributes to signaling in a broad spectrum of species, ranging from micro-organisms to plants and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Bondos
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - A Keith Dunker
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
- Institute for Biological Instrumentation of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Russia.
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16
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Wang Y, Veglia G, Zhong D, Gao J. Activation mechanism of Drosophila cryptochrome through an allosteric switch. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/25/eabg3815. [PMID: 34144991 PMCID: PMC8213227 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg3815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cryptochromes are signaling proteins activated by photoexcitation of the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor. Although extensive research has been performed, the mechanism for this allosteric process is still unknown. We constructed three computational models, corresponding to different redox states of the FAD cofactor in Drosophila cryptochrome (dCRY). Analyses of the dynamics trajectories reveal that the activation process occurs in the semiquinone state FAD-●, resulting from excited-state electron transfer. The Arg381-Asp410 salt bridge acts as an allosteric switch, regulated by the change in the redox state of FAD. In turn, Asp410 forms new hydrogen bonds, connecting allosteric networks of the amino-terminal and carboxyl-terminal domains initially separated in the resting state. The expansion to a global dynamic network leads to enhanced protein fluctuations, an increase in the radius of gyration, and the expulsion of the carboxyl-terminal tail. These structural features are in accord with mutations and spectroscopic experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjie Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Institute of Systems and Physical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518132, China
| | - Gianluigi Veglia
- Department of Chemistry and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Dongping Zhong
- Departments of Physics and Chemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Jiali Gao
- Department of Chemistry and Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
- Institute of Systems and Physical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518132, China
- Beijing University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
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17
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Philpott JM, Torgrimson MR, Harold RL, Partch CL. Biochemical mechanisms of period control within the mammalian circadian clock. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 126:71-78. [PMID: 33933351 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Genetically encoded biological clocks are found broadly throughout life on Earth, where they generate circadian (about a day) rhythms that synchronize physiology and behavior with the daily light/dark cycle. Although the genetic networks that give rise to circadian timing are now fairly well established, our understanding of how the proteins that constitute the molecular 'cogs' of this biological clock regulate the intrinsic timing, or period, of circadian rhythms has lagged behind. New studies probing the biochemical and structural basis of clock protein function are beginning to reveal how assemblies of dedicated clock proteins form and evolve through post-translational regulation to generate circadian rhythms. This review will highlight some recent advances providing important insight into the molecular mechanisms of period control in mammalian clocks with an emphasis on structural analyses related to CK1-dependent control of PER stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Philpott
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UC Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Megan R Torgrimson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UC Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Rachel L Harold
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UC Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Carrie L Partch
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UC Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA; Center for Circadian Biology, UC San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0116, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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