Regional variations in ex-vivo diffusion tensor anisotropy are associated with cardiomyocyte remodeling in rats after left ventricular pressure overload

Diffusion Tensor Phenomapping of the Healthy and Pressure-Overloaded Human Heart

Current techniques to image the microstructure of the heart with diffusion tensor MRI (DTI) are highly under-resolved. We present a technique to improve the spatial resolution of cardiac DTI by almost 10-fold and leverage this to measure local gradients in cardiomyocyte alignment or helix angle (HA). We further introduce a phenomapping approach based on voxel-wise hierarchical clustering of these gradients to identify distinct microstructural microenvironments in the heart. Initial development was performed in healthy volunteers (n=8). Thereader, subjects with severe but well-compensated aortic stenosis (AS, n=10) were compared to age-matched controls (CTL, n=10). Radial HA gradient was significantly reduced in AS (8.0±0.8°/mm vs. 10.2±1.8°/mm, p=0.001) but the other HA gradients did not change significantly. Four distinct microstructural clusters could be idenJfied in both the CTL and AS subjects and did not differ significantly in their properties or distribution. Despite marked hypertrophy, our data suggest that the myocardium in well-compensated AS can maintain its microstructural coherence. The described phenomapping approach can be used to characterize microstructural plasticity and perturbation in any organ system and disease.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging for sequential assessment of cardiac fibrosis in mice: technical advancements and reverse translation

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging has become an essential technique for the assessment of cardiac function and morphology, and is now routinely used to monitor disease progression and intervention efficacy in the clinic. Cardiac fibrosis is a common characteristic of numerous cardiovascular diseases and often precedes cardiac dysfunction and heart failure. Hence, the detection of cardiac fibrosis is important for both early diagnosis and the provision of guidance for interventions/therapies. Experimental mouse models with genetically and/or surgically induced disease have been widely used to understand mechanisms underlying cardiac fibrosis and to assess new treatment strategies. Improving the appropriate applications of CMR to mouse studies of cardiac fibrosis has the potential to generate new knowledge, and more accurately examine the safety and efficacy of antifibrotic therapies. In this review, we provide 1) a brief overview of different types of cardiac fibrosis, 2) general background on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 3) a summary of different CMR techniques used in mice for the assessment of cardiac fibrosis including experimental and technical considerations (contrast agents and pulse sequences), and 4) provide an overview of mouse studies that have serially monitored cardiac fibrosis during disease progression and/or therapeutic interventions. Clinically established CMR protocols have advanced mouse CMR for the detection of cardiac fibrosis, and there is hope that discovery studies in mice will identify new antifibrotic therapies for patients, highlighting the value of both reverse translation and bench-to-bedside research.

Contribution of atrial myofiber architecture to atrial fibrillation

BACKGROUND

The role of fiber orientation on a global chamber level in sustaining atrial fibrillation (AF) is unknown. The goal of this study was to correlate the fiber direction derived from Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) with AF inducibility.

METHODS

Transgenic goats with cardiac-specific overexpression of constitutively active TGF-β1 (n = 14) underwent AF inducibility testing by rapid pacing in the left atrium. We chose a minimum of 10 minutes of sustained AF as a cut-off for AF inducibility. Explanted hearts underwent DTI to determine the fiber direction. Using tractography data, we clustered, visualized, and quantified the fiber helix angles in 8 different regions of the left atrial wall using two reference vectors defined based on anatomical landmarks.

RESULTS

Sustained AF was induced in 7 out of 14 goats. The mean helix fiber angles in 7 out of 8 selected regions were statistically different (P-Value < 0.05) in the AF inducible group. The average fractional anisotropy (FA) and the mean diffusivity (MD) were similar in the two groups with FA of 0.32±0.08 and MD of 8.54±1.72 mm2/s in the non-inducible group and FA of 0.31±0.05 (P-value = 0.90) and MD of 8.68±1.60 mm2/s (P-value = 0.88) in the inducible group.

CONCLUSIONS

DTI based fiber direction shows significant variability across subjects with a significant difference between animals that are AF inducible versus animals that are not inducible. Fiber direction might be contributing to the initiation and sustaining of AF, and its role needs to be investigated further.

Towards a Whole Sample Imaging Approach Using Diffusion Tensor Imaging to Examine the Foreign Body Response to Explanted Medical Devices

Analysing the composition and organisation of the fibrous capsule formed as a result of the Foreign Body Response (FBR) to medical devices, is imperative for medical device improvement and biocompatibility. Typically, analysis is performed using histological techniques which often involve random sampling strategies. This method is excellent for acquiring representative values but can miss the unique spatial distribution of features in 3D, especially when analysing devices used in large animal studies. To overcome this limitation, we demonstrate a non-destructive method for high-resolution large sample imaging of the fibrous capsule surrounding human-sized implanted devices using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). In this study we analyse the fibrous capsule surrounding two unique macroencapsulation devices that have been implanted in a porcine model for 21 days. DTI is used for 3D visualisation of the microstructural organisation and validated using the standard means of fibrous capsule investigation; histological analysis and qualitative micro computed tomography (microCT) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging. DTI demonstrated the ability to distinguish microstructural differences in the fibrous capsules surrounding two macroencapsulation devices made from different materials and with different surface topographies. DTI-derived metrics yielded insight into the microstructural organisation of both capsules which was corroborated by microCT, SEM and histology. The non-invasive characterisation of the integration of implants in the body has the potential to positively influence analysis methods in pre-clinical studies and accelerate the clinical translation of novel implantable devices.

Myocardial mesostructure and mesofunction

The complex and highly organized structural arrangement of some five billion cardiomyocytes directs the coordinated electrical activity and mechanical contraction of the human heart. The characteristic transmural change in cardiomyocyte orientation underlies base-to-apex shortening, circumferential shortening, and left ventricular torsion during contraction. Individual cardiomyocytes shorten ∼15% and increase in diameter ∼8%. Remarkably, however, the left ventricular wall thickens by up to 30-40%. To accommodate this, the myocardium must undergo significant structural rearrangement during contraction. At the mesoscale, collections of cardiomyocytes are organized into sheetlets, and sheetlet shear is the fundamental mechanism of rearrangement that produces wall thickening. Herein, we review the histological and physiological studies of myocardial mesostructure that have established the sheetlet shear model of wall thickening. Recent developments in tissue clearing techniques allow for imaging of whole hearts at the cellular scale, whereas magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) can image the myocardium at the mesoscale (100 µm to 1 mm) to resolve cardiomyocyte orientation and organization. Through histology, cardiac diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and other modalities, mesostructural sheetlets have been confirmed in both animal and human hearts. Recent in vivo cardiac DTI methods have measured reorientation of sheetlets during the cardiac cycle. We also examine the role of pathological cardiac remodeling on sheetlet organization and reorientation, and the impact this has on ventricular function and dysfunction. We also review the unresolved mesostructural questions and challenges that may direct future work in the field.

Recreating the heart's helical structure-function relationship with focused rotary jet spinning

Helical alignments within the heart's musculature have been speculated to be important in achieving physiological pumping efficiencies. Testing this possibility is difficult, however, because it is challenging to reproduce the fine spatial features and complex structures of the heart's musculature using current techniques. Here we report focused rotary jet spinning (FRJS), an additive manufacturing approach that enables rapid fabrication of micro/nanofiber scaffolds with programmable alignments in three-dimensional geometries. Seeding these scaffolds with cardiomyocytes enabled the biofabrication of tissue-engineered ventricles, with helically aligned models displaying more uniform deformations, greater apical shortening, and increased ejection fractions compared with circumferential alignments. The ability of FRJS to control fiber arrangements in three dimensions offers a streamlined approach to fabricating tissues and organs, with this work demonstrating how helical architectures contribute to cardiac performance.

Cardiac mechanostructure: Using mechanics and anisotropy as inspiration for developing epicardial therapies in treating myocardial infarction

The mechanical environment and anisotropic structure of the heart modulate cardiac function at the cellular, tissue and organ levels. During myocardial infarction (MI) and subsequent healing, however, this landscape changes significantly. In order to engineer cardiac biomaterials with the appropriate properties to enhance function after MI, the changes in the myocardium induced by MI must be clearly identified. In this review, we focus on the mechanical and structural properties of the healthy and infarcted myocardium in order to gain insight about the environment in which biomaterial-based cardiac therapies are expected to perform and the functional deficiencies caused by MI that the therapy must address. From this understanding, we discuss epicardial therapies for MI inspired by the mechanics and anisotropy of the heart focusing on passive devices, which feature a biomaterials approach, and active devices, which feature robotic and cellular components. Through this review, a detailed analysis is provided in order to inspire further development and translation of epicardial therapies for MI.

Diffusion tensor imaging and arterial tissue: establishing the influence of arterial tissue microstructure on fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity and tractography

This study investigates diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) for providing microstructural insight into changes in arterial tissue by exploring how cell, collagen and elastin content effect fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD) and tractography. Five ex vivo porcine carotid artery models (n = 6 each) were compared-native, fixed native, collagen degraded, elastin degraded and decellularised. Vessels were imaged at 7 T using a DTI protocol with b = 0 and 800 s/mm2 and 10 isotopically distributed directions. FA and MD were evaluated in the vessel media and compared across models. FA values measured in native (p < 0.0001), fixed native (p < 0.0001) and collagen degraded (p = 0.0018, p = 0.0016, respectively) were significantly higher than those in elastin degraded and decellularised arteries. Native and fixed native had significantly lower MD values than elastin degraded (p < 0.0001) and decellularised tissue (p = 0.0032, p = 0.0003, respectively). Significantly lower MD was measured in collagen degraded compared with the elastin degraded model (p = 0.0001). Tractography yielded helically arranged tracts for native and collagen degraded vessels only. FA, MD and tractography were found to be highly sensitive to changes in the microstructural composition of arterial tissue, specifically pointing to cell, not collagen, content as the dominant source of the measured anisotropy in the vessel wall.