Nutritional behaviour and beliefs of ski-mountaineers: a semi-quantitative and qualitative study

Diet, Supplementation and Nutritional Habits of Climbers in High Mountain Conditions

Appropriate nutritional preparation for a high-mountain expedition can contribute to the prevention of nutritional deficiencies affecting the deterioration of health and performance. The aim of the study was to analyze the dietary habits, supplementation and nutritional value of diets of high mountain climbers. The study group consisted of 28 men (average age 33.12 ± 5.96 years), taking part in summer mountaineering expeditions at an altitude above 3000 m above sea level, lasting at least 3 weeks. Food groups consumed with low frequency during the expedition include vegetables, fruits, eggs, milk and milk products, butter and cream, fish and meat. The energy demand of the study participants was 4559.5 ± 425 kcal, and the energy supply was 2776.8 ± 878 kcal. The participants provided 79.6 ± 18.5 g of protein (1.1 ± 0.3 g protein/kg bw), 374.0 ± 164.5 g of carbohydrates (5.3 ± 2.5 g/kg bw) and 110.7 ± 31.7 g of fat (1.6 ± 0.5 g/kg bw) in the diet. The climbers' diet was low in calories, the protein supply was too low, and the fat supply was too high. There is a need to develop nutritional and supplementation recommendations that would serve as guidelines for climbers, improving their well-being and exercise capacity in severe high-mountain conditions, which would take their individual taste preferences into account.

Ski Mountaineering-Scientific Knowledge of This New Olympic Sport: A Narrative Review

ABSTRACT

Ski mountaineering (skimo) has been accepted as a new sport for the 2026 Milan-Cortina Olympics. The equipment used in this competitive ski mountaineering varies from leisure ski mountaineering equipment mainly in one point: the minimal weight. At the elite athlete level, skimo demands both maximal endurance performance and a high-intensity anaerobic capacity for the sprint and vertical races. Race time significantly correlates to V˙O2max, body mass index and racing gear mass. Available literature only rarely comments on competitive skimo injuries. Injuries are not only due to falls in downhill skiing but also can result from external hazards, such as avalanches and cold. The high training load of athletes in combination with a low body weight, low body fat, and exposure to cold cause high rates of respiratory infections in athletes. The inclusion of skimo into the Olympic program is expected to result in certain changes, such as higher training loads for the athletes and increased scientific interest into training methods.

Hygiene and Food Safety Habits among Slovenian Mountaineers

The study provides a deeper insight into Slovenian mountaineers’ and excursionists’ habits regarding food safety knowledge, food handling practices, and hygiene on expeditions. The objective of the study is to identify gaps in food safety knowledge and food handling practice at home and during mountaineers’ activities. Data were collected using an anonymous online questionnaire (n = 330) and eight semi-structured interviews. The research participants take most of their food with them when they set off, mountaineers more often than excursionists (p < 0.05, p = 0,000). Few interviewees indicated that it is important to them that food is safe while consuming it. Almost 90% of mountaineers and excursionists believe they can identify food safety by smell and taste. Significantly more mountaineers prioritise food enjoyment over hygiene compared to excursionists (p < 0.05, p = 0.001). Mountaineers also feel that they are more resistant to foodborne diseases and are much less concerned about foodborne disease than excursionists (p < 0.05, p = 0.011). The respondents highlighted the need for the Alpine Association of Slovenia to organise food safety education for its members. The greatest emphasis has to be put on food safety education material that has to be put in general training programme for mountaineers. Informing mountaineers and excursionists about food safety requirements needs to be improved with target strategy.

Ski Mountaineering: Perspectives on a Novel Sport to Be Introduced at the 2026 Winter Olympic Games

Ski mountaineering is a rapidly growing winter sport that involves alternately climbing and descending slopes and various racing formats that differ in length and total vertical gain, as well as their distribution of downhill and uphill sections. In recent years, both participation in and media coverage of this sport have increased dramatically, contributing, at least in part, to its inclusion in the 2026 Winter Olympics in Milano-Cortina. Here, our aim has been to briefly describe the major characteristics of ski mountaineering, its physiological and biomechanical demands, equipment, and training/testing, as well as to provide some future perspectives. Despite its popularity, research on this discipline is scarce, but some general characteristics are already emerging. Pronounced aerobic capacity is an important requirement for success, as demonstrated by positive correlations between racing time and maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen uptake at the second ventilatory threshold. Moreover, due to the considerable mechanical work against gravity on demanding uphill terrain, the combined weight of the athlete and equipment is inversely correlated with performance, prompting the development of both lighter and better equipment in recent decades. In ski mountaineering, velocity uphill is achieved primarily by more frequent (rather than longer) strides due primarily to high resistive forces. The use of wearable technologies, designed specifically for analysis in the field (including at elevated altitudes and cold temperatures) and more extensive collaboration between researchers, industrial actors, and coaches/athletes, could further improve the development of this sport.

Negative Energy Balance Does Not Alter Fat-Free Mass During the Yukon Arctic Ultra-The Longest and the Coldest Ultramarathon

Purpose: The objective of this study was to determine alterations in caloric balance, body composition, metabolites, and cytokines in athletes participating in the Yukon Arctic Ultra.

Methods: Ten participants traveling on foot in the 2017 692-km event were recruited for the study. Measurements and samples were obtained at pre-event, 278 km (C1), 384 km (C2), and post-event. Body composition measurements were obtained using bioelectrical impedance analysis. Accelerometer devices were utilized to provide an estimation of caloric expenditure and dietary recalls provided assessments of caloric intake. Blood serum samples were collected, processed, and analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays or nuclear magnetic resonance. Results were analyzed using linear mixed model, presented as means ± SD, and considered significant at p < 0.05.

Results: Participants (8 males, 2 females; age: 37 ± 10 years; body mass index: 24.4 ± 2.5 kg/m²) were recruited. Four males and one female completed the entire event in 260 ± 19 h. Caloric intake/expenditure was 4,126 ± 1,115 kcal/day and 6,387 ± 781 kcal/day, respectively, indicating a caloric deficit of 2,261 ± 1,543 kcal/day. Total mass, body mass index, and fat mass were reduced at each time point of the event. Fat-free mass (FFM) was unchanged throughout the event. Follistatin was increased at C1 (1,715 ± 876 pg/ml) in comparison to baseline. Acetoacetate increased significantly at post-event (6.1 ± 1.5 mg/ml).

Conclusions: Despite a pronounced caloric deficit and sustained activity under extreme cold conditions, FFM was preserved with an increase in serum follistatin and acetoacetate. Future studies should be directed at the role of nutrient strategies and/or training methods on the retention of FFM under these conditions.

Energy expenditure in caving

The aim of this study was to determine the energy expenditure of a group of cavers of both genders and different ages and experience during a 10 hour subterranean exploration, using portable metabolimeters. The impact of caving activity on body composition and hydration were also assessed through bioelectrical impedance, and nutritional habits of cavers surveyed. During cave activity, measured total energy expenditure (TEE) was in the range 225–287 kcal/h for women-men (MET = 4.1), respectively; subjects had an energy intake from food in the range 1000–1200 kcal, thus inadequate to restore lost calories. Bayesian statistical analysis estimated the effect of predictive variables on TEE, revealing that experienced subjects had a 5% lower TEE than the less skilled ones and that women required a comparatively larger energy expenditure than men to perform the same task. BIVA (bioelectrical impedance vector analysis) showed that subjects were within the range of normal hydration before and after cave activity, but bioelectrical changes indicated a reduction of extracellular water in men, which might result in hypo-osmolal dehydration in the case of prolonged underground exercise. All these facts should be considered when planning cave explorations, preparing training programs for subjects practising caving, and optimizing a diet for cavers. Further, information gathered through this study could be of value to reduce accidents in caves related to increase in fatigue.

Dietary Recommendations for Cyclists during Altitude Training

The concept of altitude or hypoxic training is a common practice in cycling. However, several strategies for training regimens have been proposed, like "live high, train high" (LH-TH), "live high, train low" (LH-TL) or "intermittent hypoxic training" (IHT). Each of them combines the effect of acclimatization and different training protocols that require specific nutrition. An appropriate nutrition strategy and adequate hydration can help athletes achieve their fitness and performance goals in this unfriendly environment. In this review, the physiological stress of altitude exposure and training will be discussed, with specific nutrition recommendations for athletes training under such conditions. However, there is little research about the nutrition demands of athletes who train at moderate altitude. Our review considers energetic demands and body mass or body composition changes due to altitude training, including respiratory and urinary water loss under these conditions. Carbohydrate intake recommendations and hydration status are discussed in detail, while iron storage and metabolism is also considered. Last, but not least the risk of increased oxidative stress under hypoxic conditions and antioxidant supplementation suggestions are presented.