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Li H, Wan L, Liu M, Ma E, Huang L, Yang Y, Li Q, Fang Y, Li J, Han B, Zhang C, Sun L, Hou X, Li H, Sun M, Qian S, Duan X, Zhao R, Yang X, Chen Y, Wu S, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Cheng G, Chen G, Gao Q, Xu J, Hou L, Wei C, Zhong H. SARS-CoV-2 spike-induced syncytia are senescent and contribute to exacerbated heart failure. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012291. [PMID: 39102426 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/07/2024] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SARS-2-S) induced cell-cell fusion in uninfected cells may occur in long COVID-19 syndrome, as circulating SARS-2-S or extracellular vesicles containing SARS-2-S (S-EVs) were found to be prevalent in post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) for up to 12 months after diagnosis. Although isolated recombinant SARS-2-S protein has been shown to increase the SASP in senescent ACE2-expressing cells, the direct linkage of SARS-2-S syncytia with senescence in the absence of virus infection and the degree to which SARS-2-S syncytia affect pathology in the setting of cardiac dysfunction are unknown. Here, we found that the senescent outcome of SARS-2-S induced syncytia exacerbated heart failure progression. We first demonstrated that syncytium formation in cells expressing SARS-2-S delivered by DNA plasmid or LNP-mRNA exhibits a senescence-like phenotype. Extracellular vesicles containing SARS-2-S (S-EVs) also confer a potent ability to form senescent syncytia without de novo synthesis of SARS-2-S. However, it is important to note that currently approved COVID-19 mRNA vaccines do not induce syncytium formation or cellular senescence. Mechanistically, SARS-2-S syncytia provoke the formation of functional MAVS aggregates, which regulate the senescence fate of SARS-2-S syncytia by TNFα. We further demonstrate that senescent SARS-2-S syncytia exhibit shrinked morphology, leading to the activation of WNK1 and impaired cardiac metabolism. In pre-existing heart failure mice, the WNK1 inhibitor WNK463, anti-syncytial drug niclosamide, and senolytic dasatinib protect the heart from exacerbated heart failure triggered by SARS-2-S. Our findings thus suggest a potential mechanism for COVID-19-mediated cardiac pathology and recommend the application of WNK1 inhibitor for therapy especially in individuals with post-acute sequelae of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huilong Li
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Luming Wan
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Muyi Liu
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Enhao Ma
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Linfei Huang
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Yilong Yang
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Qihong Li
- The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Fang
- The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jingfei Li
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Bingqing Han
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Chang Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Lijuan Sun
- Beijing Yaogen Biotechnology Co.Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Xufeng Hou
- Beijing Yaogen Biotechnology Co.Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Haiyang Li
- Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Mingyu Sun
- Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Sichong Qian
- Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xuejing Duan
- Department of Pathology, Fuwai Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Science, Beijing, China
| | - Ruzhou Zhao
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaopan Yang
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Chen
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Shipo Wu
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Xuhui Zhang
- Beijing Yaogen Biotechnology Co.Ltd, Beijing, China
| | | | - Gong Cheng
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Gengye Chen
- People's Hospital of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Yinchuan, China
| | - Qi Gao
- Beijing Yaogen Biotechnology Co.Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Junjie Xu
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Lihua Hou
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Congwen Wei
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Zhong
- Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
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2
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Mok BWY, Kwok M, Li HS, Ling L, Lai A, Yan B, Law CTY, Yeung CH, Zhang AJ, Tam RCY, Kukic A, Cremin CJ, Zhang Y, Long T, Kang Z, Luo R, Leung KT, Li AM, Lui G, Tsui SKW, Chan JFW, To KKW, Chan PKS, Yan BP, Chen H, Poon ENY. SARS-CoV-2 variants divergently infect and damage cardiomyocytes in vitro and in vivo. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:101. [PMID: 39095802 PMCID: PMC11297708 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01280-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND COVID-19 can cause cardiac complications and the latter are associated with poor prognosis and increased mortality. SARS-CoV-2 variants differ in their infectivity and pathogenicity, but how they affect cardiomyocytes (CMs) is unclear. METHODS The effects of SARS-CoV-2 variants were investigated using human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived (hiPSC-) CMs in vitro and Golden Syrian hamsters in vivo. RESULTS Different variants exhibited distinct tropism, mechanism of viral entry and pathology in the heart. Omicron BA.2 most efficiently infected and injured CMs in vitro and in vivo, and induced expression changes consistent with increased cardiac dysfunction, compared to other variants tested. Bioinformatics and upstream regulator analyses identified transcription factors and network predicted to control the unique transcriptome of Omicron BA.2 infected CMs. Increased infectivity of Omicron BA.2 is attributed to its ability to infect via endocytosis, independently of TMPRSS2, which is absent in CMs. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we reveal previously unknown differences in how different SARS-CoV-2 variants affect CMs. Omicron BA.2, which is generally thought to cause mild disease, can damage CMs in vitro and in vivo. Our study highlights the need for further investigations to define the pathogenesis of cardiac complications arising from different SARS-CoV-2 variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobo Wing-Yee Mok
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
| | - Maxwell Kwok
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence (HK HOPE), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- The School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Hung Sing Li
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence (HK HOPE), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Department of Paediatrics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Lowell Ling
- Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Angel Lai
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Heart and Vascular Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Bin Yan
- Department of Computer Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Cherie Tsz-Yiu Law
- The School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Chui Him Yeung
- Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Anna Jinxia Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Rachel Chun-Yee Tam
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Anja Kukic
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Conor J Cremin
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Yajie Zhang
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Teng Long
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Zhisen Kang
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ruibang Luo
- Department of Computer Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Kam Tong Leung
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence (HK HOPE), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Department of Paediatrics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Albert M Li
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence (HK HOPE), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Department of Paediatrics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Grace Lui
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Stephen Kwok-Wing Tsui
- The School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jasper Fuk-Woo Chan
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Kelvin Kai-Wang To
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Paul K S Chan
- Department of Microbiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Bryan P Yan
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Heart and Vascular Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Honglin Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
- Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ellen Ngar-Yun Poon
- Hong Kong Hub of Paediatric Excellence (HK HOPE), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
- The School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
- Centre for Cardiovascular Genomics and Medicine, Lui Che Woo Institute of Innovative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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Raheem MA, Rahim MA, Gul I, Reyad-Ul-Ferdous M, Zhang CY, Yu D, Pandey V, Du K, Wang R, Han S, Han Y, Qin P. COVID-19: Post infection implications in different age groups, mechanism, diagnosis, effective prevention, treatment, and recommendations. Life Sci 2024:122861. [PMID: 38925222 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is a highly contagious pathogen that predominantly caused the COVID-19 pandemic. The persistent effects of COVID-19 are defined as an inflammatory or host response to the virus that begins four weeks after initial infection and persists for an undetermined length of time. Chronic effects are more harmful than acute ones thus, this review explored the long-term effects of the virus on various human organs, including the pulmonary, cardiovascular, and neurological, reproductive, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, endocrine, and lymphoid systems and found that SARS-CoV-2 adversely affects these organs of older adults. Regarding diagnosis, the RT-PCR is a gold standard method of diagnosing COVID-19; however, it requires specialized equipment and personnel for performing assays and a long time for results production. Therefore, to overcome these limitations, artificial intelligence employed in imaging and microfluidics technologies is the most promising in diagnosing COVID-19. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies are the most effective treatment for reducing the persistent impacts of COVID-19 by providing immunity to post-COVID-19 patients by reducing cytokine release syndrome, improving the T cell response, and increasing the circulation of activated natural killer and CD8 T cells in blood and tissues, which ultimately reduces fever, nausea, fatigue, and muscle weakness and pain. Vaccines such as inactivated viral, live attenuated viral, protein subunit, viral vectored, mRNA, DNA, or nanoparticle vaccines significantly reduce the adverse long-term virus effects in post-COVID-19 patients; however, no vaccine was reported to provide lifetime protection against COVID-19; consequently, protective measures such as physical separation, mask use, and hand cleansing are promising strategies. This review provides a comprehensive knowledge of the persistent effects of COVID-19 on people of varying ages, as well as diagnosis, treatment, vaccination, and future preventative measures against the spread of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Akmal Raheem
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Muhammad Ajwad Rahim
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Ahnui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Ijaz Gul
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Md Reyad-Ul-Ferdous
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Can Yang Zhang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Dongmei Yu
- School of Mechanical, Electrical & Information Engineering, Shandong University
| | - Vijay Pandey
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Ke Du
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Runming Wang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Sanyang Han
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Yuxing Han
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China
| | - Peiwu Qin
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; Center of Precision Medicine and Healthcare, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province 518055, PR China.
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4
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Zaheer K, Goncalves B, Ramalingam A, Rabbani NUA, Sayyed R, Nawab A, Puri R, Williams CJ, Mansoor K. Association of New-Onset Atrial Fibrillation With All-Cause Mortality in COVID-19 Patients. Cureus 2023; 15:e49785. [PMID: 38058521 PMCID: PMC10697182 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.49785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about unprecedented global health challenges, with its impact extending beyond respiratory manifestations to encompass cardiovascular complications, including arrhythmias. Dysrhythmias in COVID-19 are multifactorial, ranging from direct myocardial insult due to the cytokine storm to metabolic derangements. Objective In this study, we aim to examine the incidence of new-onset atrial fibrillation and to study its association with all-cause mortality of COVID-19. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted at Cabell Huntington Hospital, West Virginia, utilizing electronic medical records of COVID-19 patients from 2020 to 2021. Inclusion criteria comprised patients aged >18 years with COVID-19 diagnosis and cardiac arrhythmias during hospitalization. Logistic regression analysis was employed to examine the relationship between demographic and clinical variables and in-hospital mortality. Results Of the 264 eligible patients, those aged >66 years had lower odds of in-hospital mortality (p < 0.001), while gender, ejection fraction, and diabetes mellitus did not significantly predict mortality. Atrial fibrillation (p = 0.011) and heart failure (p = 0.030) were associated with increased odds of mortality, while hypertension showed no significant predictive power (p = 0.791). Conclusion This study highlights the significance of atrial fibrillation and heart failure as predictors of in-hospital mortality in COVID-19 patients. Our findings underscore the importance of recognizing and managing arrhythmias in COVID-19 and call for further research on the mechanisms and long-term effects of these cardiac complications in the context of the pandemic. These insights can guide clinical practice and interventions to optimize patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamran Zaheer
- Department of Internal Medicine, St. Mary's Medical Center, Huntington, USA
| | - Bruno Goncalves
- Department of Surgery, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Archana Ramalingam
- Department of Internal Medicine, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Noor Ul Ann Rabbani
- Department of Cardiology, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Rameez Sayyed
- Department of Cardiology, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Athar Nawab
- Department of Cardiology, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Raghav Puri
- Department of Cardiology, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Charles J Williams
- Department of Cardiology, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
| | - Kanaan Mansoor
- Department of Cardiology, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, USA
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5
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Keturakis V, Narauskaitė D, Balion Z, Gečys D, Kulkovienė G, Kairytė M, Žukauskaitė I, Benetis R, Stankevičius E, Jekabsone A. The Effect of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein RBD-Epitope on Immunometabolic State and Functional Performance of Cultured Primary Cardiomyocytes Subjected to Hypoxia and Reoxygenation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16554. [PMID: 38068877 PMCID: PMC10705973 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242316554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardio complications such as arrhythmias and myocardial damage are common in COVID-19 patients. SARS-CoV-2 interacts with the cardiovascular system primarily via the ACE2 receptor. Cardiomyocyte damage in SARS-CoV-2 infection may stem from inflammation, hypoxia-reoxygenation injury, and direct toxicity; however, the precise mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we simulated hypoxia-reoxygenation conditions commonly seen in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients and studied the impact of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein RBD-epitope on primary rat cardiomyocytes to gain insight into the potential mechanisms underlying COVID-19-related cardiac complications. Cell metabolic activity was evaluated with PrestoBlueTM. Gene expression of proinflammatory markers was measured by qRT-PCR and their secretion was quantified by Luminex assay. Cardiomyocyte contractility was analysed using the Myocyter plugin of ImageJ. Mitochondrial respiration was determined through Seahorse Mito Stress Test. In hypoxia-reoxygenation conditions, treatment of the SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD-epitope reduced the metabolic activity of primary cardiomyocytes, upregulated Il1β and Cxcl1 expression, and elevated GM-CSF and CCL2 cytokines secretion. Contraction time increased, while amplitude and beating frequency decreased. Acute treatment with a virus RBD-epitope inhibited mitochondrial respiration and lowered ATP production. Under ischaemia-reperfusion, the SARS-CoV-2 RBD-epitope induces cardiomyocyte injury linked to impaired mitochondrial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vytenis Keturakis
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
- Department of Heart, Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Medicine Faculty, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50103 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Deimantė Narauskaitė
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
| | - Zbigniev Balion
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
| | - Dovydas Gečys
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
- Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50103 Kaunas, Lithuania
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technologies, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50166 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Gabrielė Kulkovienė
- Department of Drug Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50166 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Milda Kairytė
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
| | - Ineta Žukauskaitė
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
| | - Rimantas Benetis
- Department of Heart, Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Medicine Faculty, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50103 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Edgaras Stankevičius
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
- Institute of Physiology and Pharmacology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 44307 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Aistė Jekabsone
- Preclinical Research Laboratory for Medicinal Products, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (V.K.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technologies, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50166 Kaunas, Lithuania
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6
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Chu SW, Wang FS. Fuzzy optimization for identifying antiviral targets for treating SARS-CoV-2 infection in the heart. BMC Bioinformatics 2023; 24:364. [PMID: 37759157 PMCID: PMC10537911 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-023-05487-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, a fuzzy hierarchical optimization framework is proposed for identifying potential antiviral targets for treating severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in the heart. The proposed framework comprises four objectives for evaluating the elimination of viral biomass growth and the minimization of side effects during treatment. In the application of the framework, Dulbecco's modified eagle medium (DMEM) and Ham's medium were used as uptake nutrients on an antiviral target discovery platform. The prediction results from the framework reveal that most of the antiviral enzymes in the aforementioned media are involved in fatty acid metabolism and amino acid metabolism. However, six enzymes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis in Ham's medium and three enzymes involved in glycolysis in DMEM are unable to eliminate the growth of the SARS-CoV-2 biomass. Three enzymes involved in glycolysis, namely BPGM, GAPDH, and ENO1, in DMEM combine with the supplemental uptake of L-cysteine to increase the cell viability grade and metabolic deviation grade. Moreover, six enzymes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis reduce and fail to reduce viral biomass growth in a culture medium if a cholesterol uptake reaction does not occur and occurs in this medium, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sz-Wei Chu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, 621301, Taiwan
| | - Feng-Sheng Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, 621301, Taiwan.
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7
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Baumeier C, Harms D, Aleshcheva G, Gross U, Escher F, Schultheiss HP. Advancing Precision Medicine in Myocarditis: Current Status and Future Perspectives in Endomyocardial Biopsy-Based Diagnostics and Therapeutic Approaches. J Clin Med 2023; 12:5050. [PMID: 37568452 PMCID: PMC10419903 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12155050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The diagnosis and specific and causal treatment of myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy remain a major clinical challenge. Despite the rapid development of new imaging techniques, endomyocardial biopsies remain the gold standard for accurate diagnosis of inflammatory myocardial disease. With the introduction and continued development of immunohistochemical inflammation diagnostics in combination with viral nucleic acid testing, myocarditis diagnostics have improved significantly since their introduction. Together with new technologies such as miRNA and gene expression profiling, quantification of specific immune cell markers, and determination of viral activity, diagnostic accuracy and patient prognosis will continue to improve in the future. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the pathogenesis and diagnosis of myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathies and highlight future perspectives for more in-depth and specialized biopsy diagnostics and precision, personalized medicine approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Baumeier
- Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (D.H.); (G.A.); (U.G.); (H.-P.S.)
| | - Dominik Harms
- Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (D.H.); (G.A.); (U.G.); (H.-P.S.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Robert Koch Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ganna Aleshcheva
- Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (D.H.); (G.A.); (U.G.); (H.-P.S.)
| | - Ulrich Gross
- Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (D.H.); (G.A.); (U.G.); (H.-P.S.)
| | - Felicitas Escher
- Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité, Campus Virchow Klinikum, 13353 Berlin, Germany;
- German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, 10785 Berlin, Germany
| | - Heinz-Peter Schultheiss
- Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy, IKDT GmbH, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (D.H.); (G.A.); (U.G.); (H.-P.S.)
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8
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Pierri A, Gagno G, Fluca A, Radaelli D, Bonuccelli D, Giusti L, Bulfoni M, Beltrami AP, Aleksova A, D’Errico S. COVID-19-Related Myocarditis: Are We There Yet? A Case Report of COVID-19-Related Fulminant Myocarditis. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2101. [PMID: 37626600 PMCID: PMC10452198 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11082101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence of cardiac involvement in COVID-19 cases, with a broad range of clinical manifestations spanning from acute life-threatening conditions such as ventricular dysrhythmias, myocarditis, acute myocardial ischemia and pulmonary thromboembolism to long-term cardiovascular sequelae. In particular, acute myocarditis represents an uncommon but frightening complication of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Even if many reports of SARS CoV-2 myocarditis are present in the literature, the majority of them lacks histological confirmation of cardiac injury. Here, we report a case of a young lady, who died suddenly a few days after testing positive for SARS-CoV-2, whose microscopic and genetics features suggested a direct cardiac involvement compatible with fulminant myocarditis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Pierri
- Cardiothoracovascular Department, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, 34139 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (G.G.); (A.F.); or (A.A.)
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34139 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Giulia Gagno
- Cardiothoracovascular Department, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, 34139 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (G.G.); (A.F.); or (A.A.)
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34139 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Alessandra Fluca
- Cardiothoracovascular Department, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, 34139 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (G.G.); (A.F.); or (A.A.)
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34139 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Davide Radaelli
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34139 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Diana Bonuccelli
- Department of Legal Medicine, Azienda USL Toscana Nordovest, 55100 Lucca, Italy;
| | - Laura Giusti
- Department of Human Pathology, San Luca Hospital, Azienda USL Toscana Nordovest, 55100 Lucca, Italy;
| | - Michela Bulfoni
- Institute of Clinical Pathology, Academic Hospital “Santa Maria della Misericordia”, ASUFC, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; (M.B.); (A.P.B.)
| | - Antonio P. Beltrami
- Institute of Clinical Pathology, Academic Hospital “Santa Maria della Misericordia”, ASUFC, Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; (M.B.); (A.P.B.)
| | - Aneta Aleksova
- Cardiothoracovascular Department, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Giuliano Isontina, 34139 Trieste, Italy; (A.P.); (G.G.); (A.F.); or (A.A.)
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34139 Trieste, Italy;
| | - Stefano D’Errico
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34139 Trieste, Italy;
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9
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Boulos PK, Freeman SV, Henry TD, Mahmud E, Messenger JC. Interaction of COVID-19 With Common Cardiovascular Disorders. Circ Res 2023; 132:1259-1271. [PMID: 37167359 PMCID: PMC10171313 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.122.321952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The onset and widespread dissemination of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 in late 2019 impacted the world in a way not seen since the 1918 H1N1 pandemic, colloquially known as the Spanish Flu. Much like the Spanish Flu, which was observed to disproportionately impact young adults, it became clear in the early days of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that certain groups appeared to be at higher risk for severe illness once infected. One such group that immediately came to the forefront and garnered international attention was patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease. Here, we examine the available literature describing the interaction of COVID-19 with a myriad of cardiovascular conditions and diseases, paying particular attention to patients diagnosed with arrythmias, heart failure, and coronary artery disease. We further discuss the association of acute COVID-19 with de novo cardiovascular disease, including myocardial infarction due to coronary thrombosis, myocarditis, and new onset arrhythmias. We will evaluate various biochemical theories to explain these findings, including possible mechanisms of direct myocardial injury caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 virus at the cellular level. Finally, we will discuss the strategies employed by numerous groups and governing bodies within the cardiovascular disease community to address the unprecedented challenges posed to the care of our most vulnerable patients, including heart transplant recipients, end-stage heart failure patients, and patients suffering from acute coronary syndromes, during the early days and height of the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter K. Boulos
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Aurora (P.K.B., S.V.F., J.C.M.)
| | - Scott V. Freeman
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Aurora (P.K.B., S.V.F., J.C.M.)
| | - Timothy D. Henry
- The Carl and Edyth Lindner Center for Research and Education, The Christ Hospital, Cincinnati, OH (T.D.H.)
| | - Ehtisham Mahmud
- Sulpizio Cardiovascular Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla (E.M.)
| | - John C. Messenger
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Aurora (P.K.B., S.V.F., J.C.M.)
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10
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Lin Z. More than a key-the pathological roles of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in COVID-19 related cardiac injury. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2023:S2666-3376(23)00024-0. [PMID: 37361919 PMCID: PMC10062797 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiac injury is common in hospitalized coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients and cardiac abnormalities have been observed in a significant number of recovered COVID-19 patients, portending long-term health issues for millions of infected individuals. To better understand how Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, CoV-2 for short) damages the heart, it is critical to fully comprehend the biology of CoV-2 encoded proteins, each of which may play multiple pathological roles. For example, CoV-2 spike glycoprotein (CoV-2-S) not only engages angiotensin converting enzyme II (ACE2) to mediate virus infection but also directly activates immune responses. In this work, the goal is to review the known pathological roles of CoV-2-S in the cardiovascular system, thereby shedding lights on the pathogenesis of COVID-19 related cardiac injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Lin
- Masonic Medical Research Institute, 2150 Bleecker Street, Utica, NY, 13501, USA
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11
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Abstract
Heart disease is a significant burden on global health care systems and is a leading cause of death each year. To improve our understanding of heart disease, high quality disease models are needed. These will facilitate the discovery and development of new treatments for heart disease. Traditionally, researchers have relied on 2D monolayer systems or animal models of heart disease to elucidate pathophysiology and drug responses. Heart-on-a-chip (HOC) technology is an emerging field where cardiomyocytes among other cell types in the heart can be used to generate functional, beating cardiac microtissues that recapitulate many features of the human heart. HOC models are showing great promise as disease modeling platforms and are poised to serve as important tools in the drug development pipeline. By leveraging advances in human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte biology and microfabrication technology, diseased HOCs are highly tuneable and can be generated via different approaches such as: using cells with defined genetic backgrounds (patient-derived cells), adding small molecules, modifying the cells' environment, altering cell ratio/composition of microtissues, among others. HOCs have been used to faithfully model aspects of arrhythmia, fibrosis, infection, cardiomyopathies, and ischemia, to name a few. In this review, we highlight recent advances in disease modeling using HOC systems, describing instances where these models outperformed other models in terms of reproducing disease phenotypes and/or led to drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Mourad
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University Health Network, Toronto, Canada.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Ryan Yee
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University Health Network, Toronto, Canada.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Mengyuan Li
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University Health Network, Toronto, Canada.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Sara S Nunes
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University Health Network, Toronto, Canada.,Ajmera Transplant Center (S.S.N.), University Health Network, Toronto, Canada.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering (O.M., R.Y., M.L., S.S.N.), University of Toronto, Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology (S.S.N.), University of Toronto, Canada.,Heart and Stroke/Richard Lewar Centre of Excellence (S.S.N.), University of Toronto, Canada
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12
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Szpulak A, Garlak U, Ćwirko H, Witkowska B, Rombel-Bryzek A, Witkowska D. SARS-CoV-2 and its impact on the cardiovascular and digestive systems - The interplay between new virus variants and human cells. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2023; 21:1022-1029. [PMID: 36694807 PMCID: PMC9850860 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2023.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Since infection with the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 first emerged in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, the world has been battling the pandemic COVID-19. Patients of all ages and genders are now becoming infected with the new coronavirus variant (Omicron) worldwide, and its subvariants continue to pose a threat to health and life. This article provides a literature review of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal complications resulting from SARS-CoV-2 infection. COVID-19 primarily caused respiratory symptoms, but complications can affect many vital organs. SARS-CoV-2 binds to a human cell receptor (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 - ACE2) that is predominantly expressed primarily in the heart and gastrointestinal tract, which is why we focused on complications in these organs. Since the high transmissibility of Omicron and its ability to evade the immune system have raised worldwide concern, we have tried to summarise the current knowledge about its development from a structural point of view and to highlight the differences in its binding to human receptors and proteases compared to previous VOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Szpulak
- Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Wybrzeże L. Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Urszula Garlak
- Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Wybrzeże L. Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Hanna Ćwirko
- Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Wybrzeże L. Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Bogusława Witkowska
- Institute of Health Sciences, University of Opole, Katowicka 68, 45-060 Opole, Poland
| | | | - Danuta Witkowska
- Institute of Health Sciences, University of Opole, Katowicka 68, 45-060 Opole, Poland
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13
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McGowan J, Borucki M, Omairi H, Varghese M, Vellani S, Chakravarty S, Fan S, Chattopadhyay S, Siddiquee M, Thissen JB, Mulakken N, Moon J, Kimbrel J, Tiwari AK, Taylor RT, Kang DW, Jaing C, Chakravarti R, Chattopadhyay S. SARS-CoV-2 Monitoring in Wastewater Reveals Novel Variants and Biomarkers of Infection. Viruses 2022; 14:2032. [PMID: 36146835 PMCID: PMC9503862 DOI: 10.3390/v14092032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a popular tool for the early indication of community spread of infectious diseases. WBE emerged as an effective tool during the COVID-19 pandemic and has provided meaningful information to minimize the spread of infection. Here, we present a combination of analyses using the correlation of viral gene copies with clinical cases, sequencing of wastewater-derived RNA for the viral mutants, and correlative analyses of the viral gene copies with the bacterial biomarkers. Our study provides a unique platform for potentially using the WBE-derived results to predict the spread of COVID-19 and the emergence of new variants of concern. Further, we observed a strong correlation between the presence of SARS-CoV-2 and changes in the microbial community of wastewater, particularly the significant changes in bacterial genera belonging to the families of Lachnospiraceae and Actinomycetaceae. Our study shows that microbial biomarkers could be utilized as prediction tools for future infectious disease surveillance and outbreak responses. Overall, our comprehensive analyses of viral spread, variants, and novel bacterial biomarkers will add significantly to the growing body of literature on WBE and COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna McGowan
- Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Monica Borucki
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Hicham Omairi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo College of Engineering, Toledo, OH 43607, USA
| | - Merina Varghese
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Shahnaz Vellani
- Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Sukanya Chakravarty
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Shumin Fan
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Srestha Chattopadhyay
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Mashuk Siddiquee
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo College of Engineering, Toledo, OH 43607, USA
| | - James B. Thissen
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Nisha Mulakken
- Computing Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Joseph Moon
- Computing Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Jeffrey Kimbrel
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Amit K. Tiwari
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
- Center for Medical Bio-Allied Health Sciences Research, Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates
| | - Roger Travis Taylor
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Dae-Wook Kang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Toledo College of Engineering, Toledo, OH 43607, USA
| | - Crystal Jaing
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
| | - Ritu Chakravarti
- Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Saurabh Chattopadhyay
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
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