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Koehler-Dauner F, Peter L, Roder E, Fegert JM, Ziegenhain U, Waller C, Buchheim A. A Pilot Study on the Influence of Maternal Attachment Representations on Maternal Heart Rate Mediated by Perceived Stress. Brain Sci 2024; 14:412. [PMID: 38790391 PMCID: PMC11117884 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14050412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Past findings have suggested that there is a link between attachment representations and reactions towards stress (subjective and physiological). The aim of this study was to examine the mediating effect of perceived stress on the association between attachment representation and physiological changes, specifically heart rate. As part of a long-term study investigating the transgenerational transmission of childhood maltreatment, n = 163 mothers participated in multiple assessments. The Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (AAP) was used to measure maternal attachment representation, categorizing individuals as securely or insecurely attached. Perceived daily stress was assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale 14 (PSS-14), and maternal baseline heart rate (HR) was measured via electrocardiography during a laboratory visit. The results revealed that the representation of secure attachment had a significant reducing effect on both the mother's perceived daily stress and heart rate. Furthermore, the association between secure attachment representation and heart rate was mediated by perceived stress. This study emphasizes the role of attachment representation in maternal well-being, highlighting its impact on stress and physiological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Koehler-Dauner
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, 89073 Ulm, Germany; (L.P.); (J.M.F.); (U.Z.)
| | - Lena Peter
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, 89073 Ulm, Germany; (L.P.); (J.M.F.); (U.Z.)
| | - Eva Roder
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (E.R.); (C.W.)
| | - Jörg M. Fegert
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, 89073 Ulm, Germany; (L.P.); (J.M.F.); (U.Z.)
- German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site Ulm, 89077 Ulm, Germany
| | - Ute Ziegenhain
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, 89073 Ulm, Germany; (L.P.); (J.M.F.); (U.Z.)
| | - Christiane Waller
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (E.R.); (C.W.)
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Nuremberg General Hospital, Paracelsus Medical University, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Anna Buchheim
- Institute of Psychology, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
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Jacques DT, Sturge-Apple ML, Davies PT, Cicchetti D. Maternal alcohol dependence symptoms, maternal insensitivity to children's distress, and young children's blunted emotional reactivity. Dev Psychopathol 2024:1-23. [PMID: 38426705 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579424000324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Maternal insensitivity to children's emotional distress (e.g., expressions of sadness or fearfulness) is one mechanism through which maternal alcohol dependence may increase children's risk for psychopathology. Although emotion dysregulation is consistently associated with psychopathology, it remains unclear how or why alcohol dependence's effects on caregiving responses to children's distress may impact children's emotion regulation over time, particularly in ways that may engender risks for psychopathology. This study examined longitudinal associations between lifetime maternal alcohol dependence symptoms, mothers' insensitivity to children's emotional distress cues, and children's emotional reactivity among 201 mother-child dyads (Mchild age = 2.14 years; 56% Black; 11% Latino). Structural equation modeling analyses revealed a significant mediational pathway such that maternal alcohol dependence predicted increases in mothers' insensitivity to children's emotional distress across a one-year period (β = .16, p = .013), which subsequently predicted decreases in children's emotional reactivity one year later (β = -.29, p = .009). Results suggest that mothers with alcohol dependence symptoms may struggle to sensitively respond to children's emotional distress, which may prompt children to suppress or hide their emotions as an adaptive, protective strategy. The potential developmental benefits and consequences of early, protective expressive suppression strategies are discussed via developmental psychopathology frameworks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melissa L Sturge-Apple
- Department of Psychology and Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Patrick T Davies
- Department of Psychology and Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Dante Cicchetti
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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3
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Jones-Mason K, Coccia M, Alkon A, Melanie Thomas KCP, Laraia B, Adler N, Epel ES, Bush NR. Parental sensitivity modifies the associations between maternal prenatal stress exposure, autonomic nervous system functioning and infant temperament in a diverse, low-income sample. Attach Hum Dev 2023; 25:487-523. [PMID: 37749913 DOI: 10.1080/14616734.2023.2257669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Evidence suggests that adversity experienced during fetal development may shape infant physiologic functioning and temperament. Parental sensitivity is associated with child stress regulation and may act as a buffer against risk for intergenerational health effects of pre- or postnatal adversity. Building upon prior evidence in a racially and ethnically diverse sample of infants (M infant age = 6.5 months) and women of low socioeconomic status, this study examined whether coded parenting sensitivity moderated the association between an objective measure of prenatal stress exposures (Stressful Life Events (SLE)) and infant parasympathetic (respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA) or sympathetic (pre-ejection period; PEP) nervous system functioning assessed during administration of the Still-Face-Paradigm (SFP) (n = 66), as well as maternal report of temperament (n = 154). Results showed that parental sensitivity moderated the associations between prenatal stress exposures and infant RSA reactivity, RSA recovery, PEP recovery, and temperamental negativity. Findings indicate that greater parental sensitivity is associated with lower infant autonomic nervous system reactivity and greater recovery from challenge. Results support the hypothesis that parental sensitivity buffers infants from the risk of prenatal stress exposure associations with offspring cross-system physiologic reactivity and regulation, potentially shaping trajectories of health and development and promoting resilience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Jones-Mason
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | - Michael Coccia
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | - Abbey Alkon
- School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | | | - Barbara Laraia
- School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, USA
| | - Nancy Adler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | - Elissa S Epel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | - Nicole R Bush
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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Tarsha MS, Narvaez D. The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1113944. [PMID: 37425179 PMCID: PMC10323226 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1113944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Prosociality, orientation to attuned, empathic relationships, is built from the ground up, through supportive care in early life that fosters healthy neurobiological structures that shape behavior. Numerous social and environmental factors within early life have been identified as critical variables influencing child physiological and psychological outcomes indicating a growing need to synthesize which factors are the most influential. To address this gap, we examined the influence of early life experiences according to the evolved developmental niche or evolved nest and its influence on child neurobiological and sociomoral outcomes, specifically, the oxytocinergic system and prosociality, respectively. To-date, this is the first review to utilize the evolved nest framework as an investigatory lens to probe connections between early life experience and child neurobiological and sociomoral outcomes. The evolved nest is comprised of characteristics over 30 million years old and is organized to meet a child's basic needs as they mature. Converging evidence indicates that humanity's evolved nest meets the needs of a rapidly developing brain, optimizing normal development. The evolved nest for young children includes soothing perinatal experiences, breastfeeding, positive touch, responsive care, multiple allomothers, self-directed play, social embeddedness, and nature immersion. We examined what is known about the effects of each evolved nest component on oxytocinergic functioning, a critical neurobiological building block for pro-sociomorality. We also examined the effects of the evolved nest on prosociality generally. We reviewed empirical studies from human and animal research, meta-analyses and theoretical articles. The review suggests that evolved nest components influence oxytocinergic functioning in parents and children and help form the foundations for prosociality. Future research and policy should consider the importance of the first years of life in programming the neuroendocrine system that undergirds wellbeing and prosociality. Complex, interaction effects among evolved nest components as well as among physiological and sociomoral processes need to be studied. The most sensible framework for examining what builds and enhances prosociality may be the millions-year-old evolved nest.
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Chbeir S, Carrión V. Resilience by design: How nature, nurture, environment, and microbiome mitigate stress and allostatic load. World J Psychiatry 2023; 13:144-159. [PMID: 37303926 PMCID: PMC10251360 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v13.i5.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Resilience to psychological stress is defined as adaption to challenging life experiences and not the absence of adverse life events. Determinants of resilience include personality traits, genetic/epigenetic modifications of genes involved in the stress response, cognitive and behavioral flexibility, secure attachment with a caregiver, social and community support systems, nutrition and exercise, and alignment of circadian rhythm to the natural light/dark cycle. Therefore, resilience is a dynamic and flexible process that continually evolves by the intersection of different domains in human’s life; biological, social, and psychological. The objective of this minireview is to summarize the existing knowledge about the multitude factors and molecular alterations that result from resilience to stress response. Given the multiple contributing factors in building resilience, we set out a goal to identify which factors were most supportive of a causal role by the current literature. We focused on resilience-related molecular alterations resulting from mind-body homeostasis in connection with psychosocial and environmental factors. We conclude that there is no one causal factor that differentiates a resilient person from a vulnerable one. Instead, building resilience requires an intricate network of positive experiences and a healthy lifestyle that contribute to a balanced mind-body connection. Therefore, a holistic approach must be adopted in future research on stress response to address the multiple elements that promote resilience and prevent illnesses and psychopathology related to stress allostatic load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souhad Chbeir
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Victor Carrión
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
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Bravo P, Cárcamo R, Santos S, Ringoot A, van IJzendoorn MH, Hillegers MHJ, Jansen PW. Maternal sensitivity in early childhood and body mass index in adolescence: A population-based study on the role of self-regulation as a mediator. Appetite 2023; 182:106418. [PMID: 36521650 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Maternal sensitivity has been implicated in various aspects of child health and development, including overweight. However, long-term effects, the role of paternal sensitivity and the explanatory pathways are unclear. This study examined whether maternal sensitivity in early childhood is prospectively associated with adolescent body mass index and whether children's self-regulation mediates this relation. Data from 540 children and their mothers were available from a large cohort study in the Netherlands. Maternal sensitivity was assessed at child ages 1, 3, and at 4 years paternal sensitivity was also included. Children's self-regulation skills were observed at age 3, eating behaviour was assessed at 10 years, and child BMI was measured at 13 years. Longitudinal structural equation modelling was applied. The cross-sectional association between maternal sensitivity and child self-regulation was significant, while lower levels of self-regulation and higher levels of food responsiveness and restrained eating predicted a higher child BMI at 13 years. Furthermore, a direct association of paternal sensitivity at 4 years with BMI at 13 years was found, but only in girls. Maternal sensitivity was not directly associated with child BMI after adjusting for covariates. Our findings showed the importance of self-regulation in the early years for subsequent weight development. Nevertheless, as self-regulation could not explain the relationship between parenting and child weight, research should focus on the contribution of other contextual factors, such as feeding styles and the social environment, to this relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Bravo
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rodrigo Cárcamo
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile; Facultad de Psicología, Universidad San Sebastián, Sede Valdivia, Chile
| | - Susana Santos
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC - Sophia Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; EPIUnit - Instituto de Saúde Pública, Universidade do Porto, Rua das Taipas, Porto, Portugal; Laboratório para a Investigação Integrativa e Translacional em Saúde Populacional (ITR), Universidade do Porto, Rua das Taipas, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ank Ringoot
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Faculty of Psychology, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, the Netherlands
| | - Marinus H van IJzendoorn
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Manon H J Hillegers
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pauline W Jansen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
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Buchheim A, Ziegenhain U, Kindler H, Waller C, Gündel H, Karabatsiakis A, Fegert J. Identifying Risk and Resilience Factors in the Intergenerational Cycle of Maltreatment: Results From the TRANS-GEN Study Investigating the Effects of Maternal Attachment and Social Support on Child Attachment and Cardiovascular Stress Physiology. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:890262. [PMID: 35923749 PMCID: PMC9341217 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.890262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Childhood maltreatment (CM) is a developmental risk factor and can negatively influence later psychological functioning, health, and development in the next generation. A comprehensive understanding of the biopsychosocial underpinnings of CM transmission would allow to identify protective factors that could disrupt the intergenerational CM risk cycle. This study examined the consequences of maternal CM and the effects of psychosocial and biological resilience factors on child attachment and stress-regulatory development using a prospective trans-disciplinary approach. Methods Mother-child dyads (N = 158) participated shortly after parturition (t 0), after 3 months (t 1), and 12 months later (t 2). Mothers' CM experiences were assessed at t 0, attachment representation at t 1 and psychosocial risk and social support were assessed at t 1 and t 2. At t 2, dyads participated in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). Children's attachmen status were classified as organized vs. disorganized, including their level of disorganized behavior, and heart rate (HR) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) were recorded as stress response measures of the autonomic nervous system. Maternal caregiving during SSP was assessed using the AMBIANCE scale. Child's single nucleotide polymorphisms rs2254298 within the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) and rs2740210 of the oxytocin gene (OXT) were genotyped using DNA isolated from cord blood. Results Maternal CM experiences (CM+) were significantly associated with an unresolved attachment status, higher perceived stress and more psychological symptoms. These negative effects of CM were attenuated by social support. As expected, maternal unresolved attachment and child disorganized attachment were significantly associated. Maternal caregiving did not mediate the relationship between maternal and child attachment but influenced children's HR and RSA response and disorganized behavior. Moreover, the rs2254298 genotype of the OXTR gene moderated the stress response of children from mothers with CM. Children carrying the rs2740210 risk allele of the OXT gene showed more disorganized behavior independent from maternal CM experiences. Conclusion We replicated and extended existing CM and attachment models by co-examining maternal attachment, social support, and child genetic susceptibility on child attachment and cardiovascular stress regulation. The findings contribute to an extended understanding of risk and resilience factors and enable professionals to target adequate services to parents and children at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Buchheim
- Department of Clinical Psychology II, Institute of Psychology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ute Ziegenhain
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ulm University Hospital, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Christiane Waller
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Nuremberg General Hospital, Paracelsus Medical University, Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Harald Gündel
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Alexander Karabatsiakis
- Department of Clinical Psychology II, Institute of Psychology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Jörg Fegert
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ulm University Hospital, Ulm, Germany
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Köhler-Dauner F, Roder E, Gulde M, Mayer I, Fegert JM, Ziegenhain U, Waller C. Maternal Sensitivity Modulates Child's Parasympathetic Mode and Buffers Sympathetic Activity in a Free Play Situation. Front Psychol 2022; 13:868848. [PMID: 35529563 PMCID: PMC9068013 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.868848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Behavioral and physiological (self-)regulation in early life is crucial for the understanding of childhood development and adjustment. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a main player in the regulative system and should therefore be modulated by the quality of interactive behavior of the caregiver. We experimentally investigated the ANS response of 18–36-month-old children in response to the quality of maternal behavior during a mother–child-interacting paradigm. Method Eighty mothers and their children came to our laboratory and took part in an experimental paradigm, consisting of three episodes: a resting phase (E1), a structured play phase (E2), and a free play situation (E3) between mothers and their child. Children’s and mother’s heart rate (HR), the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity via the pre-ejection period (PEP) and the left ventricular ejection time (LVET), and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity via the respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) were continuously measured by an electrocardiogram. Maternal sensitivity of interactive behavior was assessed by using the Emotional Availability (EA) Scales. Results Children of mothers with insensitive behavior had a significantly lower RSA at baseline, showed a lack of RSA withdrawal during structured and free play, and had shorter LVET across all episodes compared to children of sensitive mothers. Conclusion Our findings depict the influence of low-quality maternal interaction on the child’s ANS regulation, in calm and more stressful play situations. The overall higher SNS mode with impaired PNS reactivity may negatively influence child’s ANS homoeostasis, which may result in a long-term impact on mental and physical wellbeing. Further, the maternal sensitivity may function as a buffer for the stress response of their child. These results could serve as a basis for the development of appropriate psychoeducational programs for mothers of low sensitivity in their interaction with the child.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Köhler-Dauner
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Eva Roder
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Manuela Gulde
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Inka Mayer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Jörg M Fegert
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Ute Ziegenhain
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychotherapy, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Christiane Waller
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Nuremberg General Hospital, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
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Fitter MH, Stern JA, Straske MD, Allard T, Cassidy J, Riggins T. Mothers’ Attachment Representations and Children’s Brain Structure. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:740195. [PMID: 35370579 PMCID: PMC8967255 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.740195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ample research demonstrates that parents’ experience-based mental representations of attachment—cognitive models of close relationships—relate to their children’s social-emotional development. However, no research to date has examined how parents’ attachment representations relate to another crucial domain of children’s development: brain development. The present study is the first to integrate the separate literatures on attachment and developmental social cognitive neuroscience to examine the link between mothers’ attachment representations and 3- to 8-year-old children’s brain structure. We hypothesized that mothers’ attachment representations would relate to individual differences in children’s brain structures involved in stress regulation—specifically, amygdala and hippocampal volumes—in part via mothers’ responses to children’s distress. We assessed 52 mothers’ attachment representations (secure base script knowledge on the Attachment Script Assessment and self-reported attachment avoidance and anxiety on the Experiences in Close Relationships scale) and children’s brain structure. Mothers’ secure base script knowledge was significantly related to children’s smaller left amygdala volume but was unrelated to hippocampal volume; we found no indirect links via maternal responses to children’s distress. Exploratory analyses showed associations between mothers’ attachment representations and white matter and thalamus volumes. Together, these preliminary results suggest that mothers’ attachment representations may be linked to the development of children’s neural circuitry related to stress regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan H. Fitter
- Maryland Child and Family Development Lab, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD, United States
- *Correspondence: Megan H. Fitter,
| | - Jessica A. Stern
- BabyLab, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Martha D. Straske
- Maryland Child and Family Development Lab, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Tamara Allard
- Neurocognitive Development Lab, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Jude Cassidy
- Maryland Child and Family Development Lab, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Tracy Riggins
- Neurocognitive Development Lab, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD, United States
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