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Yan L, Geng Q, Cao Z, Liu B, Li L, Lu P, Lin L, Wei L, Tan Y, He X, Li L, Zhao N, Lu C. Insights into DNMT1 and programmed cell death in diseases. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 168:115753. [PMID: 37871559 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
DNMT1 (DNA methyltransferase 1) is the predominant member of the DNMT family and the most abundant DNMT in various cell types. It functions as a maintenance DNMT and is involved in various diseases, including cancer and nervous system diseases. Programmed cell death (PCD) is a fundamental mechanism that regulates cell proliferation and maintains the development and homeostasis of multicellular organisms. DNMT1 plays a regulatory role in various types of PCD, including apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and others. DNMT1 is closely associated with the development of various diseases by regulating key genes and pathways involved in PCD, including caspase 3/7 activities in apoptosis, Beclin 1, LC3, and some autophagy-related proteins in autophagy, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) in ferroptosis, and receptor-interacting protein kinase 1-receptor-interacting protein kinase 3-mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (RIPK1-RIPK3-MLKL) in necroptosis. Our study summarizes the regulatory relationship between DNMT1 and different types of PCD in various diseases and discusses the potential of DNMT1 as a common regulatory hub in multiple types of PCD, offering a perspective for therapeutic approaches in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Yan
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Geng
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiwen Cao
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Liu
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li Li
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peipei Lu
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lin Lin
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lini Wei
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Tan
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojuan He
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li Li
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Zhao
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Cheng Lu
- Institute of Basic Research in Clinical Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
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2
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Iwasa YI, Nakajima T, Hori K, Yokota Y, Kitoh R, Uehara T, Takumi Y. A Spatial Transcriptome Reveals Changes in Tumor and Tumor Microenvironment in Oral Cancer with Acquired Resistance to Immunotherapy. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1685. [PMID: 38136558 PMCID: PMC10742283 DOI: 10.3390/biom13121685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Although anti-programmed death-1 (PD-1) antibody therapy improves the prognosis in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), some patients exhibit disease progression even after showing a good response to the treatment initially because of acquired resistance. Here, we aimed to reveal the dynamic changes in the tumor and tumor microenvironment (TME) in a 77-year-old man diagnosed with oral squamous cell carcinoma who developed acquired resistance after the administration of nivolumab using spatial transcriptomics. The results showed that, before immunotherapy, the activated pathways in the tumor area were mainly related to the cancer immune system, including antigen processing cross-presentation, interferon-gamma signaling, and the innate immune system. After immunotherapy, the activated pathways were mainly related to epigenetic modification, including RMTs methylate histone arginine and HDAC deacetylates histones. Before immunotherapy, the activated pathways in the TME were mainly related to the metabolism of proteins, including SRP-dependent co-translational protein targeting the membrane. After immunotherapy, the activated pathways in the TME were related to sensory perception and signal transduction. Our study revealed that epigenetic-modification-related pathways were mainly activated after establishing acquired resistance, suggesting that epigenetic modification in the tumor may prevent cancer immune system activation via the anti-PD-1 antibody.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoh-ichiro Iwasa
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (K.H.); (Y.Y.); (R.K.); (Y.T.)
| | - Tomoyuki Nakajima
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (T.N.); (T.U.)
| | - Kentaro Hori
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (K.H.); (Y.Y.); (R.K.); (Y.T.)
| | - Yoh Yokota
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (K.H.); (Y.Y.); (R.K.); (Y.T.)
| | - Ryosuke Kitoh
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (K.H.); (Y.Y.); (R.K.); (Y.T.)
| | - Takeshi Uehara
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (T.N.); (T.U.)
| | - Yutaka Takumi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; (K.H.); (Y.Y.); (R.K.); (Y.T.)
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3
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Eyford BA, Lazarczyk MJ, Choi KB, Varghese M, Arora H, Kari S, Munro L, Pfeifer CG, Sowa A, Dickstein DR, Dickstein DL, Jefferies WA. Outside-in signaling through the major histocompatibility complex class-I cytoplasmic tail modulates glutamate receptor expression in neurons. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13079. [PMID: 37567897 PMCID: PMC10421907 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38663-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The interplay between AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) and major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) proteins in regulating synaptic signaling is a crucial aspect of central nervous system (CNS) function. In this study, we investigate the significance of the cytoplasmic tail of MHC-I in synaptic signaling within the CNS and its impact on the modulation of synaptic glutamate receptor expression. Specifically, we focus on the Y321 to F substitution (Y321F) within the conserved cytoplasmic tyrosine YXXΦ motif, known for its dual role in endocytosis and cellular signaling of MHC-I. Our findings reveal that the Y321F substitution influences the expression of AMPAR subunits GluA2/3 and leads to alterations in the phosphorylation of key kinases, including Fyn, Lyn, p38, ERK1/2, JNK1/2/3, and p70 S6 kinase. These data illuminate the crucial role of MHC-I in AMPAR function and present a novel mechanism by which MHC-I integrates extracellular cues to modulate synaptic plasticity in neurons, which ultimately underpins learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett A Eyford
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
| | - Maciej J Lazarczyk
- Division of Institutional Measures, Department of Medical Direction and Quality, University Hospitals of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Ave, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Kyung Bok Choi
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370-6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 1364-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Merina Varghese
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Ave, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Hitesh Arora
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Suresh Kari
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370-6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 1364-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Lonna Munro
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370-6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 1364-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Cheryl G Pfeifer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370-6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 1364-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Allison Sowa
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Ave, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Daniel R Dickstein
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Ave, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Dara L Dickstein
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Ave, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine (HJF), 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA.
| | - Wilfred A Jefferies
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Jack Bell Research Centre, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370-6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 1364-2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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4
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Lazarczyk MJ, Eyford BA, Varghese M, Arora H, Munro L, Warda T, Pfeifer CG, Sowa A, Dickstein DR, Rumbell T, Jefferies WA, Dickstein DL. The intracellular domain of major histocompatibility class-I proteins is essential for maintaining excitatory spine density and synaptic ultrastructure in the brain. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6448. [PMID: 37081001 PMCID: PMC10119172 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30054-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) proteins are expressed in neurons, where they regulate synaptic plasticity. However, the mechanisms by which MHC-I functions in the CNS remains unknown. Here we describe the first structural analysis of a MHC-I protein, to resolve underlying mechanisms that explains its function in the brain. We demonstrate that Y321F mutation of the conserved cytoplasmic tyrosine-based endocytosis motif YXXΦ in MHC-I affects spine density and synaptic structure without affecting neuronal complexity in the hippocampus, a region of the brain intimately involved in learning and memory. Furthermore, the impact of the Y321F substitution phenocopies MHC-I knock-out (null) animals, demonstrating that reverse, outside-in signalling events sensing the external environment is the major mechanism that conveys this information to the neuron and this has a previously undescribed yet essential role in the regulation of synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej J Lazarczyk
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Medical Direction and Quality, Division of Institutional Measures, University Hospitals of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Brett A Eyford
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Robert H.N. Ho Research Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Merina Varghese
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Hitesh Arora
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Robert H.N. Ho Research Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Lonna Munro
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Robert H.N. Ho Research Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370 - 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, Life Sciences Institute, 1364 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Tahia Warda
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Cheryl G Pfeifer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Robert H.N. Ho Research Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370 - 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, Life Sciences Institute, 1364 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Allison Sowa
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Daniel R Dickstein
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Timothy Rumbell
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Wilfred A Jefferies
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Robert H.N. Ho Research Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 2370 - 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Department of Medical Genetics, Life Sciences Institute, 1364 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Dara L Dickstein
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Rd, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine Inc., Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA.
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5
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Xu X, He K, Hoffman RD, Ying Y, Tao N, Guo W, Shen J, Liu X, Li M, Yan M, Lv G, Gao J. Thymosin Beta 15 Alters the Spatial Development of Thymic Epithelial Cells. Cells 2022; 11:cells11223679. [PMID: 36429107 PMCID: PMC9688846 DOI: 10.3390/cells11223679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The thymus is the most sensitive organ under various pathophysiological conditions, such as aging, starvation, and infection. As a key stromal cell for T cell development, it is well-known that thymic epithelial cells (TECs) play an important role in the thymus response to the external environment. Thymosin beta 15 (Tβ15) is a G-actin binding protein secreted by TECs, it plays an important role in maintaining the dynamic balance of actin, angiogenesis, axonal formation, and wound healing, but the relationship between Tβ15 and TECs is not clear yet. Here, we show the impact of Tβ15 on the TEC's spatial development, as well as the T-cell differentiation and thymic output. As a result, TEC is the main effector cell of Tβ15 in the thymus. Tβ15 OX inhibits the chemotaxis of TECs to the medulla and subsequently blocks the positive selection of thymocytes from CD3+TCRβ+CD4+CD8+ double positive cells to CD3+TCRβ+CD4+CD8- single-positive (CD4SP) cells. Tβ15-knockdown accelerates the reticular differentiation of astral TECs and medullary TECs. Importantly, mice implanted with Tβ15-knockdown iTECs show high thymic output but low peripheral T cell maturity and activity. In a word, our results explain the role of Tβ15 on the differentiation and function of TECs and provide a new perspective for understanding the process of thymus development and degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xie Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Kai He
- The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Robert D. Hoffman
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yo San University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90066, USA
| | - Yuyuan Ying
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Nana Tao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Wenqin Guo
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Jiaman Shen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Xi Liu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China
| | - Meiya Li
- Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Meiqiu Yan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, University of Macau, Macao 999078, China
| | - Guiyuan Lv
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
- Correspondence: (G.L.); (J.G.); Tel.: +86-571-86613601 (G.L.); +86-571-6613504 (J.G.)
| | - Jianli Gao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, University of Macau, Macao 999078, China
- Correspondence: (G.L.); (J.G.); Tel.: +86-571-86613601 (G.L.); +86-571-6613504 (J.G.)
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6
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Peng J, Ghosh D, Zhang F, Yang L, Wu J, Pang J, Zhang L, Yin S, Jiang Y. Advancement of epigenetics in stroke. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:981726. [PMID: 36312038 PMCID: PMC9610114 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.981726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A wide plethora of intervention procedures, tissue plasminogen activators, mechanical thrombectomy, and several neuroprotective drugs were reported in stroke research over the last decennium. However, against this vivid background of newly emerging pieces of evidence, there is little to no advancement in the overall functional outcomes. With the advancement of epigenetic tools and technologies associated with intervention medicine, stroke research has entered a new fertile. The stroke involves an overabundance of inflammatory responses arising in part due to the body's immune response to brain injury. Neuroinflammation contributes to significant neuronal cell death and the development of functional impairment and even death in stroke patients. Recent studies have demonstrated that epigenetics plays a key role in post-stroke conditions, leading to inflammatory responses and alteration of the microenvironment within the injured tissue. In this review, we summarize the progress of epigenetics which provides an overview of recent advancements on the emerging key role of secondary brain injury in stroke. We also discuss potential epigenetic therapies related to clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhua Peng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Laboratory of Neurological Diseases and Brain Function, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Institute of Epigenetics and Brain Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Academician (Expert) Workstation of Sichuan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Dipritu Ghosh
- Laboratory of Neurological Diseases and Brain Function, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Jinpeng Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Jinwei Pang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Lifang Zhang
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Shigang Yin
- Laboratory of Neurological Diseases and Brain Function, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Institute of Epigenetics and Brain Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yong Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Laboratory of Neurological Diseases and Brain Function, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Institute of Epigenetics and Brain Science, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
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7
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Srancikova A, Bacova Z, Bakos J. The epigenetic regulation of synaptic genes contributes to the etiology of autism. Rev Neurosci 2021; 32:791-802. [PMID: 33939901 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2021-0014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetic mechanisms greatly affect the developing brain, as well as the maturation of synapses with pervasive, long-lasting consequences on behavior in adults. Substantial evidence exists that implicates dysregulation of epigenetic mechanisms in the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Therefore, this review explains the role of enzymes involved in DNA methylation and demethylation in neurodevelopment by emphasizing changes of synaptic genes and proteins. Epigenetic causes of sex-dependent differences in the brain are analyzed in conjunction with the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorders. Special attention is devoted to the epigenetic regulation of the melanoma-associated antigen-like gene 2 (MAGEL2) found in Prader-Willi syndrome, which is known to be accompanied by autistic symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annamaria Srancikova
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Bacova
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jan Bakos
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
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8
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Zhang P, Xia Q, Liu L, Li S, Dong L. Current Opinion on Molecular Characterization for GBM Classification in Guiding Clinical Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapy. Front Mol Biosci 2020; 7:562798. [PMID: 33102518 PMCID: PMC7506064 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.562798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is highly invasive and the deadliest brain tumor in adults. It is characterized by inter-tumor and intra-tumor heterogeneity, short patient survival, and lack of effective treatment. Prognosis and therapy selection is driven by molecular data from gene transcription, genetic alterations and DNA methylation. The four GBM molecular subtypes are proneural, neural, classical, and mesenchymal. More effective personalized therapy heavily depends on higher resolution molecular subtype signatures, combined with gene therapy, immunotherapy and organoid technology. In this review, we summarize the principal GBM molecular classifications that guide diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Qin Xia
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Liqun Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Shouwei Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sanbo Brain Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Dong
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
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9
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Saleh R, Toor SM, Taha RZ, Al-Ali D, Sasidharan Nair V, Elkord E. DNA methylation in the promoters of PD-L1, MMP9, ARG1, galectin-9, TIM-3, VISTA and TGF-β genes in HLA-DR - myeloid cells, compared with HLA-DR + antigen-presenting cells. Epigenetics 2020; 15:1275-1288. [PMID: 32419601 PMCID: PMC7678924 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2020.1767373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid cells, including antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) play opposing roles to orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses during physiological and pathological conditions. We investigated the role of DNA methylation in regulating the transcription of inhibitory/suppressive molecules in myeloid suppressive cells (identified as CD33+HLA-DR-) in comparison to APCs. We selected a number of immune checkpoints (ICs), IC ligands, and immunosuppressive molecules that have been implicated in MDSC function, including PD-L1, TIM-3, VISTA, galectin-9, TGF-β, ARG1 and MMP9. We examined their mRNA expression levels, and investigated whether DNA methylation regulates their transcription in sorted myeloid cell subpopulations. We found that mRNA levels of PD-L1, TIM-3, TGF-β, ARG1 and MMP9 in CD33+HLA-DR- cells were higher than APCs. However, VISTA and galectin-9 mRNA levels were relatively similar in both myeloid subpopulations. CpG islands in the promoter regions of TGF-β1, TIM-3 and ARG1 were highly unmethylated in CD33+HLA-DR-cells, compared with APCs, suggesting that DNA methylation is one of the key mechanisms, which regulate their expression. However, we did not find differences in the methylation status of PD-L1 and MMP9 between CD33+HLA-DR- and APCs, suggesting that their transcription could be regulated via other genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. The promoter methylation status of VISTA was relatively similar in both myeloid subpopulations. This study provides novel insights into the epigenetic mechanisms, which control the expression of inhibitory/suppressive molecules in circulating CD33+HLA-DR- cells in a steady-state condition, possibly to maintain immune tolerance and haemostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Saleh
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar Foundation (QF) , Doha, Qatar
| | - Salman M Toor
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar Foundation (QF) , Doha, Qatar
| | - Rowaida Z Taha
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar Foundation (QF) , Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Varun Sasidharan Nair
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar Foundation (QF) , Doha, Qatar
| | - Eyad Elkord
- Cancer Research Center, Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar Foundation (QF) , Doha, Qatar
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10
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Specific glioblastoma multiforme prognostic-subtype distinctions based on DNA methylation patterns. Cancer Gene Ther 2019; 27:702-714. [PMID: 31619751 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-019-0142-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
DNA methylation is an important regulator of gene expression, and plays a significant role in carcinogenesis in the brain. Here, we explored specific prognosis-subtypes based on DNA methylation status using 138 Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. The methylation profiles of 11,637 CpG sites that significantly correlated with survival in the training set were employed for consensus clustering. We identified three GBM molecular subtypes, and their survival curves were distinct from each other. Furthermore, ten feature CpG sites were obtained on conducting a weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) of the CpG sites. We were able to classify the samples into high- and low-methylation groups, and classified the prognosis information of the samples after cluster analysis of the training set samples using the hierarchical clustering algorithm. Similar results were obtained in the test set and clinical GBM specimens. Finally, we found that a positive relationship existed between methylation level and sensitivity to temozolomide (or radiotherapy) or anti-migration ability of GBM cells. Taken together, these results suggest that the model constructed in this study could help explain the heterogeneity of previous molecular subgroups in GBM and can provide guidance to clinicians regarding the prognosis of GBM.
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11
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Chen X, Zhao C, Zhao Z, Wang H, Fang Z. Specific Glioma Prognostic Subtype Distinctions Based on DNA Methylation Patterns. Front Genet 2019; 10:786. [PMID: 31572431 PMCID: PMC6751377 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.00786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation is an important regulator of gene expression and may provide an important basis for effective glioma diagnosis and therapy. Here, we explored specific prognosis subtypes based on DNA methylation status using 653 gliomas from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Five subgroups were distinguished by consensus clustering using 11,637 cytosines preceding a guanosine (CpGs) that significantly influenced survival. The specific DNA methylation patterns were correlated with age, tumor stage, and prognosis. Additionally, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) analysis of CpG sites revealed that 11 of them could distinguish the samples into high- and low-methylation groups and could classify the prognostic information of samples after cluster analysis of the training set samples using the hierarchical clustering algorithm. Similar results were obtained from the test set and 12 glioma patients. Moreover, in vitro experiments revealed an inverse relationship between methylation level and migration ability or insensitivity to temozolomide (or radiotherapy) of glioma cells based on the final prognostic predictor. Thus, these results suggested that the model constructed in this study could provide guidance for clinicians regarding the prognosis of various epigenetic subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueran Chen
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology; Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
| | - Chenggang Zhao
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology; Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Zhiyang Zhao
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology; Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Hongzhi Wang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology; Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
| | - Zhiyou Fang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology; Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
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12
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Friedrich M, Jasinski-Bergner S, Lazaridou MF, Subbarayan K, Massa C, Tretbar S, Mueller A, Handke D, Biehl K, Bukur J, Donia M, Mandelboim O, Seliger B. Tumor-induced escape mechanisms and their association with resistance to checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2019; 68:1689-1700. [PMID: 31375885 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-019-02373-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy aims to activate the immune system to fight cancer in a very specific and targeted manner. Despite the success of different immunotherapeutic strategies, in particular antibodies directed against checkpoints as well as adoptive T-cell therapy, the response of patients is limited in different types of cancers. This attributes to escape of the tumor from immune surveillance and development of acquired resistances during therapy. In this review, the different evasion and resistance mechanisms that limit the efficacy of immunotherapies targeting tumor-associated antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex molecules on the surface of the malignant cells are summarized. Overcoming these escape mechanisms is a great challenge, but might lead to a better clinical outcome of patients and is therefore currently a major focus of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Friedrich
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Simon Jasinski-Bergner
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Maria-Filothei Lazaridou
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Karthikeyan Subbarayan
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Chiara Massa
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Sandy Tretbar
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Anja Mueller
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Diana Handke
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Katharina Biehl
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Jürgen Bukur
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Marco Donia
- Department of Oncology, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Ofer Mandelboim
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Barbara Seliger
- Institute of Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Straße 2, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany.
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13
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Brennan S, Keon M, Liu B, Su Z, Saksena NK. Panoramic Visualization of Circulating MicroRNAs Across Neurodegenerative Diseases in Humans. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:7380-7407. [PMID: 31037649 PMCID: PMC6815273 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1615-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and dementia pose one of the greatest health challenges this century. Although these NDs have been looked at as single entities, the underlying molecular mechanisms have never been collectively visualized to date. With the advent of high-throughput genomic and proteomic technologies, we now have the opportunity to visualize these diseases in a whole new perspective, which will provide a clear understanding of the primary and secondary events vital in achieving the final resolution of these diseases guiding us to new treatment strategies to possibly treat these diseases together. We created a knowledge base of all microRNAs known to be differentially expressed in various body fluids of ND patients. We then used several bioinformatic methods to understand the functional intersections and differences between AD, PD, ALS, and MS. These results provide a unique panoramic view of possible functional intersections between AD, PD, MS, and ALS at the level of microRNA and their cognate genes and pathways, along with the entities that unify and separate them. While the microRNA signatures were apparent for each ND, the unique observation in our study was that hsa-miR-30b-5p overlapped between all four NDS, and has significant functional roles described across NDs. Furthermore, our results also show the evidence of functional convergence of miRNAs which was associated with the regulation of their cognate genes represented in pathways that included fatty acid synthesis and metabolism, ECM receptor interactions, prion diseases, and several signaling pathways critical to neuron differentiation and survival, underpinning their relevance in NDs. Envisioning this group of NDs together has allowed us to propose new ways of utilizing circulating miRNAs as biomarkers and in visualizing diverse NDs more holistically . The critical molecular insights gained through the discovery of ND-associated miRNAs, overlapping miRNAs, and the functional convergence of microRNAs on vital pathways strongly implicated in neurodegenerative processes can prove immensely valuable in the identifying new generation of biomarkers, along with the development of miRNAs into therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Brennan
- Neurodegenerative Disease section, Iggy Get Out, 19a Boundary Street, Darlinghurst NSW 2010, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matthew Keon
- Neurodegenerative Disease section, Iggy Get Out, 19a Boundary Street, Darlinghurst NSW 2010, Sydney, Australia
| | - Bing Liu
- Neurodegenerative Disease section, Iggy Get Out, 19a Boundary Street, Darlinghurst NSW 2010, Sydney, Australia
| | - Zheng Su
- Neurodegenerative Disease section, Iggy Get Out, 19a Boundary Street, Darlinghurst NSW 2010, Sydney, Australia
| | - Nitin K. Saksena
- Neurodegenerative Disease section, Iggy Get Out, 19a Boundary Street, Darlinghurst NSW 2010, Sydney, Australia
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