Migrasomes, new vescicles as Hansel and Gretel white pebbles?

Comparison of the efficiency of ultrafiltration, precipitation, and ultracentrifugation methods for exosome isolation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are enclosed by a lipid-bilayer membrane and secreted by all types of cells. They are classified into three groups: apoptotic bodies, microvesicles, and exosomes. Exosomes play a number of important roles in the intercellular communication and crosstalk between tissues in the body. In this study, we use three common methods based on different principles for exosome isolation, namely ultrafiltration, precipitation, and ultracentrifugation. We use field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analyses for characterization of exosomes. The functionality and effect of isolated exosomes on the viability of hypoxic cells was investigated by alamarBlue and Flow-cytometry. The results of the FESEM study show that the ultrafiltration method isolates vesicles with higher variability of shapes and sizes when compared to the precipitation and ultracentrifugation methods. DLS results show that mean size of exosomes isolated by ultrafiltration, precipitation, and ultracentrifugation methods are 122, 89, and 60 nm respectively. AlamarBlue analysis show that isolated exosomes increase the viability of damaged cells by 11%, 15%, and 22%, respectively. Flow-cytometry analysis of damaged cells also show that these vesicles increase the content of live cells by 9%, 15%, and 20%, respectively. This study shows that exosomes isolated by the ultracentrifugation method are characterized by smaller size and narrow size distribution. Furthermore, more homogenous particles isolated by this method show increased efficiency of the protection of hypoxic cells in comparison with the exosomes isolated by the two other methods.

Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and formation of migrasome increases in the glioma cells induced by the adipokinetic hormone

OBJECTIVE

It has been previously shown that brain-derived neurotrophic factor is linked with various types of cancer. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is found to be highly expressed in multiple human cancers and associated with tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Adipokinetic hormones are functionally related to the vertebrate glucagon, as they have similar functionalities that manage the nutrient-dependent secretion of these two hormones. Migrasomes are new organelles that contain numerous small vesicles, which aid in transmitting signals between the migrating cells. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Anax imperator adipokinetic hormone on brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression and ultrastructure of cells in the C6 glioma cell line.

METHODS

The rat C6 glioma cells were treated with concentrations of 5 and 10 Anax imperator adipokinetic hormone for 24 h. The effects of the Anax imperator adipokinetic hormone on the migrasome formation and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression were analyzed using immunocytochemistry and transmission electron microscope.

RESULTS

The rat C6 glioma cells of the 5 and 10 μM Anax imperator adipokinetic hormone groups showed significantly high expressions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and migrasomes numbers, compared with the control group.

CONCLUSION

A positive correlation was found between the brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression level and the formation of migrasome, which indicates that the increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and the number of migrasomes may be involved to metastasis of the rat C6 glioma cell line induced by the Anax imperator adipokinetic hormone. Therefore, the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and migrasome formation may be promising targets for preventing tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis in glioma.

Novel insights into the roles of migrasome in cancer

Cell migration, a hallmark of cancer malignancy, plays a critical role in cancers. Improperly initiated or misdirected cell migration can lead to invasive metastatic cancer. Migrasomes are newly discovered vesicular cellular organelles produced by migrating cells and depending on cell migration. Four marker proteins [NDST1 (bifunctionalheparan sulfate N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase 1), EOGT (Epidermal growth factor domains pecific O-linked N-acetylglucosaminetransferase), CPQ (carboxypeptidase Q), and PIGK (phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis, class K)] of migrasomes were successfully identified. There are three marker proteins (NDST1, PIGK, and EOGT) of migrasome expressed in cancer. In this review, we will discuss the process of migrasome discovery, the formation of migrasome, the possible functions of migrasome, and the differences between migrasomes and exosomes, especially, the biological functions of migrasome marker proteins in cancer, and discuss some possible roles of migrasomes in cancer. We speculate that migrasomes and migracytosis can play key roles in regulating the development of cancer.

Tumor Microenvironment Modulation by Cancer-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in the process of tumorigenesis, regulating the growth, metabolism, proliferation, and invasion of cancer cells, as well as contributing to tumor resistance to the conventional chemoradiotherapies. Several types of cells with relatively stable phenotypes have been identified within the TME, including cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), neutrophils, and natural killer (NK) cells, which have been shown to modulate cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, and interaction with the immune system, thus promoting tumor heterogeneity. Growing evidence suggests that tumor-cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), via the transfer of various molecules (e.g., RNA, proteins, peptides, and lipids), play a pivotal role in the transformation of normal cells in the TME into their tumor-associated protumorigenic counterparts. This review article focuses on the functions of EVs in the modulation of the TME with a view to how exosomes contribute to the transformation of normal cells, as well as their importance for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid metabolite (AMPA) modulate the phenotype of murine melanoma B16-F1 cells

Pesticides are contaminants run-offs from agricultural areas with a global concern due to their toxicity for non-target organisms. The Brazilian Health Surveillance Agency reported about 63% of the food contain pesticide residues. Glyphosate is a herbicide used worldwide but its toxicity is not a consensus among specialists around the world. AMPA (aminomethylphosphonic acid) is a glyphosate metabolite that can be more toxic than the parental molecule. Melanoma murine B16-F1 cells were exposed to glyphosate and AMPA to investigate the cell profile and possible induction to a more malignant phenotype. Glyphosate modulated the multi-drug resistance mechanisms by ABCB5 gene expression, decreasing cell attachment, increasing cell migration and inducing extracellular vesicles production, and the cells exposed to AMPA revealed potential damages to DNA. The present study observed that AMPA exhibits high cytotoxicity, which suggests a potential impact on non-tumor cells, which are, in general, more susceptible to chemical exposure. Conversely, glyphosate favored a more metastatic and chemoresistant behavior in cancer cells, highlighting the importance of additional research in this area.

Polyphosphate Nanoparticles: Balancing Energy Requirements in Tissue Regeneration Processes

Nanoparticles of a particular, evolutionarily old inorganic polymer found across the biological kingdoms have attracted increasing interest in recent years not only because of their crucial role in metabolism but also their potential medical applicability: it is inorganic polyphosphate (polyP). This ubiquitous linear polymer is composed of 10-1000 phosphate residues linked by high-energy anhydride bonds. PolyP causes induction of gene activity, provides phosphate for bone mineralization, and serves as an energy supplier through enzymatic cleavage of its acid anhydride bonds and subsequent ATP formation. The biomedical breakthrough of polyP came with the development of a successful fabrication process, in depot form, as Ca- or Mg-polyP nanoparticles, or as the directly effective polymer, as soluble Na-polyP, for regenerative repair and healing processes, especially in tissue areas with insufficient blood supply. Physiologically, the platelets are the main vehicles for polyP nanoparticles in the circulating blood. To be biomedically active, these particles undergo coacervation. This review provides an overview of the properties of polyP and polyP nanoparticles for applications in the regeneration and repair of bone, cartilage, and skin. In addition to studies on animal models, the first successful proof-of-concept studies on humans for the healing of chronic wounds are outlined.

Acute Genetic Damage Induced by Ethanol and Corticosterone Seems to Modulate Hippocampal Astrocyte Signaling

Astrocytes maintain CNS homeostasis but also critically contribute to neurological and psychiatric disorders. Such functional diversity implies an extensive signaling repertoire including extracellular vesicles (EVs) and nanotubes (NTs) that could be involved in protection or damage, as widely shown in various experimental paradigms. However, there is no information associating primary damage to the astrocyte genome, the DNA damage response (DDR), and the EV and NT repertoire. Furthermore, similar studies were not performed on hippocampal astrocytes despite their involvement in memory and learning processes, as well as in the development and maintenance of alcohol addiction. By exposing murine hippocampal astrocytes to 400 mM ethanol (EtOH) and/or 1 μM corticosterone (CTS) for 1 h, we tested whether the induced DNA damage and DDR could elicit significant changes in NTs and surface-attached EVs. Genetic damage and initial DDR were assessed by immunolabeling against the phosphorylated histone variant H2AX (γH2AX), DDR-dependent apoptosis by BAX immunoreactivity, and astrocyte activation by the glial acidic fibrillary protein (GFAP) and phalloidin staining. Surface-attached EVs and NTs were examined via scanning electron microscopy, and labeled proteins were analyzed via confocal microscopy. Relative to controls, astrocytes exposed to EtOH, CTS, or EtOH+CTS showed significant increases in nuclear γlH2AX foci, nuclear and cytoplasmic BAX signals, and EV frequency at the expense of the NT amount, mainly upon EtOH, without detectable signs of morphological reactivity. Furthermore, the largest and most complex EVs originated only in DNA-damaged astrocytes. Obtained results revealed that astrocytes exposed to acute EtOH and/or CTS preserved their typical morphology but presented severe DNA damage, triggered canonical DDR pathways, and early changes in the cell signaling mediated by EVs and NTs. Further deepening of this initial morphological and quantitative analysis is necessary to identify the mechanistic links between genetic damage, DDR, cell-cell communication, and their possible impact on hippocampal neural cells.

Extracellular vesicles: powerful candidates in nano-drug delivery systems

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are nanoparticles that are actively released by cells, contain a variety of biologically active substances, serve as significant mediators of intercellular communication, and participate in many processes, in health and pathologically. Compared with traditional nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs), EVs have unique advantages due to their natural physiological properties, such as their biocompatibility, stability, ability to cross barriers, and inherent homing properties. A growing number of studies have reported that EVs deliver therapeutic proteins, small-molecule drugs, siRNAs, miRNAs, therapeutic proteins, and nanomaterials for targeted therapy in various diseases. However, due to the lack of standardized techniques for isolating, quantifying, and characterizing EVs; lower-than-anticipated drug loading efficiency; insufficient clinical production; and potential safety concerns, the practical application of EVs still faces many challenges. Here, we systematically review the current commonly used methods for isolating EVs, summarize the types and methods of loading therapeutic drugs into EVs, and discuss the latest progress in applying EVs as NDDs. Finally, we present the challenges that hinder the clinical application of EVs.

Worldwide productivity and research trend of publications concerning extracellular vesicles role in fibrosis: A bibliometric study from 2013 to 2022

Background

Fibrosis is a heavy burden on the global healthcare system. Recently, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated that Extracellular vesicles play an important role in intercellular communication under both physiological and pathological conditions. This study aimed to explore the role of extracellular vesicles' in fibrosis using bibliometric methods.

Methods

Original articles and reviews related to extracellular vesicles and fibrosis were obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection database on November 9, 2022. VOSviewer was used to obtain general information, including co-institution, co-authorship, and co-occurrence visualization maps. The CiteSpace software was used to analyze citation bursts of keywords and references, a timeline view of the top clusters of keywords and cited articles, and the dual map. R package "bibliometrix" was used to analyze annual production, citation per year, collaboration network between countries/regions, thematic evolution map, and historiography network.

Results

In total, 3376 articles related to extracellular vesicles and fibrosis published from 2013 to 2022 were included in this study, with China and the United States being the top contributors. Shanghai Jiao Tong University has the highest number of publications. The main collaborators were Giovanni Camussi, Stefania Bruno, Marta Tepparo, and Cristina Grange. Journals related to molecular, biology, genetics, health, immunology, and medicine tended to publish literature on extracellular vesicles and fibrosis. "Recovery," "heterogeneity," "degradation," "inflammation," and "mesenchymal stem cells" are the keywords in this research field. Literature on extracellular vesicles and fibrosis associated with several diseases, including "kidney disease," "rheumatoid arthritis," and "skin regeneration" may be the latest hot research field.

Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive perspective on extracellular vesicles and fibrosis through a bibliometric analysis of articles published between 2013 and 2022. We identified the most influential countries, institutions, authors, and journals. We provide information on recent research frontiers and trends for scholars interested in the field of extracellular vesicles and fibrosis. Their role in biological processes has great potential to initiate a new upsurge in future research.

Effect of radiotherapy on the DNA cargo and cellular uptake mechanisms of extracellular vesicles

In the past decades, plenty of evidence has gathered pointing to the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by irradiated cells in the development of radiation-induced non-targeted effects. EVs are complex natural structures composed of a phospholipid bilayer which are secreted by virtually all cells and carry bioactive molecules. They can travel certain distances in the body before being taken up by recipient cells. In this review we discuss the role and fate of EVs in tumor cells and highlight the importance of DNA specimens in EVs cargo in the context of radiotherapy. The effect of EVs depends on their cargo, which reflects physiological and pathological conditions of donor cell types, but also depends on the mode of EV uptake and mechanisms involved in the route of EV internalization. While the secretion and cargo of EVs from irradiated cells has been extensively studied in recent years, their uptake is much less understood. In this review, we will focus on recent knowledge regarding the EV uptake of cancer cells and the effect of radiation in this process.

Migrasome: a new functional extracellular vesicle

Migrasome is a novel cellular organelle produced during cell migration, and its biogenesis depends on the migration process. It is generated in a variety of cells such as immune cells, metastatic tumor cells, other special functional cells like podocytes and cells in developing organisms. It plays important roles in various fields especially in the information exchange between cells. The discovery of migrasome, as an important supplement to the extracellular vesicle system, provides new mechanisms and targets for comprehending various biological or pathological processes. In this article, we will review the discovery, structure, distribution, detection, biogenesis, and removal of migrasomes and mainly focus on summarizing its biological functions in cell-to-cell communication, homeostatic maintenance, embryonic development and multiple diseases. This review also creates prospects for the possible research directions and clinical applications of migrasomes in the future.

Pathological and Therapeutic Significance of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Cell Migration and Metastasis

The infiltration of primary tumors and metastasis formation at distant sites strongly impact the prognosis and the quality of life of cancer patients. Current therapies including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are limited in targeting the complex cell migration mechanisms responsible for cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis. A better understanding of these mechanisms and the development of new therapies are urgently needed. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-enveloped particles involved in inter-tissue and inter-cell communication. This review article focuses on the impact of EVs released by tumor cells, specifically on cancer cell migration and metastasis. We first introduce cell migration processes and EV subtypes, and we give an overview of how tumor-derived EVs (TDEVs) may impact cancer cell migration. Then, we discuss ongoing EV-based cancer therapeutic approaches, including the inhibition of general EV-related mechanisms as well as the use of EVs for anti-cancer drug delivery, focusing on the harnessing of TDEVs. We propose a protein-EV shuttle as a route alternative to secretion or cell membrane binding, influencing downstream signaling and the final effect on target cells, with strong implications in tumorigenesis. Finally, we highlight the pitfalls and limitations of therapeutic EV exploitation that must be overcome to realize the promise of EVs for cancer therapy.

Migrasome, a novel organelle, differs from exosomes

Migrasomes, a newly discovered organelle produced by migrating cells, are vesicles with membranous structure that form on the tips and intersections of retraction fibers (RFs). These structures are released into the extracellular environment or taken up by surrounding cells, mediating the release of cytoplasmic contents and intercellular communication. Retractosomes, a new type of small extracellular vesicles generated from broken-off RFs, are closely related to migrasomes in their physical location and origin, but were defined later. Despite their widespread existence in cells and biological organisms, little is known about the regulatory mechanisms underlying their formation and potential function. In this review, we provide an overview of the discovery, biogenesis, distribution, and functions of migrasomes and retractosomes, as well as their differences from exosomes.

Challenges associated with using extracellular vesicles as biomarkers in neurodegenerative disease

INTRODUCTION

The hunt for new biomarkers - for the diagnosis of subcategories of disease, or for the monitoring of the efficacy of novel therapeutics - is an increasingly relevant challenge in the current era of precision medicine. In neurodegenerative research, the aim is to look for simple tools which can predict cognitive or motor decline early, and to determine whether these can also be used to test the efficacy of new interventions. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are thought to play an important role in intercellular communication and have been shown to play a vital role in a number of diseases.

AREAS COVERED

The aim of this review is to examine what we know about EVs in neurodegeneration and to discuss their potential to be diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in the future. It will cover the techniques used to isolate and study EVs and what is currently known about their presence in neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, we will discuss what is required for standardization in biomarker research, and the challenges associated with using EVs within this framework.

EXPERT OPINION

The technical challenges associated with isolating EVs consistently, combined with the complex techniques required for their efficient analysis, might preclude 'pure' EV populations from being used as effective biomarkers. Whilst biomarker discovery is important for more effective diagnosis, monitoring, prediction and prognosis in neurodegenerative disease, reproducibility and ease-of-use should be the priorities.

Migrasomes, a new mode of intercellular communication

Migrasomes are newly discovered extracellular vesicles (EVs) that are formed in migrating cells and mediate intercellular communication. However, their size, biological generation, cargo packaging, transport, and effects on recipient cells by migrasomes are different from those of other EVs. In addition to mediating organ morphogenesis during zebrafish gastrulation, discarding damaged mitochondria, and lateral transport of mRNA and proteins, growing evidence has demonstrated that migrasomes mediate a variety of pathological processes. In this review, we summarize the discovery, mechanisms of formation, isolation, identification, and mediation of cellular communication in migrasomes. We discuss migrasome-mediated disease processes, such as osteoclast differentiation, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, tumor cell metastasis by PD-L1 transport, immune cell chemotaxis to the site of infection by chemokines, angiogenesis promotion via angiogenic factors by immune cells, and leukemic cells chemotaxis to the site of mesenchymal stromal cells. Moreover, as new EVs, we propose the potential of migrasomes for disease diagnosis and treatment. Video Abstract.

Mitocytosis Is Critical for Phthalate-Induced Injury to the Ovarian Granulosa Cell Layer in Quail (Coturnix japonica)

Phthalates are widely used synthetic chemicals that determine endocrine disruption effects on female reproductivity and oviposition. Our study demonstrated that the mitochondrial quality in ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) is associated with a poor prognosis in female reproduction. However, the molecular mechanism of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) exposure on the quail ovarian GC layer is still unknown. To validate the effects of DEHP on the GC layer, 8 days' old 150 female Japanese quail were treated orally with DEHP (250, 500, and 750 mg/kg BW/day) for 45 days to explore the toxic effects of DEHP on the ovarian GC layer. Histopathological assessment and ultrastructure observation found that DEHP decreased the thickness of the GC layer, resulted in mitochondrial damage, and activated mitocytosis. Additionally, the results further suggested that DEHP impacted the secretion of steroid hormones (reduced FSH, E2, and T levels and boosted Prog, PRL, and LH levels) by triggering mitocytosis (enhanced transcription of MYO19 and protein of KIF5B levels), mitochondrial dynamics (increasing mRNA and protein levels of OPA1, DRP1, MFN1, and MFN2), mitophagy (increasing mRNA and protein levels of Parkin, LC3B, and P62), and inducing GC function disorder. In conclusion, our research provided a new idea to explain the mechanism of DEHP toxicity of the ovarian GC layer in quail and presented insights into the role of mitocytosis in DEHP-induced ovarian GC layer injury.

Endothelial cells release microvesicles that harbour multivesicular bodies and secrete exosomes

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by endothelial cells support vascular homeostasis. To better understand endothelial cell EV biogenesis, we examined cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) prepared by rapid freezing, freeze-substitution, and serial thin section electron microscopy (EM). Thin sections of HUVECs revealed clusters of membrane protrusions on the otherwise smooth cell surface. The protrusions contained membrane-bound organelles, including multivesicular bodies (MVBs), and appeared to be on the verge of pinching off to form microvesicles. Beyond cell peripheries, membrane-bound vesicles with internal MVBs were observed, and serial sections confirmed that they were not connected to cells. These observations are consistent with the notion that these multi-compartmented microvesicles (MCMVs) pinch-off from protrusions. Remarkably, omega figures formed by fusion of vesicles with the MCMV limiting membrane were directly observed, apparently releasing exosomes from the MCMV. In summary, MCMVs are a novel form of EV that bud from membrane protrusions on the HUVEC surface, contain MVBs and release exosomes. These observations suggest that exosomes can be harboured within and released from transiting microvesicles after departure from the parent cell, constituting a new site of exosome biogenesis occurring from endothelial and potentially additional cell types.

Extracellular vesicles and melanoma: New perspectives on tumor microenvironment and metastasis

Secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer particles without functional nucleus naturally released from cells which constitute an intercellular communication system. There is a broad spectrum of vesicles shed by cells based on their physical properties such as size (small EVs and large EVs), biogenesis, cargo and functions, which provide an increasingly heterogenous landscape. In addition, they are involved in multiple physiological and pathological processes. In cancer, EV release is opted by tumor cells as a beneficial process for tumor progression. Cutaneous melanoma is a cancer that originates from the melanocyte lineage and shows a favorable prognosis at early stages. However, when melanoma cells acquire invasive capacity, it constitutes the most aggressive and deadly skin cancer. In this context, extracellular vesicles have been shown their relevance in facilitating melanoma progression through the modulation of the microenvironment and metastatic spreading. In agreement with the melanosome secretory capacity of melanocytes, melanoma cells display an enhanced EV shedding activity that has contributed to the utility of melanoma models for unravelling EV cargo and functions within a cancer scenario. In this review, we provide an in-depth overview of the characteristics of melanoma-derived EVs and their role in melanoma progression highlighting key advances and remaining open questions in the field.

Functional importance of coacervation to convert calcium polyphosphate nanoparticles into the physiologically active state

Inorganic polyphosphates (polyP) are of increasing medical interest due to their unprecedented ability to exhibit both morphogenetic and ATP-delivering properties. However, these polymers are only physiologically active in the coacervate state, but not as amorphous nanoparticles (NP), the storage form of the polymer. Little is known about the mechanism of formation and interconversion of these two distinct polyP phases in the presence of metal ions. Based on in silico simulation studies, showing a differential clustering of polyP and calcium ions, the pH-dependent NP and coacervate formation of polyP was examined experimentally. Turbidimetric studies showed that Ca-polyP coacervate formation at pH 7 is a slow process compared to NP formation at pH 10. In FTIR spectra, the asymmetric stretching vibration signal of the internal (PO₂)⁻ units, which is present in the Ca-polyP coacervate formed at pH 7, disappears in the NP formed at pH 10 using the conventional method (dropping of a CaCl₂ solution into a Na-polyP solution). Surprisingly, when reversing the procedure, adding Na-polyP to CaCl₂, a coacervate is obtained at both pH 7 and pH 10, as confirmed by SEM and FTIR analyses. The (PO₂)⁻ signal also disappears when Ca-polyP-NP are exposed to peptides, leading to the transformation of the NP into the coacervate phase. From these results, a mechanistic model of pH-dependent coacervate and NP formation is proposed that considers not only electrostatic ion-ion but also ion-dipole interactions. Functional studies revealed a delayed polyP release kinetics for Ca-polyP-NP embedded in a hydrogel due to NP/coacervate conversion. Human A549 epithelial cells grown on the coacervate show increased proliferation and ATP production compared to cells cultured on particulate polyP. Ca-polyP NP taken up by endocytosis undergo intracellular coacervate transformation. Understanding the differential expression of the two polyP phases is of functional importance for the potential therapeutic application of this physiological, regeneratively active polymer.

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Polyphosphate (polyP) is a polymer that is abundantly formed in blood platelets.

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This polyanionic polymer exists both in the form of soluble polyP chains and as nanoparticles.

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PolyP polymers must undergo coacervation before reaching functional activity.

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Coacervation is based on a redistribution of the Ca²⁺ and polyP ions, distinct from nanoparticle formation.

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In the coacervate state, polyP causes cell proliferation and ATP generation.

Extracellular vesicles derived from microgreens of Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef contain bioactive macromolecules and inhibit HCT116 cells proliferation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles released from cells, containing natural cargos. Microgreens of Raphanus sativus L. var. caudatus Alef were used in this study as the source of EVs. EVs were isolated by differential centrifugation. The physical properties were determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and electron microscopy. The biological and chemical composition were studied by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, respectively. EVs had a median size of 227.17 and 234.90 ± 23.30 nm determined by electron microscopy and DLS, respectively with a polydispersity index of 0.293 ± 0.019. Electron microscopy indicated the intact morphology and confirmed the size. The FTIR spectra revealed that EVs are composed of proteins as the most abundant macromolecules. Using a curve-fitting analysis, β-pleated sheets were the predominant secondary structure. Notably, the micromolecular biomarkers were not detected. EVs exerted anti-cancer activity on HCT116 colon cancer over Vero normal cells with an IC₅₀ of 448.98 µg/ml and a selectivity index of > 2.23. To conclude, EVs could be successfully prepared with a simple and effective isolation method to contain nano-sized macromolecules possessing anti-cancer activity.