Prevalence, species identification and genotyping Cryptosporidium from livestock and deer in a catchment in the Cairngorms with a history of a contaminated public water supply

Molecular detection of Cryptosporidium in Alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) in Gansu Province, Northwest China

Cryptosporidium spp. are protozoa commonly found in domestic and wild animals. Limited information is available on Cryptosporidium in deer worldwide. In this study, 201 fecal samples were collected from Alpine musk deer on three farms in Gansu Province, China. Detection and subtyping of Cryptosporidium were performed by PCR and sequence analysis of the SSU rRNA and gp60 genes. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in Alpine musk deer was 3.9% (8/201), with infection rates of 1.0% (1/100), 2.8% (1/36), and 9.2% (6/65) in three different farms. All positive samples for Cryptosporidium were from adult deer. Two Cryptosporidium species were identified, including C. parvum (n = 2) and C. xiaoi (n = 6). The C. parvum isolates were subtyped as IIdA15G1, while the C. xiaoi isolates were subtyped as XXIIIa (n = 2) and XXIIIg (n = 4). The IIdA15G1 subtype of C. parvum was found for the first time in deer. These results provide important insights into the identity and human infectious potential of Cryptosporidium in farmed Alpine musk deer.

Anti-Cryptosporidial Drug-Discovery Challenges and Existing Therapeutic Avenues: A "One-Health" Concern

Cryptosporidiosis is the leading cause of life-threatening diarrheal infection, especially in infants. Oocysts contaminate the environment, and also, being a zoonotic disease, cryptosporidiosis is a threat to One Health. Nitazoxanide is the only FDA-approved drug, effective only in immunocompetent adults, and is not safe for infants. The absence of mitochondria and apicoplast, the presence of an electron-dense band (ED band), hindrances in its genetic and phenotypic manipulations, and its unique position inside the host cell are some challenges to the anti-cryptosporidial drug-discovery process. However, many compounds, including herbal products, have shown efficacy against Cryptosporidium during in vitro and in vivo trials. Still, the "drug of choice" against this protozoan parasite, especially in immunocompromised individuals and infants, has not yet been explored. The One-Health approach addresses this issue, focusing on the intersection of animal, human, and environmental health. The objective of this review is to provide knowledge about novel anti-cryptosporidial drug targets, available treatment options with associated limitations, and possible future shifts toward natural products to treat cryptosporidiosis. The current review is organized to address the treatment and prevention of cryptosporidiosis. An anti-cryptosporidial drug that is effective in immunocompromised individuals and infants is a necessity of our time.

Differences in virulence and oocyst shedding profiles in lambs experimentally infected with different isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum

A wide spectrum of disease severity associated with cryptosporidiosis has been described, ranging from asymptomatic to fatal in both human and animal hosts. The reasons for the variations in severity are likely to be multifactorial, involving environmental, host and parasite factors. This paper describes two experimental infection trials in lambs, a symptomatic host for the parasite, to investigate variation in the clinical manifestations following infection with two distinct isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum. In the first experiment, groups of naïve lambs were challenged with one of two isolates (CP1 or CP2) at ​< ​1 week of age, to test the effect of the isolates on disease outcome. In a second experiment one group of lambs challenged at < 1 week of age (CP1) was then re-challenged with the same isolate at 6 weeks of age (CP1), while a second group was challenged for the first time at 6 weeks of age (CP1). This experiment examined age-related disease symptoms, oocyst shedding and the effect of prior exposure to the parasite on a subsequent homologous challenge. The two isolates were associated with significant differences in the demeanour of the animals and in the numbers of oocysts shed in the faeces. There were also differences in the duration and severity of diarrhoea, though these were not significant. The age of the lamb, at the time of a primary challenge (<1 week or 6 weeks), also resulted in differences in clinical outcomes, with younger lambs showing more severe clinical disease than the older lambs (feeding profiles and presentation of diarrhoea), while older lambs showed virtually no signs of infection but still produced large numbers of oocysts.

Occurrence and limited zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Balantioides coli infections in free-ranging and farmed wild ungulates in Spain

Little information is currently available on the occurrence and molecular diversity of the enteric protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Balantioides coli in wild ungulates and the role of these host species as potential sources of environmental contamination and consequent human infections. The presence of these three pathogens was investigated in eight wild ungulate species present in Spain (genera Ammotragus, Capra, Capreolus, Cervus, Dama, Ovis, Rupicapra, and Sus) by molecular methods. Faecal samples were retrospectively collected from free-ranging (n = 1058) and farmed (n = 324) wild ungulates from the five Spanish bioregions. Overall infection rates were 3.0% (42/1382; 95% CI: 2.1-3.9%) for Cryptosporidium spp., 5.4% (74/1382; 95% CI: 4.2-6.5%) for G. duodenalis, and 0.7% (9/1382; 95% CI: 0.3-1.2%) for B. coli. Cryptosporidium infection was detected in roe deer (7.5%), wild boar (7.0%) and red deer (1.5%), and G. duodenalis in southern chamois (12.9%), mouflon (10.0%), Iberian wild goat (9.0%), roe deer (7.5%), wild boar (5.6%), fallow deer (5.2%) and red deer (3.8%). Balantioides coli was only detected in wild boar (2.5%, 9/359). Sequence analyses revealed the presence of six distinct Cryptosporidium species: C. ryanae in red deer, roe deer, and wild boar; C. parvum in red deer and wild boar; C. ubiquitum in roe deer; C. scrofarum in wild boar; C. canis in roe deer; and C. suis in red deer. Zoonotic assemblages A and B were detected in wild boar and red deer, respectively. Ungulate-adapted assemblage E was identified in mouflon, red deer, and southern chamois. Attempts to genotype samples positive for B. coli failed. Sporadic infections by canine- or swine-adapted species may be indicative of potential cross-species transmission, although spurious infections cannot be ruled out. Molecular evidence gathered is consistent with parasite mild infections and limited environmental contamination with (oo)cysts. Free-ranging wild ungulate species would not presumably play a significant role as source of human infections by these pathogens. Wild ruminants do not seem to be susceptible hosts for B. coli.

Follow-up investigation into Cryptosporidium prevalence and transmission in Western European dairy farms

Cryptosporidium parvum is an enteric parasite and a major contributor to acute enteritis in calves worldwide, causing an important economic burden for farmers. This parasite poses a major public health threat through transmission between livestock and humans. Our previous pilot study in Western Europe revealed a high prevalence of Cryptosporidium in calves of dairy farms. In the sequel study herein, 936 faecal samples were collected from the same 51 dairy farms across Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Following DNA extraction, Cryptosporidium screening was carried out using nested-PCR amplification targeting the SSU rRNA gene. All positive samples were sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses were used to identify the Cryptosporidium spp. present. The 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene was also sequenced to determine the C. parvum subtypes present. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium ranged from 23.3% to 25%, across the three countries surveyed. The parasite was found in most of the farms sampled, with 90.2% testing positive. Cryptosporidium parvum, C. bovis, C. ryanae and C. andersoni were all identified, with the former being the most predominant, representing 71.4% of all infections. Cryptosporidium parvum was associated with pre-weaned calves, while other species were associated with older animals. Subtyping of gp60 gene revealed nine subtypes, eight of which have previously been reported to cause clinical disease in humans. Similarly to the first study, vertical transmission was not a major contributor to Cryptosporidium spread. Our study highlights the need for further investigation into cryptosporidiosis transmission, and future studies will require a One Health approach to reduce the impact of this disease.

First report of Cryptosporidium andersoni and risk factors associated with the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned native Korean calves with diarrhea

Cryptosporidium spp. are important enteric protozoan parasites that infect humans and other animals throughout the world. Cryptosporidium infection in cattle industry leads to substantial economic losses due to diarrhea, growth retardation, weight loss, and possibly death. Most studies have focused on C. parvum, and studies on other Cryptosporidium spp. and calf diarrhea are limited. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned calves, to determine the risk factors for Cryptosporidium spp. infection such as age and season, and to identify subtypes of C. parvum circulating in the Republic of Korea (ROK). A total of 510 fecal samples were collected from calves with diarrhea and divided by age and season. Cryptosporidium spp. were first screened using PCR targeting the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene and further the 60-kDa glycoprotein gene for subtyping of C. parvum. Out of 510 fecal samples, 71 (13.9%) were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned calves with diarrhea. C. andersoni (2.8%), C. bovis (30.9%), C. parvum (29.6%), and C. ryanae (36.6%) were identified. C. ryanae was the most predominant in calves in the ROK. Calf age was a significant risk factor for C. bovis (χ² = 13.83, P = 0.001), C. parvum (χ² = 7.57, P = 0.023), and C. ryanae (χ² = 20.18, P = 0.000) occurrence. Additionally, C. parvum was detected 3.1-fold more frequently in pre-weaned calves with diarrhea in fall (95% CI: 1.23-7.81; P = 0.016) than in spring, whereas C. ryanae was 8.9-fold more frequently detected in summer (95% CI: 1.65-48.68; P = 0.011) than in spring. Three subtypes (IIaA17G4R1, IIaA18G3R1, and IIaA20G3R1) of C. parvum were identified. Of them, IIaA17G4R1 was the most common, whereas IIaA20G3R1 was not previously detected in calves in the ROK. To our knowledge, this is the first report of C. andersoni in pre-weaned calves in the ROK. The occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. appears to be age-dependent in calves. Season had a significant effect on the occurrence of C. parvum and C. ryanae. Taken together, C. bovis and C. ryanae along with C. parvum are detected in pre-weaned calves with diarrhea and these two pathogens should not be overlooked in the diagnosis of calf diarrhea.

Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in Environmental Water Samples: A Journey into the Past and New Perspectives

Among the major issues linked with producing safe water for consumption is the presence of the parasitic protozoa Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. Since they are both responsible for gastrointestinal illnesses that can be waterborne, their monitoring is crucial, especially in water sources feeding treatment plants. Although their discovery was made in the early 1900s and even before, it was only in 1999 that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a standardized protocol for the detection of these parasites, modified and named today the U.S. EPA 1623.1 Method. It involves the flow-through filtration of a large volume of the water of interest, the elution of the biological material retained on the filter, the purification of the (oo)cysts, and the detection by immunofluorescence of the target parasites. Since the 1990s, several molecular-biology-based techniques were also developed to detect Cryptosporidium and Giardia cells from environmental or clinical samples. The application of U.S. EPA 1623.1 as well as numerous biomolecular methods are reviewed in this article, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed guiding the readers, such as graduate students, researchers, drinking water managers, epidemiologists, and public health specialists, through the ever-expanding number of techniques available in the literature for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in water.

Overview on Cryptosporidium bovis and Its Effect on Calves in Some Governorates in Egypt

The present study was conducted to elucidate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium bovis in suckling and weaned cattle calves (Bubalus bubalis) from different governorates in northern, middle, and southern Egypt, such as Behera, Menofia, Qaliubiya, Assiut, and Sohag; result revealed that from the overall examined fecal samples (n = 825), the overall prevalence was 7.27%, the highest significant infection rate was in young suckling calves less than one month (8.2%), and seasonally, winter season has the highest significant level (11.24%), but sex and locality were of no significant effect on the prevalence of infection in this study. Gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 18SSU-rRNA gene of the local bovine isolate were performed, and it was found that C. bovis genotype was highly similar to human isolate, which provoke the zoonotic transmission of bovine isolate to humans and identified as a potential source for human cryptosporidiosis infection in Egypt.

Use of metagenomic microbial source tracking to investigate the source of a foodborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis

Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite of global public health importance that causes gastroenteritis in a variety of vertebrate hosts, with many human outbreaks reported yearly, often from ingestion of contaminated water or food. Despite the major public health implications, little is typically known about sources of contamination of disease outbreaks caused by Cryptosporidium. Here, we study a national foodborne outbreak resulted from infection with Cryptosporidium parvum via romaine lettuce, with the main goal to trace the source of the parasite. To do so, we combined traditional outbreak investigation methods with molecular detection and characterization methods (i.e. PCR based typing, amplicon and shotgun sequencing) of romaine lettuce samples collected at the same farm from which the contaminated food was produced. Using 18S rRNA typing, we detected C. parvum in two out of three lettuce samples, which was supported by detections in the metagenome analysis. Microbial source tracking analysis of the lettuce samples suggested sewage water as a likely source of the contamination, albeit with some uncertainty. In addition, the high degree of overlap in bacterial species content with a public human gut microbial database corroborated the source tracking results. The combination of traditional and molecular based methods applied here is a promising tool for future source tracking investigations of food- and waterborne outbreaks of Cryptosporidium spp. and can help to control and mitigate contamination risks.

Identification, molecular characterization and factors associated with occurrences of Cryptosporidium spp. in calves on dairy farms in Brazil

Cattle are an important source of zoonotic species of Cryptosporidium for humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of Cryptosporidium, identify the species and determine the risk factors relating to environment, animals and management among dairy calves in eight Brazilian states. A total of 408 fecal samples from calves aged 1-60 days were analyzed. An epidemiological questionnaire was completed. Sample screening was performed using Ziehl-Neelsen technique and the positive samples were subjected to nested PCR. Cryptosporidium species were identified by means of the PCR-RFLP technique, using SSPI, ASEI and MBOII enzymes. The Ziehl-Neelsen technique showed that 89.7% (35/39) of the farms and 52.9% (216/408) of the samples were positive. Through nested PCR, these protozoa were detected in 54.6% of the samples. The 56 samples subjected to PCR-RFLP presented Cryptosporidium parvum. There was higher prevalence of the parasite in animals aged 7 to 28 days (62.6%). Diarrhea, ages between seven and 28 days and a spring water source were factors associated with the risk of infection. The calf hutch-type management system was associated with reduced infection. These findings demonstrate the high level of Cryptosporidium spp. circulation in cattle herds and the predominance of the species C. parvum.

Cross-Border Investigations on the Prevalence and Transmission Dynamics of Cryptosporidium Species in Dairy Cattle Farms in Western Mainland Europe

Cryptosporidium is an apicomplexan parasitic protist, which infects a wide range of hosts, causing cryptosporidiosis disease. In farms, the incidence of this disease is high in animals such as cows, leading to extensive economic loss in the livestock industry. Infected cows may also act as a major reservoir of Cryptosporidium spp., in particular C. parvum, the most common cause of cryptosporidiosis in these animals. This poses a risk to the trading of livestock, to other farms via breeding centres, and to human health. This study is a part of a global project aimed at strategies to tackle cryptosporidiosis. To reach this target, it was essential to determine whether prevalence was dependent on the studied countries or if the issue was borderless. Indeed, C. parvum occurrence was assessed across dairy farms in certain regions of Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. At the same time, the animal-to-animal transmission of the circulating C. parvum subtypes was studied. To accomplish this, we analysed 1084 faecal samples, corresponding to 57 dairy farms from all three countries. To this end, 18S rRNA and gp60 genes fragments were amplified, followed by DNA sequencing, which was subsequently used for detection and subtyping C. parvum. Bioinformatic and phylogenetic methods were integrated to analyse and characterise the obtained DNA sequences. Our results show 25.7%, 24.9% and 20.8% prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands respectively. Overall, 93% of the farms were Cryptosporidium positive. The gp60 subtyping demonstrated a significant number of the C. parvum positives belonged to the IIa allelic family, which has been also identified in humans. Therefore, this study highlights how prevalent C. parvum is in dairy farms and further suggests cattle as a possible carrier of zoonotic C. parvum subtypes, which could pose a threat to human health.

Prevalence and distribution pattern of Cryptosporidium spp. among pre-weaned diarrheic calves in the Republic of Korea

Cryptosporidium spp. are protozoan parasites that belong to subphylum apicomplexa and cause diarrhea in humans and animals worldwide. Data on the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and its subtypes among calves in the Republic of Korea (KOR) are sparse. Hence, our study aimed to investigate the prevalence and association between the age of calf and the identified Cryptosporidium spp. and to determine the genotypes/subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned calves with diarrhea in the KOR. A total of 460 diarrheic fecal samples were collected from calves aged 1−60 days and screened for Cryptosporidium spp. by the 18S rRNA gene. Species identification was determined using the sequencing analysis of the 18S rRNA gene, and C. parvum-positive samples were subtyped via the sequence analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. Sequence analysis based on the 18S rRNA gene revealed the presence of three Cryptosporidium spp., namely, C. parvum (n = 72), C. ryanae (n = 12), and C. bovis (n = 2). Co-infection by these species was not observed. The infection rate was the highest in calves aged 11−20 days (26.1%, 95% CI 17.1−35.1), whereas the lowest rate was observed in calves aged 21−30 days (7.7%, 95% CI 0.0−16.1). The prevalence of C. parvum was detected exclusively in calves aged ≤20 days, and the highest infection rate of C. ryanae was seen in calves ≥31 days of age. The occurrence of C. parvum (χ² = 25.300, P = 0.000) and C. ryanae (χ² = 18.020, P = 0.001) was significantly associated with the age of the calves. Eleven different subtypes of the IIa family that belonging to C. parvum were recognized via the sequence analyses of the gp60 gene. Except for two (IIaA18G3R1 and IIaA15G2R1) subtypes, nine subtypes were first identified in calves with diarrhea in the KOR. IIaA18G3R1 was the most frequently detected subtype (72.2% of calves), followed by IIaA17G3R1 (5.6%), IIaA15G2R1 (4.2%), IIaA19G4R1 (4.2%), IIaA16G4R1 (2.8%), IIaA17G4R1 (2.8%), IIaA19G3R (2.8%), IIaA14G1R1 (1.4%), IIaA14G3R1 (1.4%), IIaA15G1R1 (1.4%), and IIaA19G1R1 (1.4%) These results suggest that the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. is significantly associated with calf age. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate the high genetic diversity of C. parvum and the widespread occurrence of zoonotic C. parvum in pre-weaned calves. Hence, calves are a potential source of zoonotic transmission with considerable public health implications.

FIRST REPORT OF GENUS Cryptosporidium IN CERVIDS SPECIES: Mazama americana, Mazama nana AND Blastocerus dichotomus

We analyzed Cryptosporidium spp. in fecal samples of wild cervids (Ozotoceros bezoarticus, Blastocerus dichotomus, Mazama nana, Mazama americana, and Mazama bororo) from many Brazilian regions, a fact unprecedented in the literature. Sniffer dogs were used to collect 936 fecal samples of cervids from 14 Brazilian localities. Cervids species were identified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) performed from genomic DNA extracted from 563 fecal samples of Ozotoceros bezoarticus, Blastocerus dichotomus, Mazama nana, Mazama americana, and Mazama bororo. Cryptosporidium spp. oocyst screening was performed using malachite green negative staining. Nested PCR (nPCR) protocols targeting the 18S rRNA and GP60 genes followed by genetic sequencing were performed for Cryptosporidium spp. detection and Cryptosporidium parvum subtyping, respectively. Nested PCR targeting actin gene and genetic sequencing were performed in samples with non-identified Cryptosporidium species by 18S rRNA amplicon sequencing. The association between the occurrence of Cryptosporidium and the presence of bovines in the same locality was evaluated using Fisher's exact test. The positivity rates of diagnostic methods were compared by McNemar test and the Kappa correlation coefficient. The prevalence rates of Cryptosporidium spp. in cervids were 1.42% (8/563) and 0.36% (2/563) by nPCR and malachite green negative staining, respectively. C. parvum IIaA16G3R1 isolate was identified in three fecal samples from M. americana, two from M. nana and one from B. dichotomus. Cryptosporidium ryanae were found in one sample from B. dichotomus. We identified a new Cryptosporidium genotype, named Cryptosporidium deer genotype BR, from one M. americana fecal sample.

Cryptosporidium infection in humans and animals from Iraq: A review

The apicomplexan parasite Cryptosporidium causes serious diarrheal disease in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes epidemiological and molecular studies as well as the clinical disease burden of natural Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals from Iraq. Retrieved reports regarding cryptosporidiosis in Iraq indicated that the disease is highly prevalent in humans and animals, but the results extracted from these reports are confusing and mostly employed traditional methodologies for the detection of Cryptosporidium infective stage, the oocysts, in clinical samples. Many screened surveys represent point prevalence studies, which described diarrhea in infants and children due to cryptosporidiosis; however, other pathogens causing diarrhea were not excluded. High prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was recovered from many studies from different environmental matrices in different parts of Iraq including drinking tap water, which facilitates its transmission to humans and animals. Reports on molecular characterization of different Cryptosporidium species which exist in Iraq are few but both Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum were detected in humans and the latter was more prevalent in isolates from cattle, sheep, goats and birds. A national study on adequate numbers of samples from different hosts and environmental matrices, and employing advanced diagnostic methodologies is required to precisely detect the epidemiological situation of cryptosporidiosis in Iraq. Furthermore, molecular genotyping studies are required to be conducted in Iraq to characterize the species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium infecting humans and animals especially during outbreaks. Therefore, Cryptosporidium parasite should be included in the routine diagnosis and surveillance system of infectious diseases in Iraq and should be regarded as an important public health problem of concern.

Polyclonal antibody-based immunohistochemical detection of intraleukocytic Theileria parasites in roan and sable antelopes

Theileria parasites commonly infect African wild artiodactyls. In rare roan (Hippotragus equinus) and sable (H. niger) antelopes, Theileria sp. (sable)-associated calf mortalities constrain breeding programs. The pathogenicity of most leukocyte-transforming Theileria spp. originates in their invasion of and multiplication in various mononuclear leukocytes, the transformation of both infected and uninfected leukocytes, and their infiltration of multiple organs. Understanding the pathogenesis of theileriosis can be improved by the use of immunohistochemistry (IHC) to identify the localization of the parasites in tissue sections. Our aim was to develop a reproducible IHC assay to detect leukocyte-associated Theileria parasites in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded roan and sable tissues. Polyclonal antibodies were purified from the sera of 5 roans from an area endemic for Theileria sp. (sable) and tested for IHC reactivity in 55 infected and 39 control roan and sable antelopes, and for antigen and species cross-reactivity in an additional 58 cases. The 3 strongest antibodies consistently detected intraleukocytic theilerial antigens in known positive cases in roan and sable antelopes, and also detected other Theileria spp. in non-hippotraginid wild artiodactyl tissues. The antibodies did not cross-react with other apicomplexan protozoa, with the exception of Cryptosporidium. Given that PCR on its own cannot determine the significance of theilerial infection in wild ruminants, IHC is a useful laboratory test with which to confirm the diagnosis in these species.

Diverse cellular morphologies during lumen maturation in Anopheles gambiae larval salivary glands

Mosquitoes are the greatest animal threat to human health, causing hundreds of millions of infections and around 1 million deaths each year. All mosquito-borne pathogens must traverse the salivary glands (SGs) to be transmitted to the next host, making this organ an ideal target for interventions. The adult SG develops from precursor cells located in the larval SG duct bud. Characterization of the larval SG has been limited. We sought to better understand larval SG architecture, secretion and gene expression. We developed an optimized method for larval SG staining and surveyed hundreds of larval stage 4 (L4) SGs using fluorescence confocal microscopy. Remarkable variation in SG cell and chromatin organization differed among individuals and across the L4 stage. Lumen formation occurred during L4 stage through secretion likely involving a coincident cellular apical lipid enrichment and extracellular vesicle-like structures. Meta-analysis of microarray data showed that larval SG gene expression is divergent from adult SGs, more similar to larval gastric cecae, but different from other larval gut compartments. This work highlights the variable cell architecture of larval Anopheles gambiae SGs and provides candidate targets for genetic strategies aiming to disrupt SGs and transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens.

Small ruminants and zoonotic cryptosporidiosis

Sheep and goats are commonly infected with three Cryptosporidium species, including Cryptosporidium parvum, Cryptosporidium ubiquitum, and Cryptosporidium xiaoi, which differ from each in prevalence, geographic distribution, and public health importance. While C. parvum appears to be a dominant species in small ruminants in European countries, its occurrence in most African, Asian, and American countries appear to be limited. As a result, zoonotic infections due to contact with lambs and goat kids are common in European countries, leading to frequent reports of outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis on petting farms. In contrast, C. xiaoi is the dominant species elsewhere, and mostly does not infect humans. While C. ubiquitum is another zoonotic species, it occurs in sheep and goats at much lower frequency. Host adaptation appears to be present in both C. parvum and C. ubiquitum, consisting of several subtype families with different host preference. The host-adapted nature of C. parvum and C. ubiquitum has allowed the use of subtyping tools in tracking infection sources. This has led to the identification of geographic differences in the importance of small ruminants in epidemiology of human cryptosporidiosis. These tools have also been used effectively in linking zoonotic transmission of C. parvum between outbreak cases and the suspected animals. Further studies should be directly elucidating the reasons for differences in the distribution and public health importance of major Cryptosporidium species in sheep and goats.

Genetic diversity and shedding profiles for Cryptosporidium parvum in adult cattle and their calves

Cryptosporidiosis is an important disease in neonatal calves, causing watery diarrhoea, loss of appetite, and production losses. Dehydration from diarrhoea often results in the calf requiring rehydration or veterinary treatment to prevent calf mortality. Transmission of Cryptosporidium to calves still has some major knowledge gaps, such as the initial source of oocysts ingested by calves and how these oocysts can persist between calving periods. Some studies have examined the role of adult cattle in the transmission of Cryptosporidium oocysts, although these have yielded inconclusive results. In this study, highly sensitive oocyst extraction from faeces and detection techniques, sensitive to 5 oocysts per gram using a 50 g sample, were used to genotype faecal samples from adult cattle and their calves to determine if adult cattle could be a source of Cryptosporidium infection for their calves. On a dairy farm, faecal samples from adult cattle were collected twice per week for 0–3 weeks before calving and from their calves three times per week until they reached 3 weeks of age followed by twice per week until they reached 6 weeks of age. On a beef farm, samples were collected from both adults and calves at a single time point. Faecal samples were examined to compare species and multilocus genotypes of Cryptosporidium parvum. Results show that C. parvum was the most prevalent species on both the dairy and beef farms. The calves within each herd appear to have one predominant single multilocus genotype, whereas adult cattle have multiple distinct genotypes. Adult cattle on the dairy farm, tested before calving, in the majority of cases had a multilocus genotype that is different from that detected in their calves. On the beef farm, where samples were taken at the same time, the majority of adult cattle matched the multilocus genotype of their calves. This study shows that adult cattle display a higher diversity of C. parvum genotypes on both farms compared to the calves. The data also represent a detailed longitudinal prevalence study of the shedding profiles and genotype of Cryptosporidium parasites detected in dairy calves from birth to 6 weeks of age.

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On a dairy farm, the majority of adult cattle had a multilocus genotype that was different to those in calves.

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On the beef farm, the majority of adult cattle matched the multilocus genotype of their calves.

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Calves on the dairy farm sampled longitudinally exhibited intermittent shedding of Cryptosporidium oocysts.

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Increased C. parvum genotype diversity was observed in the adult cattle compared to the calves.

Cryptosporidium parvum in brown brocket (Mazama gouazoubira) from Brazil: First report of the subtype IIaA16G3R1 in cervids

This research had as objective to evaluate the occurrence and to characterize genetically the infections by Cryptosporidium in Mazama gouazoubira. By a non-invasive harvest methodology using trained sniffer dogs to locate fecal samples of cervids, 642 fecal samples were obtained from six Brazilian localities. The cervids species responsible for the excretion of each fecal sample were identified by the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), using the mitochondrial cytochrome b target gene (cyst b) and the restriction enzymes Sspl, AflIII and BstN. From this identification, 437 fecal samples of M. gouazoubira were selected for research of Cryptosporidium spp. performed through negative staining with malachite green and polymerase chain reaction (nPCR), with the subunit of 18S rRNA gene, followed by sequencing the amplified products. In the samples that were diagnosed the presence of parasite species with zoonotic potential, genotyping was also performed using nPCR with the subunit of GP60 gene. Statistical analysis consisted of the Fisher exact test to verify the association of the presence of the enteroparasite in relation to the presence of cattle in each locality, and the McNemar tests and Kappa correlation coefficient used to compare the results obtained between the two diagnostic techniques. In the fecal samples of M. gouazoubira the occurrences of Cryptosporidium were diagnosed in 1.6% (7/437) and 1.1% (5/437), respectively, through nPCR and microscopy. Cryptosporidium. parvum was diagnosed in 100% (7/7) of the samples submitted to sequencing (18S gene). The IIaA16G3R1 subtype was diagnosed in five of the C. parvum samples submitted to genotyping (GP60 gene). This is the first world report of C. parvum in M. gouazoubira and subtype IIaA16G3R1 in cervids.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia in dam water on sheep farms - An important source of transmission?

Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections can negatively impact livestock health and reduce productivity, and some species and genotypes infecting livestock have zoonotic potential. Infection occurs via the faecal-oral route. Waterborne infections are a recognised source of infection for humans, but the role of livestock drinking water as a source of infection in livestock has not been described. This study aimed to determine whether contaminated drinking water supplies, such as farm dams, are a likely transmission source for Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections for extensively managed sheep. Dam water samples (n = 47) were collected during autumn, winter and spring from 12 farm dams located on six different farms in south west Western Australia, and faecal samples (n = 349) were collected from sheep with access to these dams. All samples were initially screened for Cryptosporidium spp. at the 18S locus and Giardia spp. at the gdh gene using qPCR, and oocyst numbers were determined directly from the qPCR data using DNA standards calibrated by droplet digital PCR. Cryptosporidium-positive sheep faecal samples were typed and subtyped by sequence analysis of 18S and gp60 loci, respectively. Giardia-specific PCR and Sanger sequencing targeting tpi and gdh loci were performed on Giardia- positive sheep faecal samples to characterise Giardia duodenalis assemblages. To identify Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. in dam water samples, next-generation sequencing analysis of 18S and gdh amplicons were performed, respectively. Two species of Cryptosporidium (Cryptosporidium xiaoi and Cryptospordium ubiquitum (subtype family XIIa)) were detected in 38/345 sheep faecal samples, and in water from 9/12 farm dams during the study period, with C. xiaoi the species most frequently detected in both faeces and dam water overall. Giardia duodenalis assemblages AI, AII and E were detected in 36/348 faecal samples and water from 10/12 farm dams. For dam water samples where oo/cysts were detected by qPCR, Cryptosporidium oocyst concentration ranged from 518-2429 oocysts/L (n = 14), and Giardia cyst concentration ranged from 102 to 1077 cysts/L (n = 17). Cryptosporidium and Giardia with zoonotic potential were detected in farm dam water, including C. ubiquitum, C. hominis, C. parvum, C. cuniculus, C. xiaoi, and G. duodenalis assemblages A, B and E. The findings suggest that dam water can be contaminated with Cryptosporidium species and G. duodenalis assemblages that may infect sheep and with zoonotic potential, and farm dam water may represent one source of transmission for infections.

Does land use affect pathogen presence in New Zealand drinking water supplies?

Four microbes (Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp.) were monitored in 16 waterways that supply public drinking water for 13 New Zealand towns and cities. Over 500 samples were collected from the abstraction point at each study site every three months between 2009 and 2019. The waterways represent a range from small to large, free flowing to reservoir impoundments, draining catchments of entirely native vegetation to those dominated by pastoral agriculture. We used machine learning algorithms to explore the relative contribution of land use, catchment geology, vegetation, topography, and water quality characteristics of the catchment to determining the abundance and/or presence of each microbe. Sites on rivers draining predominantly agricultural catchments, the Waikato River, Oroua River and Waiorohi Stream had all four microbes present, often in high numbers, throughout the sampling interval. Other sites, such as the Hutt River and Big Huia Creek in Wellington which drain catchments of native vegetation, never had pathogenic microbes detected, or unsafe levels of E. coli. Boosted Regression Tree models could predict abundances and presence/absence of all four microbes with good precision using a wide range of potential environmental predictors covering land use, geology, vegetation, topography, and nutrient concentrations. Models were more accurate for protozoa than bacteria but did not differ markedly in their ability to predict abundance or presence/absence. Environmental drivers of microbe abundance or presence/absence also differed depending on whether the microbe was protozoan or bacterial. Protozoa were more prevalent in waterways with lower water quality, higher numbers of ruminants in the catchment, and in September and December. Bacteria were more abundant with higher rainfall, saturated soils, and catchments with greater than 35% of the land in agriculture. Although modern water treatment protocols will usually remove many pathogens from drinking water, several recent outbreaks of waterborne disease due to treatment failures, have highlighted the need to manage water supplies on multiple fronts. This research has identified potential catchment level variables, and thresholds, that could be better managed to reduce the potential for pathogens to enter drinking water supplies.

Prevalence and Characterization of Cryptosporidium Species and Genotypes in Four Farmed Deer Species in the Northeast of China

Cryptosporidiosis is a major public health problem in humans and animals. Information on the prevalence and molecular diversity of Cryptosporidium in farmed deer in northeastern China is limited. In this study, the prevalence of these parasites was investigated in four farmed deer species, including 125 reindeer, 109 red deer, 86 sika deer, and 18 Siberian roe deer by nested PCR amplification of the partial small subunit of ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene. C. ubiquitum isolates were subtyped using nested PCR and sequence analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 7.1%, with 15.1% for sika deer, 4.0% for reindeer, 4.6% for red deer, and 5.6% for roe deer. C. ubiquitum (n = 4), C. xiaoi (n = 2), and Cryptosporidium deer genotype (n = 18) were identified. All four C. ubiquitum isolates belonged to the XIIa subtype (n = 4). This study confirms that Cryptosporidium deer genotype is widely occurring in deer in the investigated areas. Presence of zoonotic C. ubiquitum XIIa subtype indicates that farmed deer represent potential source of zoonotic cryptosporidia and might pose a threat to human health.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) in Jiangsu, China

Cryptosporidium is a zoonotic parasite that causes diarrhea in a broad range of animals, including deer. Little is known about the prevalence and genotype of Cryptosporidium spp. in Père David's deer. In this study, 137 fecal samples from Père David's deer were collected between July 2017 and August 2018 in the Dafeng Reserve and analyzed for Cryptosporidium spp. by nested-PCR based on the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene, followed by sequence analyses to determine the species. The 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene was used to characterize Cryptosporidium spp. Among 137 samples, 2 (1.46%) were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. according to SSU rRNA gene sequencing results. Both samples belonged to the Cryptosporidium deer genotype, with two nucleotide deletions and one nucleotide substitution. The prevalence data and molecular characterization of this study provide basic knowledge for controlling and preventing Cryptosporidium infections in Père David's deer in this area.

Epidemiology of a toxoplasmosis outbreak in a research institution in northern Paraná, Brazil

Toxoplasmosis is a reportable disease in Brazil. The objective of this study was to investigate a toxoplasmosis outbreak at a research institution in Londrina-PR, Brazil. The outbreak was reported in October 2015; however, the first cases occurred in August 2015. Blood samples were collected from 674 persons at the institution. Samples were collected from soil, water (water tank) and food (vegetables) served in the restaurant. Each participant responded to an epidemiological questionnaire. For the blood samples, a chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay was performed to detect IgM, IgG and specific IgG avidity antibodies; 10.8% (73/674) had evidence of acute toxoplasmosis. Statistical analysis showed a significant association (p < .001) between acute infection and eating lunch in the restaurant of the institution. Regarding the types of food offered in the restaurant during the period, there was a significant association between consuming raw salad (p < .001) and becoming ill. We conclude that the vegetables or raw vegetables served in the restaurant were probably the source of infection; however, the long period between exposure and case reporting made it difficult to identify the source of transmission.

A One Health Approach to Tackle Cryptosporidiosis

Cryptosporidiosis is a significant diarrhoeal disease in both people and animals across the world and is caused by several species of the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium. Recent research has highlighted the longer-term consequences of the disease for malnourished children, involving growth stunting and cognitive deficits, and significant growth and production losses for livestock. There are no vaccines currently available to prevent the disease and few treatment options in either humans or animals, which has been a significant limiting factor in disease control to date. A One Health approach to tackle zoonotic cryptosporidiosis looking at new advances in veterinary, public, and environmental health research may offer several advantages and new options to help control the disease.

Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of Cryptosporidium infections in Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in the Tokachi sub-prefecture of Hokkaido, Japan

The Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) on the island of Hokkaido, Japan are currently recognized as overabundant. Hunting is used to control the deer population, and this has increased the supply of game meat, which is associated with a high risk of various food-borne infections. Additionally, the sub-prefecture Tokachi has a dense population of livestock, which are potentially at risk of cross-species infections from the deer. In this study, we undertook the first analysis of the incidence of Cryptosporidium infection in the Yezo sika deer in the Tokachi area using polymerase chain reaction testing and phylogenetic analysis. Polymerase chain reaction analysis showed Cryptosporidium species present in 7.5% of fecal samples (13/173) collected from deer hunted between 2016 and 2017. However, the zoonotic Cryptosporidium paruvm parasite was not detected in the phylogenetic analysis; when sequenced, all species in the positive samples matched the Cryptosporidium deer genotype. However, deer may act as a reservoir of the zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum parasite, which affects both humans and livestock. Therefore, we recommend the continuation of surveys of the incidence of Cryptosporidium infections in Yezo sika deer.

Direct Sequencing of Cryptosporidium in Stool Samples for Public Health

The protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium is an important cause of diarrheal disease (cryptosporidiosis) in humans and animals, with significant morbidity and mortality especially in severely immunocompromised people and in young children in low-resource settings. Due to the sexual life cycle of the parasite, transmission is complex. There are no restrictions on sexual recombination between sub-populations, meaning that large-scale genetic recombination may occur within a host, potentially confounding epidemiological analysis. To clarify the relationships between infections in different hosts, it is first necessary to correctly identify species and genotypes, but these differentiations are not made by standard diagnostic tests and more sophisticated molecular methods have been developed. For instance, multilocus genotyping has been utilized to differentiate isolates within the major human pathogens, Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis. This has allowed mixed populations with multiple alleles to be identified: recombination events are considered to be the driving force of increased variation and the emergence of new subtypes. As yet, whole genome sequencing (WGS) is having limited impact on public health investigations, due in part to insufficient numbers of oocysts and purity of DNA derived from clinical samples. Moreover, because public health agencies have not prioritized parasites, validation has not been performed on user-friendly data analysis pipelines suitable for public health practitioners. Nonetheless, since the first whole genome assembly in 2004 there are now numerous genomes of human and animal-derived cryptosporidia publically available, spanning nine species. It has also been demonstrated that WGS from very low numbers of oocysts is possible, through the use of amplification procedures. These data and approaches are providing new insights into host-adapted infectivity, the presence and frequency of multiple sub-populations of Cryptosporidium spp. within single clinical samples, and transmission of infection. Analyses show that although whole genome sequences do indeed contain many alleles, they are invariably dominated by a single highly abundant allele. These insights are helping to better understand population structures within hosts, which will be important to develop novel prevention strategies in the fight against cryptosporidiosis.

Microbiological Contamination of Strawberries from U-Pick Farms in Guangzhou, China

This study quantified the association of rodent fruit damage and the microbiological quality of irrigation water on the risk of microbiological contamination of strawberries collected from 18 U-pick farms across five different districts in the Guangzhou metropolitan region of southern China. Fifty-four composite strawberries samples, with or without evidence of rodent or avian foraging damage (i.e., bitten), along with 16 irrigation water samples, were collected during the spring of 2014 and winter of 2015 from our cohort of 18 farms. Composite strawberry samples and irrigation water were analyzed for total coliforms, E. coli, Salmonella, E. coli O157, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium. Total coliforms and E. coli were detected in 100% and ~90% of irrigation water samples, respectively. In contrast, Cryptosporidium was detected in only two water samples, while Salmonella, E. coli O157, and Giardia were not detected in any water samples. Strawberries with signs of being bitten by wildlife had significantly higher concentrations of total coliforms and E. coli, compared to strawberries with no physical evidence of rodent damage (p < 0.001). Similarly, Cryptosporidium was detected in 7/18 (39%) of bitten, 4/18 (22%) of edge, and 5/18 (28%) of central strawberry samples, respectively. Concentration of E. coli on strawberries (p < 0.001), air temperature (p = 0.025), and presence of Cryptosporidium in irrigation water (p < 0.001) were all associated with the risk of Cryptosporidium contamination on strawberries. Salmonella and Giardia were detected in <4% strawberry samples and E. coli O157 was not detected in any samples. These results indicate the potential food safety and public health risks of consuming unwashed strawberries from U-pick farms, and the need for improved rodent biosecurity of U-pick strawberry fields and enhanced microbiological quality of irrigation water used at these facilities.

Molecular detection of Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in dairy calves and sika deer in four provinces in Northern China

The protistan pathogens Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi can cause significant intestinal diseases in animals and humans. However, limited information is available regarding prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in ruminants in Northern China. In this study, the overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi was 19.3% (62/321) and 28.97% (93/321) in dairy calves and 1.10% (9/818) and 13.57% (111/818) in sika deer (Cervus nippon) in four provinces in Northern China, respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in different factor groups was various. Five Cryptosporidium species/genotypes were identified, of which C. parvum, C. ryanae, C. bovis, and C. andersoni were only found in dairy calves, and only Cryptosporidium deer genotype was found in sika deer. Moreover, J, I, and BEB4 ITS genotypes of E. bieneusi were found in dairy calves, and six known genotypes (JLD-III, JLD-IX, JLD-VII, EbpC, BEB6, and I) and ten novel genotypes (namely LND-I and JLD-XV to JLD-XXIII) were found in sika deer in this study. Cryptosporidium parvum and E. bieneusi genotype J were identified as the predominant species/genotypes in dairy calves, whereas the predominance of Cryptosporidium spp. and E. bieneusi in sika deer was Cryptosporidium deer genotype and BEB6, respectively. The present study reported the prevalence and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in dairy calves and sika deer in four provinces in northern China. The present findings also suggest that investigated dairy calves and sika deer may play an important role in the transmission of E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium to humans and other animals, and also in an effort to better understand the epidemiology of these enteric pathogens in China.

Cryptosporidium Prevalence in Calves and Geese Co-Grazing on Four Livestock Farms Surrounding Two Reservoirs Supplying Public Water to Mainland Orkney, Scotland

The parasite Cryptosporidiumparvum represents a threat to livestock health and production, water quality and public health. Cattle are known to be significant reservoirs of C. parvum, but transmission routes are complex and recent studies have implicated the potential role of wildlife in parasite transmission to cattle and water sources. On the Orkney Isles, high densities of Greylag geese (Anser anser) cause widespread faecal contamination of cattle pastures, where cryptosporidiosis is known to be the main cause of neonatal calf diarrhoea and Cryptosporidium contamination frequently occurs in two reservoirs supplying Mainland Orkney’s public water. This study aimed to determine the Cryptosporidium species and subtypes present in geese and calves co-grazing on four farms surrounding two reservoirs on Mainland Orkney. Results indicated a high level of C. parvum prevalence in calves, geese and water samples. gp60 analysis illustrated that higher genotypic diversity was present in the goose population compared with calves, but did not yield sequence results for any of the water samples. It can be concluded that the high levels of C. parvum evident in calves, geese and water samples tested represents a significant risk to water quality and public health.

Cryptosporidium infections in terrestrial ungulates with focus on livestock: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Cryptosporidium spp. are causative agents of gastrointestinal diseases in a wide variety of vertebrate hosts. Mortality resulting from the disease is low in livestock, although severe cryptosporidiosis has been associated with fatality in young animals.

Methods

The goal of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to review the prevalence and molecular data on Cryptosporidium infections in selected terrestrial domestic and wild ungulates of the families Bovidae (bison, buffalo, cattle, goat, impala, mouflon sheep, sheep, yak), Cervidae (red deer, roe deer, white-tailed deer), Camelidae (alpaca, camel), Suidae (boar, pig), Giraffidae (giraffes) and Equidae (horses). Data collection was carried out using PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct and Cochran databases, with 429 papers being included in this systematic analysis.

Results

The results show that overall 18.9% of ungulates from the investigated species were infected with Cryptosporidium spp. Considering livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and buffaloes), analysis revealed higher Cryptosporidium infection prevalence in ungulates of the Cetartiodactyla than in those of the Perissodactyla, with cattle (29%) being the most commonly infected farm animal.

Conclusions

Overall, the investigated domestic ungulates are considered potential sources of Cryptosporidium contamination in the environment. Control measures should be developed to reduce the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in these animals. Furthermore, literature on wild populations of the named ungulate species revealed a widespread presence and potential reservoir function of wildlife.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) from Shishou, China

Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are important intestinal pathogens that infect humans and various animals. Few reports are available regarding the infections of the two pathogens in Père David's deer. In this study, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmed Cryptosporidium infection in two (1.6%) and E. bieneusi in 45 (35.2%) of 128 fecal samples collected from Père David's deer in the National Nature Reserve of Shishou, Hubei Province, China. C. parvum (n = 1) and Cryptosporidium deer genotype (n = 1) were identified using the small subunit rRNA (SSU rRNA) gene. The C. parvum was further subtyped as IIdA20G1 by sequencing analysis of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. The identity of E. bieneusi was confirmed by an internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene; the HLJD-V (n = 42) and MWC_d1 (n = 3) genotypes were identified, with the former clustering in group 2 and the latter in group 1. These data suggest that the Père David's deer were infected with host-specific and/or zoonotic genotypes of these pathogens, implicating Père David's deer could be a potential source of human Cryptosporidium infection.

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C. parvum subtype IIdA20G1 was firstly identified in Pere David's deer.

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Genotypes HLJD-V and MWC_d1 were detected from 45 E. bieneusi-positive samples.

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The present study implicated Père David's deer could be a potential source of human infection.

Shedding of Cryptosporidium in calves and dams: evidence of re-infection and shedding of different gp60 subtypes

One of the most common causes of calf diarrhoea is the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum. Two longitudinal studies were carried out on a dairy farm Scotland to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in a group of calves and to determine whether dams were a possible source of calfhood infection. Fecal samples were collected from 25 calves from birth to 12 months in the first year. In the second year, fecal samples were collected from pregnant cows (n = 29) and their calves (n = 30) from birth to 6 months. The samples were tested for Cryptosporidium and speciated. Cryptosporidium parvum-positive samples were subtyped by GP60 fragment analysis. All calves in both studies shed Cryptosporidium during the study period. Cryptosporidium parvum was the predominant species detected in calves ⩽6 weeks of age and at 6 months of age, C. bovis and C. ryanae were detected in calves older than 4 weeks of age but ⩽6 months of age. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium was higher in younger animals than in older animals. GP60 subtyping revealed two subtypes in calves on this farm (IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA19G2R1) that differed in frequency by age. Adult cattle also shed C. parvum, of four gp60 genotypes.

Surveillance of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in sewage from an urban area in Brazil

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are protozoan parasites that cause diarrhea in humans and animals. Molecular characterization of these pathogens in sewage may provide insight on their occurrence and prevalence in Brazil. This study aimed to investigate the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in raw and treated sewage from Londrina, Paraná, Brazil. Samples were collected every two weeks during a year. Samples were concentrated, then DNA was extracted and subjected to a nested PCR targeting the Giardia 18S rRNA gene and the Cryptosporidium 18S rRNA gene. Species of Cryptosporidium were characterized by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). All raw sewage and 76% of the treated sewage were positive for Giardia; 84% of raw sewage samples and 8% of treated sewage were positive for Cryptosporidium. C. muris, C. hominis, C. baileyi, C. parvum and C. suis were detected in 100%, 19%, 9%, 9% and 4% of raw sewage, respectively. C. muris was the only species found in treated sewage. Multiple species of Cryptosporidium were present in 19.04% of the raw sewage. Treated sewage water can pose a threat to human health. The speciation of Cryptosporidium revealed the presence of non-common zoonotic species as C. suis and C. muris.

Prevalence, Molecular Identification, and Risk Factors for Cryptosporidium Infection in Edible Marine Fish: A Survey Across Sea Areas Surrounding France

Cryptosporidium, a zoonotic pathogen, is able to infect a wide range of hosts including wild and domestic animals, and humans. Although it is well known that some parasites are both fish pathogens and recognized agents of zoonosis with a public health impact, little information is available concerning the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in wild aquatic environments. To evaluate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in commercially important edible marine fish in different European seas (English channel, North sea, Bay of Biscay, Celtic sea and Mediterranean sea), 1,853 specimens were collected as part of two surveys. Nested PCR followed by sequence analysis at the 18S rRNA gene locus was used to identify Cryptosporidium spp. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in sampled fish reached 2.3% (35 out of 1,508) in a first campaign and 3.2% (11 out of 345) in a second campaign. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of positive samples identified Cryptosporidium parvum (n = 10) and seven genotypes which exhibited between 7.3 and 10.1% genetic distance from C. molnari, with the exception of one genotype which exhibited only 0.5–0.7% genetic distance from C. molnari. Among 31 analyzed fish species, 11 (35.5%) were identified as potential hosts for Cryptosporidium. A higher prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was observed in larger fish, in fish collected during the spring-summer period, and in those caught in the North East Atlantic. Pollachius virens (saithe) was the most frequently Cryptosporidium positive species. In fish infected by other parasites, the risk of being Cryptosporidium positive increased 10-fold (OR: 9.95, CI: 2.32–40.01.04, P = 0.0002). Four gp60 subtypes were detected among the C. parvum positive samples: IIaA13G1R1, IIaA15G2R1, IIaA17G2R1, and IIaA18G3R1. These C. parvum subtypes have been previously detected in terrestrial mammals and may constitute an additional source of infection for other animals and in particular for humans. Microscopical examination of histological sections confirmed the presence of round bodies suggestive of the development of C. parvum within digestive glands. We report herein the first epidemiological and molecular data concerning the detection of Cryptosporidium in edible marine fish in European seas surrounding France broadening its host range and uncovering potential novel infection routes.

Extended persistence of general and cattle-associated fecal indicators in marine and freshwater environment

Fecal contamination of recreational waters with cattle manure can pose a risk to public health due to the potential presence of various zoonotic pathogens. Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) have a long history of use in the assessment of recreational water quality, but FIB quantification provides no information about pollution sources. Microbial source tracking (MST) markers have been developed in response to a need to identify pollution sources, yet factors that influence their decay in ambient waters are often poorly understood. We investigated the influence of water type (freshwater versus marine) and select environmental parameters (indigenous microbiota, ambient sunlight) on the decay of FIB and MST markers originating from cattle manure. Experiments were conducted in situ using a submersible aquatic mesocosm containing dialysis bags filled with a mixture of cattle manure and ambient water. Culturable FIB (E. coli, enterococci) were enumerated by membrane filtration and general fecal indicator bacteria (GenBac3, Entero1a, EC23S857) and MST markers (Rum2Bac, CowM2, CowM3) were estimated by qPCR. Water type was the most significant factor influencing decay (three-way ANOVA, p: 0.006 to <0.001), although the magnitude of the effect differed among microbial targets and over time. The presence of indigenous microbiota and exposure to sunlight were significantly correlated (three-way ANOVA, p: 0.044 to <0.001) with decay of enterococci and CowM2, while E. coli, EC23S857, Rum2Bac, and CowM3 (three-way ANOVA, p: 0.044 < 0.001) were significantly impacted by sunlight or indigenous microbiota. Results indicate extended persistence of both cultivated FIB and genetic markers in marine and freshwater water types. Findings suggest that multiple environmental stressors are important determinants of FIB and MST marker persistence, but their magnitude can vary across indicators. Selective exclusion of natural aquatic microbiota and/or sunlight typically resulted in extended survival, but the effect was minor and limited to select microbial targets.

Evaluation of prevalence and risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium infection in rural population of district Buner, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium spp are important intestinal protozoan parasites that cause diarrhea in humans, domestic and wild animals. Its infection remains a main public health concern however, the epidemics in human being is still unclear, particularly in developing countries. There are several factors that may enhance the spreading of this parasite in human population especially in young children.

METHODOLOGY

A questionnaire was designed to obtain the demographic and clinical data from the participants. A total of 425 stool samples were collected from suspected children (aged 3-10 years) in different hospitals and villages. The initial screening was performed with modified Ziehl Neelsen (mZN) staining technique followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Several potential risk factors were also assessed through the obtained information from suspected individuals.

RESULTS

Out of all 425 collected samples, 127 were observed positive by mZN with a prevalence of 29.88% (127/425). The 127 mZN positive samples together with 50 mZN negative samples were processed for molecular analysis through PCR assay. Among them, 71 out of 127 mZN positive samples and 4 out of 50 mZN negative samples were found positive by PCR. The molecular analysis showed that Cryptosporidium parvum was the main cause of infection in children. The results revealed that individuals exposed to diarrhea were more likely to be infected with Cryptosporidium infection while several environmental factors may also play a key role in spreading of this parasite.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The current high prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection may be due to the lack of awareness and routine based testing in identification of this parasite in District Buner. Further studies are required to determine the importance of Cryptosporidium infection in this area as well as across the country and to find out the possible risk factors that may be associated with the occurrence of this protozoan. There is, however, an urgent need for laboratory-based observational studies to develop a more dynamic estimate of the cryptosporidial disease burden in the region.

The effect of water source and soil supplementation on parasite contamination in organic vegetable gardens

The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with vegetable contamination with zoonotic protozoan. Samples of water, soil and vegetables were collected from July/2014 to May/2016, totaling 83 samples, 21 properties of Londrina region, Paraná, Brazil. DNA amplification of Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis in the samples was conducted using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR results were positive for T. gondii in 12.9% (8/62), Cryptosporidium spp. in 11.3% (7/62) and G. intestinalis in 25.8% (16/62) of the samples. DNA sequencing identified C. parvum in five samples and G. intestinalis Assemblage E in three. The statistical associations demonstrated greater probability of positive samples for T. gondii and for at least one of the three protozoa when the source of irrigation water was the river; a greater chance of positive samples for Cryptosporidium spp. when deer were present on the property; and a smaller chance of positive samples for at least one of the three etiologic agents when soil was supplemented with limestone. The results expose some critical contamination points, providing support for training farmers on good management practices during the production process.

Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. in calves in Estonia: high prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum shedding and 10 subtypes identified

We investigated the molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. in Estonia by testing fecal samples from 486 calves aged &lt;2 months, raised on 53 cattle farms, for the presence of Cryptosporidium DNA. The parasites were identified and characterized by sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene and of the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. Moreover, using a questionnaire, we surveyed factors that could be relevant for animal-to-human and human-to-animal transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. on the farms. Cryptosporidium spp. were shed by 23% of the investigated calves and at least one shedding calf was found on 66% of the farms. Cryptosporidium parvum was the most common species shed, while C. bovis and C. ryanae were also detected. More than half of the calves aged 8-14 days shed C. parvum. Nine previously described C. parvum subtypes (IIaA14G1R1, IIaA16G1R1, IIaA17G1R1, IIaA18G1R1, IIaA19G1R1, IIaA20G1R1, IIaA21G1R1, IIaA22G1R1 and IIaA16G2R1) and an apparently novel subtype IIlA21R2 were found. Calves from farms that reported spreading manure on fields during spring had 10 times higher odds to shed Cryptosporidium spp. in their feces than calves from farms that did not. Calves aged 8-14 days had higher odds to shed IIa18G1R1 as well as IIaA16G1R1 than younger calves.

Prevalence, risk factors and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium infection in cattle in Addis Ababa and its environs, Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection and identify species of the parasite in cattle in central Ethiopia. Faecal samples, collected from 392 dairy cattle managed under intensive and extensive production system, were analyzed by the Modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) microscopy, Nested PCR, PCR-RFLP and sequence analyses of the SSU rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium. The overall prevalence, the prevalence in the extensive and intensive farms was 18.6%, 11% and 21%, respectively. The infection was detected in 37.7% of the investigated farms with prevalence range of 7.4% -100%, and all of the six surveyed districts with significant (P = 0.000) prevalence difference. Restriction digestion and sequence analysis showed Cryptosporidium parvum and C. andersoni in 27% and 73% of the infections, respectively, showing an age related distribution pattern, C. parvum exclusively occurring in calves <2 months old and C. andersoni only in heifers and adult cattle. The infection was significantly associated with management system, farm location, herd size, source of drinking water, weaning age, presence of bedding, pen cleanness and cleanness of hindquarter. In conclusion, Cryptosporidium infection due to C. parvum and C. andersoni was prevalent in cattle in the study area. Cryptosporidium parvum has the concern of public health importance, especially to farm workers and people in close contact with cattle. Instigation of imperative control measure is suggested to lessen the risk of human infection and loss of production in dairy farms.

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Cryptosporidium infection, due to C. parvum and C. andersoni, is widespread in cattle in central Ethiopia.

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C parvum and C andersoni exclusively occurred in calves <2 months and in adult cattle, respectively, showing an age related distribution pattern.

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Risk factors of Cryptosporidium were mainly associated with management and hygienic condition of animals.

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existence of the zoonotic C parvum Spp,alerts instigation of urgent preventive/control measures.

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Molecular tools are crucial to characterize Cryptosporidium species

Cryptosporidium infection is associated with reduced growth and diarrhoea in goats beyond weaning

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are common parasites of ruminant livestock worldwide. These parasites are associated with diarrhoea outbreaks in young goats (pre-weaning), but the impacts on health and productivity for older goats (post-weaning) are not well understood. Here we show Cryptosporidium faecal shedding is associated with reduced growth and diarrhoea in goats aged approximately 9-15 months. Goats were sampled four times at one-month intervals. Faecal shedding for a range of pathogens were determined using quantitative PCR and sequencing (Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Eimeria, Salmonella, Campylobacter), and microscopy (trichostrongylid nematode worm egg count and Entamoeba). Cryptosporidium faecal shedding was associated with 1.5 kg lower growth for the one-month period following sampling. Specifically, C. xiaoi was associated with 1.9 kg lower growth in the following month. This is the first report of production impacts associated with C. xiaoi in ruminants older than 3 months of age. Cryptosporidium shedding was associated with an over 4-fold increase in risk of diarrhoea, with C. parvum associated with 10-fold and C. ubiquitum associated with 16-fold increase in risk of diarrhoea. Notably, C. xiaoi shedding was not associated with increased risk of diarrhoea. Giardia shedding was associated with looser faecal consistency, but not diarrhoea. Higher Eimeria oocyst counts were weakly associated with lower live weight, poorer body condition and looser faecal consistency. Shedding of other enteric pathogens were not associated with impacts on live weight, growth or diarrhoea risk. This study challenges the two notions that Cryptosporidium infections only impact health and productivity of goats during the pre-weaning period, and that Cryptosporidium (and specifically C. xiaoi) infections in the absence of diarrhoea are asymptomatic. Recognising the potential for impacts of Cryptosporidium infection on growth rates in the absence of diarrhoea will support improved design for experiments testing impacts of Cryptosporidium on ruminant health and production. Improved understanding of the role of protozoan infections on animal health has implications for the management of goats in order to reduce adverse impacts on farm profitability, animal welfare and public health risk.

Cryptosporidium occurrence in ruminants from the North Pioneer mesoregion of Paraná, Brazil

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of Cryptosporidium in cattle and sheep from the North Pioneer mesoregion of the state of Paraná. For this, 317 stool samples were collected from cattle and sheep on 16 properties in six municipalities in the North Pioneer mesoregion of Paraná. For detection of Cryptosporidium species, molecular analysis was performed using nested-PCR techniques targeting the 18S rRNA gene. Of the 37 beef cows and 115 calves analyzed, four (10.8%) and 14 (12.2%), respectively, were positive for Cryptosporidium. Of the 12 cows and 52 calves, one (8.3%) and 14 (26.9%), respectively, were positive for Cryptosporidium; and of the 42 ewes and 59 lambs, six (14.3%) and 12 (20.3%), respectively were positive for Cryptosporidium. Cattle (15.3%) and sheep (17.8%) were both susceptible to infection. All the properties of the municipalities of Assaí, Ibaiti and, Leópolis presented infected animals. The study showed that Cryptosporidium occurs in most municipalities assessed, that dairy calves had a higher risk (Odds Ratio=2,66, p-value=0,018) for infection than beef calves, and that sheep are just as susceptible to infection as are cattle, and that further Cryptosporidium studies are developed.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in deer in Henan and Jilin, China

Background

Little is known about the prevalence and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in deer in China. In this study, 662 fecal samples were collected from 11 farms in Henan and Jilin Provinces between July 2013 and August 2014, and were screened for the presence of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis with genotyping and subtyping methods.

Results

Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were detected in 6.80% (45/662) and 1.21% (5/662) of samples, respectively. Six Cryptosporidium species/genotypes were identified based on the small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rRNA) gene: C. parvum (n = 11); C. andersoni (n = 5); C. ubiquitum (n = 3); C. muris (n = 1); C. suis-like (n = 1); and Cryptosporidium deer genotype (n = 24). When five of the 11 C. parvum isolates were subtyped by sequencing the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene, zoonotic subtypes IIaA15G2R2 (n = 4) and IIdA19G1 (n = 1) were found. According to a subtype analysis, three C. ubiquitum isolates belonged to XIIa subtype 2. In contrast, only assemblage E was detected in the five Giardia-positive samples with small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rRNA) gene sequencing.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first study to report C. andersoni, as well as C. parvum zoonotic subtypes IIaA15G2R2 and IIdA19G1 in cervids. These data, though limited, suggest that cervids may be a source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Cervids in the present study are likely to be of low zoonotic potential to humans, and more molecular epidemiological studies are required to clarify the prevalence and public health significance of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis in cervids throughout China.

Bovine cryptosporidiosis: impact, host-parasite interaction and control strategies

Gastrointestinal disease caused by the apicomplexan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum is one of the most important diseases of young ruminant livestock, particularly neonatal calves. Infected animals may suffer from profuse watery diarrhoea, dehydration and in severe cases death can occur. At present, effective therapeutic and preventative measures are not available and a better understanding of the host-pathogen interactions is required. Cryptosporidium parvum is also an important zoonotic pathogen causing severe disease in people, with young children being particularly vulnerable. Our knowledge of the immune responses induced by Cryptosporidium parasites in clinically relevant hosts is very limited. This review discusses the impact of bovine cryptosporidiosis and describes how a thorough understanding of the host-pathogen interactions may help to identify novel prevention and control strategies.

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in feces and water and the associated exposure factors on dairy farms

The aims of this study were to verify the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in animal feces and drinking water on dairy farms and to identify a possible relation between the exposure factors and the presence of these parasites. Fecal samples from cattle and humans and water samples were collected on dairy farms in Paraná, Brazil. Analysis of (oo)cysts in the feces was performed by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining and centrifugal flotation in zinc sulfate. Test-positive samples were subjected to nested PCR amplification of the 18SSU ribosomal RNA gene for identification of Cryptosporidium and Giardia and of the gp60 gene for subtyping of Cryptosporidium. Microbiological analysis of water was carried out by the multiple-tube method and by means of a chromogenic substrate, and parasitological analysis was performed on 31 samples by direct immunofluorescence and nested PCR of the genes mentioned above. Identification of the species of Cryptosporidium was performed by sequencing and PCR with analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphisms. The prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium was higher in calves than in adults. Among the samples of cattle feces, Cryptosporidium parvum was identified in 41 (64%), C. ryanae in eight (12.5%), C. bovis in four (6.3%), C. andersoni in five (7.8%), and a mixed infection in 20 samples (31.3%). These parasites were not identified in the samples of human feces. Thermotolerant coliform bacteria were identified in 25 samples of water (45.5%). Giardia duodenalis and C. parvum were identified in three water samples. The gp60 gene analysis of C. parvum isolates revealed the presence of two strains (IIaA20G1R1 and IIaA17G2R2) in the fecal samples and one (IIaA17G2R1) in the water samples. The presence of coliforms was associated with the water source, structure and degradation of springs, rain, and turbidity. The prevalence of protozoa was higher in calves up to six months of age. C. parvum and G. duodenalis were identified in the water of dairy farms, as were thermotolerant coliforms; these findings point to the need for guidance on handling of animals, preservation of water sources, and water treatment.

The Relationship Between Acute Malnutrition, Hygiene Practices, Water and Livestock, and Their Program Implications in Eastern Chad

BACKGROUND

The causes of acute malnutrition are complex and time and geography variant and need to be better understood in order to both design more effective nutrition programs and evaluate them. The findings reported here are part of an evaluation of a 4-year multisectoral nutrition program led by Concern Worldwide in the Sila Region of eastern Chad.

OBJECTIVE

To present evidence and learning about the relationships between acute malnutrition and potential drivers in Sila, Chad.

METHODS

Quantitative household-level data from a clustered randomized control trial were collected in November/December 2014. The survey was complemented with water quality testing and qualitative data collected in February and March 2013 and 2014.

RESULTS

Households who reported not regularly cleaning the container used for transporting water for household consumption were almost twice as likely to have a malnourished child. Households living in villages with larger concentrations of cattle and having more livestock sharing the same water source as for human consumption were significantly more likely to have a malnourished child. However, cleaning the water container mediated the negative impact of living in a village with a large cattle concentration on wasting.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that hygiene practices and livestock water management are correlated with acute malnutrition in Sila, Chad. These findings provide a hypothesis for a possible pathogen driving acute malnutrition rates- Cryptosporidium-as part of a complex water chain, whereby the source of infection may be mitigated by hygiene behaviors with important implications for humanitarian programs.

A multiplex PCR test to identify four common cattle-adapted Cryptosporidium species

Cryptosporidiumis a well-known cause of neonatal enteritis in cattle worldwide. Cattle are commonly infected with four different species ofCryptosporidiumbut only one of these,Cryptosporidium parvum, is associated with clinical disease. Identification of species in cases of calf scour can give an indication ifCryptosporidiumis the causative agent or not. In addition,C. parvumis a zoonotic species and so has implications for human health, for this reason it is important to identify the species ofCryptosporidiuminfecting cattle particularly where a farm is implicated in an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in humans. Here a multiplex PCR test, which can identify the four common cattle-adaptedCryptosporidiumspecies, includingC. parvum, has been developed. This test allows quick and accurate detection ofCryptosporidiumspecies in cattle fecal samples including mixed infections, which could be missed by the more common method of sequencing the same gene.