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Strandberg G, Öberg CM, Blom AM, Slivca O, Berglund D, Segelmark M, Nilsson B, Biglarnia AR. Prompt Thrombo-Inflammatory Response to Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury and Kidney Transplant Outcomes. Kidney Int Rep 2023; 8:2592-2602. [PMID: 38106604 PMCID: PMC10719603 DOI: 10.1016/j.ekir.2023.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction In kidney transplantation (KT), the role of the intravascular innate immune system (IIIS) in response to ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is not well-understood. Here, we studied parallel changes in the generation of key activation products of the proteolytic cascade systems of the IIIS following living donor (LD) and deceased donor (DD) transplantation and evaluated potential associations with clinical outcomes. Methods In a cohort study, 63 patients undergoing LD (n = 26) and DD (n = 37) transplantation were prospectively included. Fifteen DD kidneys were preserved with hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP), and the remaining were cold stored. Activation products of the kallikrein-kinin, coagulation, and complement systems were measured in blood samples obtained systemically at baseline and locally from the transplant renal vein at 1, 10, and 30 minutes after reperfusion. Results DD kidneys exhibited a prompt and interlinked activation of all 3 cascade systems of IIIS postreperfusion, indicating a robust and local thrombo-inflammatory response to IRI. In this initial response, the complement activation product sC5b-9 exhibited a robust correlation with other IIIS activation markers and displayed a strong association with short-term and mid-term (24-month) graft dysfunction. In contrast, LD kidneys did not exhibit this thrombo-inflammatory response. The use of HMP was associated with reduced thromboinflammation and preserved mid-term kidney function. Conclusion Kidneys from DD are vulnerable to a prompt thrombo-inflammatory response to IRI, which adversely affects both short-term and long-term allograft function. Strategies aimed at minimizing graft immunogenicity prior to reperfusion are crucial to mitigate the intricate inflammatory response to IRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Strandberg
- Department of Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Carl M. Öberg
- Department of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Anna M. Blom
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Oleg Slivca
- Department of Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - David Berglund
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology (IGP), Rudbeck Laboratory C5:3, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mårten Segelmark
- Department of Nephrology, Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Bo Nilsson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology (IGP), Rudbeck Laboratory C5:3, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ali-Reza Biglarnia
- Department of Surgery, Department of Clinical Sciences Malmö, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
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2
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Ramirez GA, Mackie I, Nallamilli S, Pires T, Moll R, Pericleous C, Isenberg DA, Cohen H, Efthymiou M. Anti-protein C antibodies and acquired protein C resistance in SLE: novel markers for thromboembolic events and disease activity? Rheumatology (Oxford) 2021; 60:1376-1386. [PMID: 32964932 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/keaa509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Risk factors for thromboembolism in SLE are poorly understood. We hypothesized a possible role for protein C, based on its dual activity in inflammation and haemostasis and on the evidence of an association between acquired activated protein C (APC) resistance (APCR) and high-avidity anti-protein C antibodies (anti-PC) with a severe thrombotic phenotype in venous thrombosis APS patients. METHODS In a cross-sectional study of 156 SLE patients, the presence and avidity of IgG anti-PC was established by in house-ELISA, and APCR to exogenous recombinant human APC (rhAPC) and Protac (which activates endogenous protein C) was assessed by thrombin generation-based assays. Associations with aPL profile, thrombotic history and disease activity (BILAG and SLEDAI-2K) were also established. RESULTS Anti-PC were detected in 54.5% of patients and APCR in 59%. Anti-PC positivity was associated with APCR to both rhAPC (P <0.0001) and Protac (P =0.0001). High-avidity anti-PC, detected in 26.3% of SLE patients, were associated with APCR in patients with thrombosis only (P <0.05), and with the development of thrombosis over time (range: 0-52 years; P =0.014). High-avidity anti-PC levels correlated with SLEDAI-2K (P =0.033) and total BILAG (P =0.019); SLEDAI-2K correlated inversely with APCR to Protac (P =0.004). CONCLUSION Anti-PC occur in patients with SLE, independently of aPL profile, and are associated with APCR. High-avidity anti-PC are associated with thrombosis and with active disease and might prove a novel marker to monitor the risk of thrombosis and disease progression in SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Division of Medicine, Centre for Rheumatology, University College , London, UK.,Department of Rheumatology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.,Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Ian Mackie
- Department of Haematology, Haemostasis Research Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Susanna Nallamilli
- Department of Haematology, Haemostasis Research Unit, University College London, London, UK.,Department of Haematology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Tatiana Pires
- Division of Medicine, Centre for Rheumatology, University College , London, UK.,Department of Rheumatology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.,Serviço de Medicina 1, Hospital de Santo André, Centro Hospitalar de Leiria, Leiria, Portugal
| | - Rachel Moll
- Department of Haematology, Haemostasis Research Unit, University College London, London, UK.,Department of Haematology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Charis Pericleous
- Division of Medicine, Centre for Rheumatology, University College , London, UK.,Department of Rheumatology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - David A Isenberg
- Division of Medicine, Centre for Rheumatology, University College , London, UK.,Department of Rheumatology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Hannah Cohen
- Department of Haematology, Haemostasis Research Unit, University College London, London, UK.,Department of Haematology, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Maria Efthymiou
- Department of Haematology, Haemostasis Research Unit, University College London, London, UK
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3
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Ramirez GA, Calvisi SL, DE Lorenzo R, DA Prat V, Borio G, Gallina G, Farolfi F, Cavallo L, Pascali M, Castellani J, Baccellieri D, Guzzo F, Baiardo Redaelli M, Azzolini ML, Alba AC, Zangrillo A, Bozzolo EP, Scotti R, DI Lucca G, Piemonti L, Rovere Querini P, D'Angelo A, Tresoldi M. A novel evidence-based algorithm to predict thromboembolism in patients with COVID-19: preliminary data from a single-centre cohort. Minerva Med 2021; 113:695-706. [PMID: 34114439 DOI: 10.23736/s0026-4806.21.07331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)-related disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease characterised by systemic inflammation, which might enhance baseline thrombotic risk, especially in hospitalised patients. Little is, however, known about predictors of thrombotic complications in patients with COVID-19. METHODS We prospectively followed up 180 hospitalised COVID-19 patients. Demographics, clinical and laboratory features at presentation and past medical history were tested as predictors of the first thrombotic complication through multivariate Cox regression analysis and a categorical score generated based on the results. RESULTS Sixty-four thromboses were recorded in 54 patients, of whom seven with thrombosis on admission and 47 with thrombosis during hospitalisation. Patients with thrombosis were mainly Caucasian and diabetic, had marked baseline signs of inflammation and organ damage, lower PaO2/FiO2 ratio, higher D-dimer levels and history of major haemorrhages. The latter three variables were independently associated to thrombotic complications and concurred to a 0-5 score, which accounted for 80% of the total sample variability. Patients with three or more points of the newly generated score were at higher risk for thrombotic complications (HR=4.9, p<0.001). Patients with thrombotic complications were more likely to be admitted to intensive care and/or to die (HR=1.9, p=0.036). Five of 180 patients were diagnosed with disseminated intravascular coagulation and three of them died. Eleven minor and no major bleeding events were observed. CONCLUSIONS Patients with COVID-19 are at increased risk for thrombosis and might be stratified on admission based lower Pao2/FiO2 ratio, higher D-dimer levels and history of major haemorrhages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.,Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania L Calvisi
- Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy -
| | - Rebecca DE Lorenzo
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina DA Prat
- Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgia Borio
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriele Gallina
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Farolfi
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Ludovica Cavallo
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Pascali
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Jacopo Castellani
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Guzzo
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Martina Baiardo Redaelli
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Azzolini
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Ada C Alba
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Zangrillo
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Enrica P Bozzolo
- Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaella Scotti
- Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe DI Lucca
- Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Piemonti
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Diabetes Research Institute, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Rovere Querini
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of Internal Medicine and Endocrinology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Armando D'Angelo
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Coagulation Service and Thrombosis Research Unit, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Moreno Tresoldi
- Unit of General Medicine and Advanced Care, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
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4
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Matsumoto K, Kurasawa T, Yoshimoto K, Suzuki K, Takeuchi T. Identification of neutrophil β2-integrin LFA-1 as a potential mechanistic biomarker in ANCA-associated vasculitis via microarray and validation analyses. Arthritis Res Ther 2021; 23:136. [PMID: 33957974 PMCID: PMC8101175 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-021-02510-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leukocyte activation by anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA) and the subsequent leukocyte-endothelium interaction play a key role in the development of endothelial damage in ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV). In contrast to that of leukocyte activation, the exact role of the leukocyte-endothelium interaction via integrin remains unclear. Here, we performed microarray and validation analyses to explore association between the expression levels of lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and the clinical characteristics of patients with AAV. METHODS We performed gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) to identify the functional gene sets differentially expressed between patients with AAV and other types of vasculitis and the healthy controls (HCs). Flow cytometry was performed to validate the GSEA results. Treatment-naïve patients were monitored until 24 weeks of treatment. To examine the role of LFA-1 in the neutrophil-endothelium interaction, we performed a leukocyte adhesion and transmigration assay using peripheral blood and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). RESULTS GSEA revealed that the molecular pathways involving integrin-related genes were significantly upregulated in patients with AAV compared to that in patients with other types of vasculitis and the HCs. Flow cytometry revealed that the percentage of neutrophils expressing LFA-1 was significantly higher in patients with AAV than in those with large-vessel vasculitis or polyarteritis nodosa and the HCs. LFA-1 levels in the neutrophils were higher in patients with MPO-ANCA-positive expression than in those with a positive PR3-ANCA expression and correlated with the peripheral eosinophil count, serum rheumatoid factor titre, serum C-reactive protein levels, and the vasculitis activity score of systemic and chest components. After 24 weeks of treatment, including prednisolone, cyclophosphamide, rituximab, azathioprine, methotrexate, and/or tacrolimus, neutrophil LFA-1 expression remained high in the non-responder patients, but decreased in the responder patients. The in vitro assay showed that leukocyte migration toward HUVECs was dependent on the interaction between LFA-1 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM1); the migration of leukocytes was inhibited by blocking the adhesion of LFA-1 to ICAM1. CONCLUSIONS The expression of LFA-1 in neutrophils is increased in patients with AAV. Neutrophil LFA-1 levels correlate with the clinical features of AAV. Inhibiting the adhesion of LFA-1 and ICAM1 impedes the neutrophil-endothelium interaction and may have a therapeutic role in AAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kotaro Matsumoto
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahiko Kurasawa
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Saitama Medical Center, Saitama Medical University, 1981 Kamoda, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan
| | - Keiko Yoshimoto
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katsuya Suzuki
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Takeuchi
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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5
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Manfredi A, Luppi F, Cassone G, Vacchi C, Salvarani C, Sebastiani M. Pathogenesis and treatment of idiopathic and rheumatoid arthritis-related interstitial pneumonia. The possible lesson from COVID-19 pneumonia. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2020; 16:751-770. [PMID: 32722946 PMCID: PMC7594185 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2020.1803064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Main clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection are characterized by fever, dyspnea, and interstitial pneumonia, frequently evolving in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). AREAS COVERED Features of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) presents some common points with interstitial lung disease (ILD) both idiopathic and related to rheumatoid arthritis (RA), typically characterized by a chronic progression over time and possibly complicated by acute exacerbation (AE). The study of common pathogenetic mechanisms, such as the involvement of toll-like receptor 4, could contribute to the knowledge and treatment of idiopathic and RA-ILD. Moreover, hyperinflammation, mainly characterized by increase of effector T-cells and inflammatory cytokines, and activation of coagulation cascade, observed in COVID-19 related ARDS have been already shown in patients with AE of idiopathic and RA-ILD. A literature search was performed in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science, together with a manual search in COVID-resource centers of the main journals. EXPERT OPINION Despite the uncertainty about pathogenetic aspects about COVID-19- pneumonia, it could be a possible model for other forms of ILD and AE. The great amount of data from studies on COVID-19 could be helpful in proposing safe therapeutic approaches for RA-ILD, in understanding pathogenesis of usual interstitial pneumonia and to develop new therapeutic strategies for AE.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Manfredi
- Rheumatology Unit, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Policlinico Di Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - F Luppi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan Bicocca, Respiratory Unit, San Gerardo Hospital, ASST Monza, Monza, Italy
| | - G Cassone
- Clinical and Experimental Medicine PhD Program, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- Rheumatology Unit, Santa Maria Hospital, IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - C Vacchi
- Rheumatology Unit, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Policlinico Di Modena, Modena, Italy
- Clinical and Experimental Medicine PhD Program, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - C Salvarani
- Rheumatology Unit, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Policlinico Di Modena, Modena, Italy
- Rheumatology Unit, Santa Maria Hospital, IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - M Sebastiani
- Rheumatology Unit, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Policlinico Di Modena, Modena, Italy
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6
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Ramirez GA, Manfredi AA, Maugeri N. Misunderstandings Between Platelets and Neutrophils Build in Chronic Inflammation. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2491. [PMID: 31695699 PMCID: PMC6817594 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulated hemostasis, inflammation and innate immunity entail extensive interactions between platelets and neutrophils. Under physiological conditions, vascular inflammation offers a template for the establishment of effective intravascular immunity, with platelets providing neutrophils with an array of signals that increase their activation threshold, thus limiting collateral damage to tissues and promoting termination of the inflammatory response. By contrast, persistent systemic inflammation as observed in immune-mediated diseases, such as systemic vasculitides, systemic sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by platelet and neutrophil reciprocal activation, which ultimately culminates in the generation of thrombo-inflammatory lesions, fostering vascular injury and organ damage. Here, we discuss recent evidence regarding the multifaceted aspects of platelet-neutrophil interactions from bone marrow precursors to shed microparticles. Moreover, we analyse shared and disease-specific events due to an aberrant deployment of these interactions in human diseases. To restore communications between the pillars of the immune-hemostatic continuum constitutes a fascinating challenge for the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo A Manfredi
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Norma Maugeri
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
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7
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Ramirez GA, Rovere-Querini P, Blasi M, Sartorelli S, Di Chio MC, Baldini M, De Lorenzo R, Bozzolo EP, Leone R, Mantovani A, Manfredi AA, Tombetti E. PTX3 Intercepts Vascular Inflammation in Systemic Immune-Mediated Diseases. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1135. [PMID: 31191526 PMCID: PMC6548810 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
PTX3 is a prototypic soluble pattern recognition receptor, expressed at sites of inflammation and involved in regulation of the tissue homeostasis. PTX3 systemic levels increase in many (but not all) immune-mediated inflammatory conditions. Research on PTX3 as a biomarker has so far focused on single diseases. Here, we performed a multi-group comparative study with the aim of identifying clinical and pathophysiological phenotypes associated with PTX3 release. PTX3 concentration was measured by ELISA in the plasma of 366 subjects, including 96 patients with giant cell arteritis (GCA), 42 with Takayasu's arteritis (TA), 10 with polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR), 63 with ANCA-associated systemic small vessel vasculitides (AAV), 55 with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 21 with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and 79 healthy controls (HC). Patients with SLE, AAV, TA and GCA, but not patients with RA and PMR, had higher PTX3 levels than HC. PTX3 concentration correlated with disease activity, acute phase reactants and prednisone dose. It was higher in females, in patients with recent-onset disease and in those with previous or current active vasculitis at univariate analysis. Active small- or large- vessel vasculitis were the main independent variables influencing PTX3 levels at multivariate analysis. High levels of PTX3 in the blood can contribute to identify an increased risk of vascular involvement in patients with systemic immune-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Rovere-Querini
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Miriam Blasi
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Mattia Baldini
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Rebecca De Lorenzo
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Enrica P Bozzolo
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Alberto Mantovani
- Humanitas Research Center - IRCCS, Rozzano, Italy.,Humanitas University, Rozzano, Italy.,The William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Angelo A Manfredi
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Enrico Tombetti
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
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8
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Ramirez GA, Coletto LA, Sciorati C, Bozzolo EP, Manunta P, Rovere-Querini P, Manfredi AA. Ion Channels and Transporters in Inflammation: Special Focus on TRP Channels and TRPC6. Cells 2018; 7:E70. [PMID: 29973568 PMCID: PMC6070975 DOI: 10.3390/cells7070070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Allergy and autoimmune diseases are characterised by a multifactorial pathogenic background. Several genes involved in the control of innate and adaptive immunity have been associated with diseases and variably combine with each other as well as with environmental factors and epigenetic processes to shape the characteristics of individual manifestations. Systemic or local perturbations in salt/water balance and in ion exchanges between the intra- and extracellular spaces or among tissues play a role. In this field, usually referred to as elementary immunology, novel evidence has been recently acquired on the role of members of the transient potential receptor (TRP) channel family in several cellular mechanisms of potential significance for the pathophysiology of the immune response. TRP canonical channel 6 (TRPC6) is emerging as a functional element for the control of calcium currents in immune-committed cells and target tissues. In fact, TRPC6 influences leukocytes’ tasks such as transendothelial migration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis and cytokine release. TRPC6 also modulates the sensitivity of immune cells to apoptosis and influences tissue susceptibility to ischemia-reperfusion injury and excitotoxicity. Here, we provide a view of the interactions between ion exchanges and inflammation with a focus on the pathogenesis of immune-mediated diseases and potential future therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Lavinia A Coletto
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Clara Sciorati
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Enrica P Bozzolo
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Paolo Manunta
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Unit of Nephrology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Patrizia Rovere-Querini
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Angelo A Manfredi
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Unit of Immunology, Rheumatology, Allergy and Rare Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Immunity, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
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9
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Manfredi AA, Ramirez GA, Rovere-Querini P, Maugeri N. The Neutrophil's Choice: Phagocytose vs Make Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. Front Immunol 2018. [PMID: 29515586 PMCID: PMC5826238 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils recognize particulate substrates of microbial or endogenous origin and react by sequestering the cargo via phagocytosis or by releasing neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) outside the cell, thus modifying and alerting the environment and bystander leukocytes. The signals that determine the choice between phagocytosis and the generation of NETs are still poorly characterized. Neutrophils that had phagocytosed bulky particulate substrates, such as apoptotic cells and activated platelets, appear to be “poised” in an unresponsive state. Environmental conditions, the metabolic, adhesive and activation state of the phagocyte, and the size of and signals associated with the tethered phagocytic cargo influence the choice of the neutrophils, prompting either phagocytic clearance or the generation of NETs. The choice is dichotomic and apparently irreversible. Defects in phagocytosis may foster the intravascular generation of NETs, thus promoting vascular inflammation and morbidities associated with diseases characterized by defective phagocytic clearance, such as systemic lupus erythematosus. There is a strong potential for novel treatments based on new knowledge of the events determining the inflammatory and pro-thrombotic function of inflammatory leukocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo A Manfredi
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milano, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milano, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Patrizia Rovere-Querini
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milano, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Norma Maugeri
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milano, Italy.,Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
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10
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Eosinophils from Physiology to Disease: A Comprehensive Review. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:9095275. [PMID: 29619379 PMCID: PMC5829361 DOI: 10.1155/2018/9095275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Despite being the second least represented granulocyte subpopulation in the circulating blood, eosinophils are receiving a growing interest from the scientific community, due to their complex pathophysiological role in a broad range of local and systemic inflammatory diseases as well as in cancer and thrombosis. Eosinophils are crucial for the control of parasitic infections, but increasing evidence suggests that they are also involved in vital defensive tasks against bacterial and viral pathogens including HIV. On the other side of the coin, eosinophil potential to provide a strong defensive response against invading microbes through the release of a large array of compounds can prove toxic to the host tissues and dysregulate haemostasis. Increasing knowledge of eosinophil biological behaviour is leading to major changes in established paradigms for the classification and diagnosis of several allergic and autoimmune diseases and has paved the way to a "golden age" of eosinophil-targeted agents. In this review, we provide a comprehensive update on the pathophysiological role of eosinophils in host defence, inflammation, and cancer and discuss potential clinical implications in light of recent therapeutic advances.
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11
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Baragetti A, Ramirez GA, Magnoni M, Garlaschelli K, Grigore L, Berteotti M, Scotti I, Bozzolo E, Berti A, Camici PG, Catapano AL, Manfredi AA, Ammirati E, Norata GD. Disease trends over time and CD4 +CCR5 + T-cells expansion predict carotid atherosclerosis development in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2018; 28:53-63. [PMID: 29150407 DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) present increased cardiovascular mortality compared to the general population. Few studies have assessed the long-term development and progression of carotid atherosclerotic plaque in SLE patients. Our aim was to investigate the association of clinical and laboratory markers of disease activity and classical cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) with carotid atherosclerosis development in SLE patients in a prospective 5-year study. METHODS AND RESULTS Clinical history and information on principal CVRFs were collected at baseline and after 5 years in 40 SLE patients (36 women, mean age 42 ± 9 years; 14.4 ± 7 years of mean disease duration) and 50 age-matched controls. Carotid Doppler ultrasonography was employed to quantify the atherosclerotic burden at baseline and at follow up. Clinimetrics were applied to assess SLE activity over time (SLEDAI). The association between basal circulating T cell subsets (including CD4+CCR5+; CD4+CXCR3+; CD4+HLADR+; CD4+CD45RA+RO-, CD4+CD45RO+RA- and their subsets) and atherosclerosis development was evaluated. During the 5-year follow up, 32% of SLE patients, developed carotid atherosclerosis compared to 4% of controls. Furthermore, considering SLEDAI changes over time, patients within the highest tertile were those with increased incidence of carotid atherosclerosis independently of CVRF. In addition, increased levels of CD4+CCR5+ T cells were independently associated with the development of carotid atherosclerosis in SLE patients. CONCLUSION Serial clinical evaluations over time, rather than a single point estimation of disease activity or CVRF burden, are required to define the risk of carotid atherosclerosis development in SLE patients. Specific T cell subsets are associated with long-term atherosclerotic progression and may further be of help in predicting vascular disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Baragetti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Italy; Center for the Study of Atherosclerosis - Bassini Hospital, Cinisello Balsamo, Italy
| | - G A Ramirez
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy; Unit of Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - M Magnoni
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele Scientific Institute Milan, Italy
| | - K Garlaschelli
- Center for the Study of Atherosclerosis - Bassini Hospital, Cinisello Balsamo, Italy
| | - L Grigore
- Center for the Study of Atherosclerosis - Bassini Hospital, Cinisello Balsamo, Italy; IRCCS - Multimedica Hospital, Sesto San Giovanni, Italy
| | - M Berteotti
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele Scientific Institute Milan, Italy
| | - I Scotti
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele Scientific Institute Milan, Italy
| | - E Bozzolo
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - A Berti
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy; Unit of Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - P G Camici
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele Scientific Institute Milan, Italy
| | - A L Catapano
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Italy; IRCCS - Multimedica Hospital, Sesto San Giovanni, Italy
| | - A A Manfredi
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy; Unit of Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - E Ammirati
- Niguarda Ca' Granda Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - G D Norata
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Italy; Center for the Study of Atherosclerosis - Bassini Hospital, Cinisello Balsamo, Italy; School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Science, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.
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12
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Manfredi AA, Rovere-Querini P, D'Angelo A, Maugeri N. Low molecular weight heparins prevent the induction of autophagy of activated neutrophils and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps. Pharmacol Res 2017; 123:146-156. [PMID: 28161237 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The protection exerted by neutrophils against invading microbes is partially mediated via the generation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). In sterile conditions NETs are damaging species, enriched in autoantigens and endowed with the ability to damage the vessel wall and bystander tissues, to promote thrombogenesis, and to impair wound healing. To identify and reposition agents that can be used to modulate the formation of NETs is a priority in the research agenda. Low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) are currently used, mostly on an empirical basis, in conditions in which NETs play a critical role, such as pregnancy complications associated to autoimmune disease. Here we report that LMWHs induce a profound change in the ability of human neutrophils to generate NETs and to mobilize the content of the primary granules in response to unrelated inflammatory stimuli, such as IL-8, PMA and HMGB1. Autophagy consistently accompanies NET generation in our system and autophagy inhibitors, 3-MA and wortmannin, prevent NET generation. Pretreatment with LMWH in vitro critically jeopardizes neutrophil ability to activate autophagy, a mechanism that might contribute to neutrophil unresponsiveness. Finally, we verified that treatment of healthy volunteers with a single prophylactic dose of parnaparin abrogated the ability of neutrophils to activate autophagy and to generate NETs. Together, these results support the contention that neutrophils, and NET generation in particular, might represent a preferential target of the anti-inflammatory action of LMWH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo A Manfredi
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milano, Italy
| | - Patrizia Rovere-Querini
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milano, Italy
| | - Armando D'Angelo
- Coagulation Service and Thrombosis Research Unit, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Norma Maugeri
- Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy.
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13
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Ramirez GA, Weyand C, Vaglio A, Manfredi AA. Editorial: Vascular Inflammation in Systemic Autoimmunity. Front Immunol 2016; 7:471. [PMID: 27917171 PMCID: PMC5117117 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A. Ramirez
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Immunology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giuseppe A. Ramirez,
| | - Cornelia Weyand
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Augusto Vaglio
- Unit of Nephrology, University Hospital of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Angelo A. Manfredi
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Immunology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
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14
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Ramirez GA, Della-Torre E, Campochiaro C, Bozzolo E, Berti A, Praderio L, Dagna L, Sabbadini MG. Juxta-vertebral lesions in granulomatosis with polyangiitis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2016; 46:356-360. [PMID: 27586405 DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To describe the clinical, pathological, serological, and radiological characteristics of juxta-vertebral masses occurring in patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA). METHODS We analyzed the clinical records of patients with juxta-vertebral lesions from our GPA study cohort and reviewed the English literature for other cases of GPA with juxta-vertebral localization. RESULTS Out of 74 patients in our GPA study cohort, six (8%) had juxta-vertebral lesions. We found 10 cases of juxta-vertebral GPA described in the English literature. Overall, juxta-vertebral lesions were detected at GPA onset in 11/16 (69%) patients, and preferentially occurred on the right side of the spine (12/15 patients, 80%). Fifteen patients (94%) with juxta-vertebral lesions had systemic GPA. Juxta-vertebral lesions were associated with back pain at GPA onset in 8/16 (50%) patients. In all of them juxta-vertebral lesions resolved or improved after treatment. CONCLUSIONS Preference for the right-anterior side of the spine, increased 18FDG uptake on PET scan, low or absent invasiveness of the surrounding tissues, and occurrence in the context of systemic disease were the main features of juxta-vertebral GPA. Symptomatic lesions showed a better response to immunosuppressive therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe A Ramirez
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy; Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Emanuel Della-Torre
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy; Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Corrado Campochiaro
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy; Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Enrica Bozzolo
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Alvise Berti
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy; Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Luisa Praderio
- Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Dagna
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy; Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Sabbadini
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy; Unit of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, IRCCS-San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Ospedale San Raffaele, via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
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15
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Vascular Remodelling and Mesenchymal Transition in Systemic Sclerosis. Stem Cells Int 2016; 2016:4636859. [PMID: 27069480 PMCID: PMC4812480 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4636859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibrosis of the skin and of internal organs, autoimmunity, and vascular inflammation are hallmarks of Systemic Sclerosis (SSc). The injury and activation of endothelial cells, with hyperplasia of the intima and eventual obliteration of the vascular lumen, are early features of SSc. Reduced capillary blood flow coupled with deficient angiogenesis leads to chronic hypoxia and tissue ischemia, enforcing a positive feed-forward loop sustaining vascular remodelling, further exacerbated by extracellular matrix accumulation due to fibrosis. Despite numerous developments and a growing number of controlled clinical trials no treatment has been shown so far to alter SSc natural history, outlining the need of further investigation in the molecular pathways involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. We review some processes potentially involved in SSc vasculopathy, with attention to the possible effect of sustained vascular inflammation on the plasticity of vascular cells. Specifically we focus on mesenchymal transition, a key phenomenon in the cardiac and vascular development as well as in the remodelling of injured vessels. Recent work supports the role of transforming growth factor-beta, Wnt, and Notch signaling in these processes. Importantly, endothelial-mesenchymal transition may be reversible, possibly offering novel cues for treatment.
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