Self-medication practice and associated factors among adult household members in Meket district, Northeast Ethiopia, 2017

The magnitude and associated factors of unused medications storage practice among households in Jimma city, southwest of Ethiopia: Community-based cross-sectional study

Background

Medicines are kept unused at home for many therapeutic reasons. Conversely, unused medication and subsequent wastage can be attributed to several primary factors such as medication change, death, and non-adherence. This study aimed to assess the magnitude and associated factors of unused medication storage practice among households in Jimma City, southwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A community-based cross-sectional study design was conducted among households (n = 397) in Jimma Town from July to August 2021. The data were collected using the pre-tested and interviewer-administered questionnaire. SPSS version 21.0 was used for data analysis. The multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the factors associated with the storage of unused medicine at a 5% level of significance.

Results

Out of 397 households that responded, (n = 90, 23%) of households were found to have unused medicine at home. This study showed that the majority of households dispose of unused drugs by burning them (32.2%) and burying them in the ground (29%). Antibiotics were the most (6.3%) unused medicines stored while the anti-diabetics (1.3%) were the least unused drugs stored among households. The presence of family members working in the health sector (AOR: 0.402, 95%, CI: 0.202, 0.800) and family size in households (AOR: 2.325, 95%, CI: 1.045, 5.174) were significantly associated with the magnitude of unused medicine storage.

Conclusion

The magnitude and improper disposal of unused medicines storage among households were significant in the study area. Therefore, it is important to educate the community and encourage health professionals to understand their role in problems and solutions.

Prevalence, practice, determinants and adverse effects of self-medication among young people living in a suburban community of Ekiti, Nigeria: A community-based cross-sectional study

Objectives

Health hazards such as adverse drug reactions and prolonged morbidity are fallouts of self-medication among young people in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, practice, determinants, and adverse effects of self-medication among young people living in a suburban community of Ekiti, Nigeria.

Methods

This survey was a descriptive, cross-sectional study of 602 young people aged 16-24 years., who were randomly selected in the community. A predesigned self-administered questionnaire was used for data collection. The study was conducted from 1st March to 31st May 2023. The independent variables measured include the sociodemographic characteristics, while the dependent variables are the practice of self-medication and factors that predisposes to self-medication. The general characteristics of the participants were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The categorical variables were reported as frequency distribution and proportions with 95% confidence intervals and were compared using the Chi-square test or Fisher's exact test. A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Over 30% (31.7%) of the participants engage in self-medication. A larger proportion of the people who practiced self-medication lived a trekking distance of less than 1 km from the nearest health facility with a doctor (p = 0.044). The practice of self-medication was statistically related with being a student when compared with gainfully employed and unemployed people (p = 0.006). Fever (39.8%), abdominal pain (17.3%) and headaches (16.2%) were the topmost three ailments that necessitated self-medication. Antimalarials (44.0%), antibiotics (25.1%), and antipyretics (16.8%) were high on the list of drugs used for self-medication. Headache (34.0%) was the most common adverse reaction from self-medication among the participants studied.

Conclusion

Adverse reactions and drug addiction were negative fallouts of self-medication, which can affect the health of young people as they grow into adulthood. Therefore, monitoring of drug outlets must be taken seriously by government agencies to prevent the worsening of the negative effects of self-medication.

Self-Medication Practices among Adult Population in Bangladesh: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

The practice of self-medication (SM) is common worldwide and is an important component of medical self-care. However, improper practice can be dangerous. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of SM and the factors associated with it among Bangladeshi adults.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted between April and June 2021 among Bangladeshi adults (aged > 19 years) using convenient sampling. A total of 1320 subjects were collected through face-to-face interviews using a standardized questionnaire. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with the practice of SM.

RESULTS

Overall, 41% of adults in our survey reported SMP. The most common illnesses that prompted SM were common cold/flu (66.4%), gastric problems (65%), and headache (64.4%). The most frequent reasons for SM were to get better-perceived quality of care (30.6%), perceiving SM without side effects (23.3%), and saving time with effectiveness (14.56%). Potential risk factors included 10 years (AOR = 1.91; 95% CI: 1.04-3.50) and >12 years of schooling (AOR = 5.03; 95% CI: 2.27-11.15), being a businessman (AOR = 4.64; 95% CI: 1.74-12.37), having ≤6 family members (AOR = 2.13; 95% CI: 1.40-3.24), being a member of a social group (AOR = 1.53; 95% CI: 1.10-2.12), a health status check after every six months (AOR = 1.52; 95% CI: 1.08-2.13), and current ill-health (AOR = 1.41; 95% CI: 1.06-1.87). Protective factors identified included ≤30 years of age (AOR = 0.40; 95% CI: 0.17-0.93), and practice of modern (AOR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.22-0.69) and herbal (AOR = 0.45; 95% CI: 0.21-0.97) treatment modality.

CONCLUSION

More than one-third of the study participants reported practicing SM. Increasing the community's awareness of the adverse outcomes of SM and not just the average experience might sway individuals away from SM, and implementing strict jurisdiction could be a way to minimize inappropriate SM.

Prevalence of self-medication practices among pregnant women in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Self-medication practice among pregnant women is a global concern. However, its understanding in the Indian context is limited due to a lack of comprehensive studies.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to comprehensively assess the prevalence of self-medication, the medications used for self-medication, diseases/conditions associated with self-medication, and the reasons for self-medication among Indian pregnant women.

METHODS

This study was carried out following the guidelines outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). A thorough search was done in PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar to find articles that were published up until May 2023. Inclusion criteria comprised observational studies reporting self-medication prevalence among pregnant women in India. Data were extracted using a standardized sheet, and a random-effects model was applied to determine the overall prevalence of self-medication using R software. The I2 statistic was employed to assess the heterogeneity among the studies.

RESULTS

This study analyzed eight studies with a collective sample size of 2208 pregnant women. The pooled prevalence of self-medication among pregnant Indian women was 19.3% (95% CI: 7.5%-41.3%; I2 = 99%; p < 0.01). Common self-treated conditions were cold, cough, fever, headache, and stomach disorders. Antipyretics, analgesics, antihistamines, and antacids were frequently used for self-medication. The perception of mild ailment, immediate alleviation, convenience, time savings, and advice from family, friends, or the media were all reasons for self-medication. Local pharmacies were the most usual source for obtaining drugs, and pharmacists, family, friends, and past prescriptions were common sources of medicine information.

CONCLUSIONS

A low yet substantial number of pregnant women in India are engaged in self-medication practices. Appropriate strategies need to be planned to reduce self-medication practices to attain sustainable developmental goals for maternal health in India.

Public Awareness and Practice Regarding Over-the-Counter Medications: A Cross-Sectional Study in Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia

Background Pharmaceuticals classified as over-the-counter (OTC) medications are also known as self-medications, in which drugs are sold directly to customers without a valid prescription. According to the World Health Organization, self-medication refers to taking medication for ailments that one has self-diagnosed. The public viewed OTC medications as safer, more effective, and beneficial, but misuse can lead to other health issues. Therefore, this study aimed to assess awareness and practices regarding OTC medications. Methodology The study employed a cross-sectional design involving the public residing in Al-Ahsa in eastern Saudi Arabia. The study setting was primary health centers (PHCs) in Al-Ahsa. Four PHCs were chosen by the cluster sampling method. One PHC from each of the four health clusters (northern, southern, middle, and eastern) was selected and a total of 326 people were chosen by simple random sampling from those four PHCs. Data were collected through a structured self-administered questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as mean, standard deviation, chi-square, and correlation analyses were used to analyze the results. Results  The mean age of the participants was 38.26 ± 9.73 years. The overall mean knowledge score regarding OTC medications was 14.21 (SD = 3.3). About 39 (11.96%) of the participants had adequate knowledge, 184 (56.44%) had moderately adequate knowledge, and 103 (31.6%) had inadequate knowledge about the safety of using OTC medications. The overall mean score of practices was 20.7 ± 4.42. The chi-square test results showed a significant (p < 0.01) association between the level of knowledge and age, occupation, nationality, and marital status. Additionally, a positive linear relationship (r=+.386) was found between knowledge and practices regarding OTC medications. Conclusion In conclusion, many people in the present study had moderate knowledge and good practices regarding OTC medications. To protect the public from harm, there is an urgent need for more concrete regulatory control over OTC drugs and self-medication. So, it is recommended to create awareness about the proper use of OTC medications.

Community antibiotic consumption and associated factors in Lusaka district of Zambia: findings and implications for antimicrobial resistance and stewardship

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health crisis. This study assessed the general public's consumption of antibiotics and associated factors in the Lusaka district of Zambia.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted among 2038 participants between December 2022 and January 2023. Data were analysed using Stata 13.0. Multivariable regression techniques were used to determine the factors that influenced antibiotic consumption.

Results

Of the 2038 participants, 53.4% were female, and 51.5% had attended at least secondary school. Antibiotic use was 99.2%, of which 40.9% were appropriately used. Overall, 79.1% of antibiotics were prescribed in hospitals, while 20.9% were used from leftovers and accessed without prescriptions. This study found that the appropriate use of antibiotics was associated with being female, being aged 35 years and above, attaining secondary school or tertiary education, having a monthly expenditure of 195 USD and above, being aware that antibiotics were not the same as painkillers, and being confident that when someone was hospitalized, they would get well.

Conclusions

This study found that the appropriate use of antibiotics was low, and this is an urgent public health issue requiring community engagement in tackling AMR and adherence to treatment guidelines in healthcare facilities. Additionally, there is a need to implement and strengthen antimicrobial stewardship programmes in healthcare facilities to promote the rational use of antibiotics in Zambia. There is also a need to heighten community awareness campaigns and educational activities on the appropriate use of antibiotics.

Perspectives of healthcare workers on integrated management of childhood illness in Pakistan: A phenomenological approach

In 2019, an estimated 5.2 million deaths were reported among children less than 5 years of age. At primary healthcare level, healthcare workers (HCWs) mostly rely on history and clinical findings and less on inadequate diagnostic facilities. To enhance case management skills of HCWs, World Health Organization devised an integrated management of childhood illnesses (IMCI) strategy in 1995, modified to distance learning IMCI in 2014. A qualitative phenomenological study was conducted to explore perceptions of HCWs about standard and distance IMCI. Four focus group discussions were conducted with purposively selected 26 HCWs (IMCI trained) from 26 basic health units of Abbottabad district in Pakistan. Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics were adopted during the inductive thematic analysis. Five themes that emerged are inexorable health seeking behaviors, IMCI being a comprehensive algorithm for consultation, a tedious protocol, scaling up protocol to specialists and private practitioners, and administrative insufficiency by the department of health. Improvement in case management skills of HCWs was reported as a result of IMCI trainings. It needs administrative support, regulations to control poly-pharmacy and provision of drugs without prescription, and a curb on political and bureaucratic interference.

The magnitude and predictors of self-medication amongst street dwellers in Ethiopia: a multicentre study

Background

Low levels of living standards amongst street dwellers worldwide limit their access to conventional healthcare services, resulting in self-medication use for the treatment of an illness. Nevertheless, self-medication use has risks, including adverse drug reactions, increased polypharmacy, drug resistance, drug dependence, drug interactions and incorrect diagnosis. Ethiopia has a large street-dwelling community; however, there are no studies conducted in Ethiopia assessing self-medication use amongst street dwellers. This study provides insight into self-medication use and predictors amongst street dwellers in Ethiopia.

Methods

A community-based, multicentre cross- sectional study was conducted amongst street dwellers from 1 September 2022 to 1 February 2023 at community drug-retail outlets in the three major cities in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. The data were obtained using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Frequencies and percentages of descriptive statistics were calculated. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were employed to indicate predictors of self-medication use. To determine statistical significance, a 95% confidence interval with a p value below 0.05 was utilized.

Results

The prevalence of self-medication use was 67.4%. Time and financial savings were reported as the reasons for most self-medication use. The most commonly reported illnesses for which people sought self-medication were gastrointestinal diseases. Low monthly income (adjusted OR 3.72, 95% CI 2.34-5.91) and residing near sewage areas (adjusted OR 3.37, 95% CI 2.03-5.58) were significantly associated with self-medication use.

Conclusion

Street dwellers had a high rate of self- medication use. Residing near sewage areas and having a low level of income were factors in self-medication use. Gastrointestinal diseases, respiratory ailments and dermatological conditions were the most frequently reported complaints, whereas antimicrobials and anthelmintics were the most commonly used medications. We recommend that healthcare services enhance outreach programmes to the most vulnerable people, such as street dwellers, especially those with lower monthly incomes and who live near sewage areas, to reduce self-medication rates.

Extent and Correlates of Self-Medication Practice among Community-Dwelling Adults in Eastern Ethiopia

Background

The use of medications without proper medical consultations poses significant health risks, drug resistance, and undiagnosed disease conditions, becoming a major pharmaceutical challenge in the 21st century. This study assessed the magnitude and associated factors of self-medication practice among adults in parts of Ethiopia.

Methods

A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 647 randomly selected adults residing in randomly selected households in eastern Ethiopia via a stratified sampling approach. A pretested interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect the data on self-medication practice. Data were presented using tables, frequencies, percentages, and graphs. A multivariable binary logistic regression was done to identify factors associated with self-medication practice and presented as an adjusted odds ratio along with its 95% CI. Associations with a p value below 5% were used to declare statistical significance.

Results

A total of 647 adults with a mean age of 41.7 (11.4) years were included. Overall, 15.8% (95% CI: 12.5-18.2) of them reported to have practiced self-medication in the past month, while 67.9% (95% CI: 64.1-74.7) have practiced self-medication, mainly due to the mild nature of the symptom (11%), intention to get a rapid cure (12.2%), physical accessibility (9.1%), and less confidence in the quality of health facility services (3.7%). The majority of the drugs were in the form of oral tablets in the antibiotic, antipain, and gastrointestinal categories. Female (AOR = 1.66 and 95% CI: 0.76-3.61), larger family size (AOR = 1.34 and 95% CI: 0.73-2.46), illiteracy (AOR = 4.47 and 95% CI: 1.17-17.1), poor socioeconomic class (AOR = 4.6795 and CI: 1.71-12.7), perceived health facility visit stay as long (AOR = 1.55 and 95% CI: 0.80-3.00), khat use (AOR = 2.86 and 95% CI: 1.27-6.47), cigarette smoking (AOR = 2.86 95% CI: 1.27-6.47), and poor knowledge on proper medication use (AOR = 7.98 and 95% CI: 4.61-13.8) were associated with increased odds of self-medication.

Conclusion

The practice of self-medication is a health concern and is associated with lower socioeconomic class, illiteracy, substance abuse, a perceived long stay at a health facility, and poor knowledge of medication use. Behavioral interventions targeting this segment of the population via various approaches would help.

Self-Medication Practices During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among the Adult Population in the Eastern Region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND

Self-medication is vital to public health because it has an impact on people's health and the current healthcare system, both positively and negatively. During public health catastrophes like the COVID-19 disease, this is particularly true.

AIM

This study aimed to examine the behavioral response of the community with regard to self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic in the eastern region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

During the COVID-19 outbreak from March to September 2020, a cross-sectional online survey of 398 participants using structured questionnaires was conducted to observe knowledge, prevalence, patterns, and sources of self-medication among the respondents in the eastern region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

RESULTS

The percentage of respondents who had heard about self-medication was 50.5%, and those who practiced self-medication during COVID-19 were 43.7% of the respondents. Regarding knowledge, 60.3% had a low overall knowledge level versus 39.7% who had a high knowledge level. Most of those who practiced self-medication took medication based on their own decision (34.4%). The most frequently used drugs during the outbreak were analgesics (43.5%) and vitamins (24.9%). Only 1% of participants reported using anti-malaria drugs (hydroxychloroquine). The most common reasons for self-medication practices were having a mild illness (30.4%), followed by fear of infection (26.6%). The symptoms for which the respondents took self-medication were headache (29.6%), cough (26.6%), and fever (24.6%).

CONCLUSION

Our investigation showed a low level of knowledge about self-medication and a considerable level of self-medication practices. Therefore, self-medication may be minimized with ongoing awareness-raising and sensitization.

A report of Kabul internet users on self-medication with over-the-counter medicines

Self-medication (SM) with over-the-counter (OTC) medications is a prevalent issue in Afghanistan, largely due to poverty, illiteracy, and limited access to healthcare facilities. To better understand the problem, a cross-sectional online survey was conducted using a convenience sampling method based on the availability and accessibility of participants from various parts of the city. Descriptive analysis was used to determine frequency and percentage, and the chi-square test was used to identify any associations. The study found that of the 391 respondents, 75.2% were male, and 69.6% worked in non-health fields. Participants cited cost, convenience, and perceived effectiveness as the main reasons for choosing OTC medications. The study also found that 65.2% of participants had good knowledge of OTC medications, with 96.2% correctly recognizing that OTC medications require a prescription, and 93.6% understanding that long-term use of OTC drugs can have side effects. Educational level and occupation were significantly associated with good knowledge, while only educational level was associated with a good attitude towards OTC medications (p < 0.001). Despite having good knowledge of OTC drugs, participants reported a poor attitude towards their use. Overall, the study highlights the need for greater education and awareness about the appropriate use of OTC medications in Kabul, Afghanistan.

Prevalence of self-medication among the elderly: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Self-medication is the use of unprescribed drugs to treat a disease. Elderly self-medication can be more dangerous compared to other age groups because of changes in organ functions that occur due to senescence. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of self-medication in the elderly, its related factors, and common drugs used in this regard.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched between January 2016 and June 2021. The search strategy was built on two core concepts: "self-medication" and "aged". The search was limited to original articles in the English language. A random effect model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of self-medication. Heterogeneity among studies was assessed using both the I² statistic and the χ ² test. Also, a meta-regression model was used to investigate the potential sources of heterogeneity of the studies.

RESULTS

Out of 520 non-duplicate studies, 38 were included in the meta-analysis. Self-medication in the elderly ranged from 0.3% to 82%. The pooled proportion of self-medication was 36% (95% CI: 27%-45%). The result of the χ ² test and the I² index (P < 0.001, I²= 99.90%) revealed notable heterogeneity among the included studies in the meta-analysis. The meta-regression showed a significant association between the sample size (adjusted β = -0.01; P = 0.043) and the pooled proportion of self-medication.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of self-medication in the elderly is high. Education through mass media to raise awareness about the dangers of self-medication can help solve this problem.

Prevalence and influencing factors of self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Arab region: a multinational cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The novel coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has begun with a wave of misinformation and fear of infection. This may have led people to self-medicate inappropriately. The World Health Organization describes self-medication (SM) as utilizing medicines to relieve symptoms or health conditions without consulting a physician. Inappropriate drug use is a burden on both health resources and patient health in the Arab region. This study aimed to detect the prevalence and influencing factors of self-medication among the general Arab population during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

A multinational cross-sectional study was conducted among the general population of ten Arab countries from early August to late October 2021. Participants aged 18 years or older could join the study via social media platforms. A convenience sampling technique was used. A developed and validated web-based questionnaire was used to collect data on self-medication practice, associated influencing factors, information sources, commonly used medications, and commonly treated conditions. Descriptive, univariate, and multivariate regression analyses were applied using IBM SPSS v 26 and R v 4.0.0 software.

RESULTS

A total of 8163 participants completed the questionnaire, and 518 participants were excluded from the analysis due to inconsistencies in their data. Almost two-thirds (62.7%) of participants reported practicing self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the country level, Egypt had the highest prevalence of self-medication practice (72.1%), while Palestine had the lowest prevalence (40.4%). The most commonly used drugs were analgesics, antipyretics, and vitamins (86, 65.1, and 57.1%, respectively), while antitussives and antibiotics scored 47.6 and 43.3%, respectively. Experience with similar health conditions (74.6%) and urgency of the problem (47.2%) were the most frequent factors that led to self-medication. Additionally, 38.2% of the self-medicated participants (SMPs) used drugs as prophylaxis against COVID-19. Pharmacist consultation was the most common source of information about self-medication (66.7%). Multivariate analysis showed that predictors of self-medication were older age (p = 0.008), presence of chronic illness (p = 0.015), and having monthly income or medical insurance that does not cover the treatment cost (p = 0.001, p < 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Self-medication is considered a common practice across the Arab population. It is necessary to regulate policies and raise awareness among the public about self-medication.

Prevalence and Determinants of Household Medication Storage During the COVID-19 Outbreak in Southwest Ethiopia

Background

Most households worldwide keep medicines on hand for various reasons, including emergency use, treatment of acute and chronic diseases, and anticipated future use. Being infected or fear of getting COVID-19 in the current pandemic could increase the storage of drugs at home. Thus, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of household storage of medicines and associated factors in southwest Ethiopia during the COVID-19 outbreak.

Methods

A cross-sectional household survey was conducted from February 1 to May 30, 2022. Data on the extent of storage, storage conditions, their current status, disposal methods, among others, were collected through structured interviews and observations. The data were entered into EPI info, exported, and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Bivariate followed by multivariate logistic regression was used to identify associated factors. P-value <0.05 was used as a cut-off point to decide statistical significance.

Results

The magnitude of household medication storage was 48% (95% CI). Analgesics (28.7%) and antibacterial (21.1%) agents were the most predominant class of drugs stored in the households. The most significant proportion of the home-stored medications (34.7%) was reserved for future use, and 31.8% were for treating current medical conditions. The majority of the respondents (84.1%) had never heard/learned about the safe disposal ways of drugs. The presence of children aged less than 5 years in a household [AOR = 1.90 (1.19, 3.05)] and the existence of chronically sick patients in a household [AOR = 4.3 (2.25, 8.45)] were factors significantly associated with household medication storage.

Conclusion

The current study revealed a high prevalence of home medication storage; thus, to lessen or eliminate the negative consequences of storing medications at home, it is necessary to review the medication utilization chain and offer community-based training on proper medication storage and disposal techniques, including establishing take-back programs.

DRUG MISUSE AND SELF-MEDICATION AMONG PHARMACY STUDENTS IN JORDAN

OBJECTIVE

Aim: To estimate risks and prevalence of self-medication and potential abuse risk among pharmacy students in Jordanian Universities.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study design was conducted with 450 students, selected using multistage sampling methods, from seven different universities. Data was collected by self-administrated questionnaires covering demographic and academic information, health-related information, use of self-medication, and pattern of self-medication among pharmacy students.

RESULTS

Results: Out of 394 students who answer the questions, 76.9% reported that they had usually treated themselves in case of simple cases without physician or pharmacist consultation. Most commonly used drugs among the surveyed students were Paracetamol 60%, multivitamins supplement 74.25%, and herbal products 37.2%, combination of NSAIDs and Paracetamol 20.6%, and laxatives 19.4%. Cold and flu 25.5%, headache 22.3%, abdominal pain 7.9%, gastric pain 7.9%, cold and flu, headache, abdominal pain, and gastric pain 14.9% were the main conditions which contribute to self-medication practice. It was also found that Pharmacy students were over-confident with the type of cases they could treat without referral to a specialist physician, despite knowing that some of the symptoms may be due to serious health problems. Misuse of analgesics and laxatives was clear, and there was a weakness in knowledge of the indications for the use of the most common drug.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: The prevalence of self-medication among pharmacy students in Jordan is high, and medical teaching institutions need to educate students about the proper use of medicines. Strict legislation and more education on self-medication are necessary for effective use of medicines.

Hypochondriasis and self-medication among medical sciences students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A descriptive cross-sectional study in Northwestern Iran

BACKGROUND

Increased fear and anxiety among the general public following the emergence of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) can lead to hypochondriasis as well as indiscriminate use of drugs, versus the disease.

OBJECTIVE

The present study was conducted to identify the frequency and causes of self-medication and hypochondriasis among students.

METHODS

This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 241 students of different disciplines of Khalkhal University of Medical Sciences in northwestern Iran over a period of six months. SPSS 26 software, Chi-square and Fisher tests were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

The rate of self-medication was calculated 51%. The highest rate of self-medication was in the form of tablets (75.6%) and capsules (28.5%) and the highest type of medication was herbal medicine (59.3%) and multivitamins and complementary drugs (54.5%). The most common cause of self-medication was previous use and the effectiveness of the drug in the past (79.7%). The mean score of hypochondriasis was calculated at 21.52 (11.02) and the majority of students (49.8%) were in the healthy group. There was a statistically significant association between hypochondriasis and self-medication (p = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings, more than half of the participants in the study had self-medication. About 20% of students also experienced mild to moderate hypochondriasis. Therefore, it is suggested that the necessary training and support be provided to deal with the side effects of these two phenomena.

The self-medication behaviors of residents and the factors related to the consideration of drug efficacy and safety-A cross-sectional study in China

Background: Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs facilitates residents self-medication. However, inappropriate self-medications have become a serious problem in China and even all over the world. Objectives: To make an investigation on the current status of Chinese residents' self-medication behaviors and important considerations, and to explore the factors related to the considerations of drug efficacy and safety. Design: A quantitative, cross-sectional study. Methods: Multi-stage sampling was used to conduct a cross-sectional investigation in China 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities directly under the Central Government. State that an interviewer-administrated questionnaire, was used for data collection. The questionnaire that was used in the investigation included demographic sociological characteristics, health literacy scale-short form (HLS-SF), the 10-item Big Five Inventory (BFI-10), the EuroQol-5D visual analogue scale (EQ-5D VAS), self-medication status and important considerations when self-medicating. Descriptive statistics were performed, and the Chi-square test was used for univariate analysis. Log-binomial regression was used for multivariate analysis on whether residents regard drug efficacy or safety as an important consideration. Results: 9256 respondents were included in the data analysis. The self-medication rate of Chinese adults was as high as 99.1%. Paracetamol and other analgesics were the most common types of OTC medication that respondents purchased, followed by vitamins/minerals. Medical staff recommendations, drug safety and efficacy were the top three important considerations. The residents in the east, central and western regions who consider safety is 63.5%, 61.5%, and 66.8% respectively. The proportion of curative effect was 60.2%, 55.7%, and 61.4% respectively. Log-binomial regression showed that western respondents, retired people, those who mainly used ways including basic medical insurance for employees, commercial medical insurance, free medical treatment to cover their medical cost, respondents with high neuroticism, high health literacy were more likely to consider drug safety as an important factor (p < 0.05). Eastern respondents, employed, main way of medical expenses borne was Out-of-pocket Payment, those with chronic disease were more likely to consider drug efficacy as an important factor (p < 0.05). Female, respondents with high levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and self-rated health status were more likely to regard both drug safety and efficacy as important considerations (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Self-medication is practiced by most Chinese adults. Whether Chinese adults take drug efficacy or safety as an important consideration is related to their demographic and sociological characteristics, Big Five personality characteristics, health literacy and self-assessed health status. There is a need to strengthen the management of OTC drugs and public education about self-medication.

Psychological effects on self-medication during the pandemic COVID-19 in WP Labuan: A development of questionnaire and pilot-testing

Introduction

Self-Medication, which is a practice to self-treat using medicine without consulting a medical practitioner or a doctor, is a common practice and the Pandemic Covid-19 may have caused people to resort to self-medication in order to reduce the infectivity of the Covid-19.

Objective

To validate and develop an instrument in Bahasa Melayu to assess the psychological distress and self-medication during pandemic Covid-19 in WP Labuan.

Methods

A pilot study was conducted among 160 participants in WP Labuan. Reliability testing on internal consistency and content validity was performed on the adapted Covid-19 Peritraumatic Distress Index (CPDI) as well as domain on knowledge, practice and attitude of self-medication.

Result

A panel of seven experts evaluated the research instrument for content validity and it was found to have good content item validity. The CPDI domain showed good internal consistency of Cronbach's Alpha of 0.919. The mean (SD) CPDI score of the respondents in WP Labuan was 32.55 (15.98). 64.2% of the respondents experienced psychological distress. The variable for Area (town/countryside) was found to be statistically significant (p<0.05) to be associated with self-medication during the pandemic.

Conclusion

The instrument established sound reliability and validity and therefore, can be an effective tool for assessing psychological distress and self-medication in the Malaysian population.

Self-medication in Chinese residents and the related factors of whether or not they would take suggestions from medical staff as an important consideration during self-medication

Objective

To investigate the status of Chinese residents' self-medication behavior and the important factors to consider when purchasing OTC drugs, and to explore the related factors of the possibility that Chinese residents take medical staff's suggestions as important factors to consider when purchasing OTC drugs.

Study design

A cross-sectional survey.

Methods

A questionnaire was developed for exploring the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents, their self-medication status, and important considerations. The questionnaire includes several scales including Health Literacy Scale-Short Form (HLS-SF), EQ-5D Visual Analog Scale (EQ-5D-VAS), Big Five Inventary-10 Items (BFI-10), and New General Self Efficacy Scale (NGSES). After carrying out a multi-stage sampling method, the questionnaire was conducted nationwide from July 10 to September 15, 2021. Next, descriptive statistics were conducted to analyze the general features. Logistic regression was then used to analyze the related factors of the possibility that the respondents took the suggestions of medical staff as an important consideration when purchasing OTC drugs.

Results

Nine thousand two hundred fifty-six qualified questionnaires were received. 99.06% of Chinese adults had self-medication behaviors. The types of OTC drugs purchased most by the respondents were NSAIDs (5,421/9,256 people, 58.57%) and vitamins/minerals (4,851/9,256 people, 52.41%). 86.2% of the respondents took the suggestions of medical staff as an important consideration when purchasing OTC drugs. The results of multi-factor logistic regression showed that women, those living in the central and western regions of China, those suffering from chronic diseases, those with high agreeableness, high conscientiousness, high neuroticism and openness, high health literacy, high EQ-5D-VAS, and those with high self-efficacy are more likely to take medical staff's suggestions as important factors to consider.

Conclusion

The vast majority of Chinese adults have self-medication behavior. Important considerations when purchasing OTC drugs include medical staff's suggestions, drug safety and drug efficacy. Whether residents take the suggestions of medical staff as an important consideration is related to their sociological characteristics, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, health literacy, self-assessment health status, and self-efficacy. When purchasing and using OTC drugs, residents should carefully listen to the suggestions from medical staff. They should also carefully consider their own conditions before buying OTC drugs.

Self-Medication Prevalence and Factors Associated with Knowledge and Attitude Towards Self-Medication Among Undergraduate Health Science Students at GAMBY Medical and Business College, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Background

Reports indicate that health science students are among the frontline of self-medication practitioners. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the self-medication (SM) practice and associated factors with knowledge and attitude of undergraduate health science students at GAMBY Medical and Business College, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

Methods

An institutional-based cross-sectional quantitative study was conducted using a self-administered questionnaire from May to July, 2022. A stratified random sampling method was applied to collect the data. The collected data were checked, and exported into SPSS 26. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis were performed to determine the results and the associated factors. Variables with p < 0.05 were regarded as significant.

Results

301 students (31 medicine, 163 pharmacy, and 107 medical laboratory students) responded (99% response rate). 68.1% of the respondents had practiced SM at least once within the last six months. 58.8% had good knowledge, while 55.5% have a positive attitude towards SM. Headache (33.7%) and cough (29.8%) were the primary disease conditions for SM. Analgesics (37.1%) and antimicrobials (29.8%) are most frequently self-consumed agents. Being a medicine student (AOR = 3.872; 95% CI: (1.263-11.866); p = 0.018), not having health insurance (AOR = 2.431; 95% CI: (1.383-4.274); p = 0.002), and not having a known medical illness (AOR = 2.241; 95% CI: (1.226-4.127); p = 0.010) were independently associated with good knowledge. While, living in an urban area was significantly associated with a positive attitude (AOR = 3.593; 95% CI: (1.404-9.197); p = 0.004).

Conclusion

The SM rate in GAMBY is significantly higher. Besides, not more than half the students had acceptable knowledge and attitude towards SM. The college and the surrounding regulatory authorities should consider ways of controlling and recapitalizing SM practices by the students.

Self-Medication in Rural Northeastern Romania: Patients' Attitudes and Habits

In recent years, many healthcare systems, along with healthcare professionals, have provided services in a patient-centered manner, in which patients are key actors in the care process. Encouraging self-care creates responsible patients, but it must be practiced responsibly. This study aims to analyze the tendency towards self-medication for patients from a rural area in Northeastern Romania. Data were collected using a questionnaire, which consisted of 25 questions, that has been developed by the research team. Student's T test or one-way ANOVA was used, and the reliability of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Fifty-eight patients agreed to participate and were interviewed. The results of the study suggest that respondents practice self-medication, which they resort to when their condition cannot be treated with natural remedies or herbs and when it impairs their ability to do their daily activities. Self-medication could be explained by the lack of self-care services as well as the trust patients have in the specific treatment. Patients prefer asking the pharmacist for drugs instead of visiting a physician, which could be due to higher accessibility and time-efficiency, while also being prone to stock up on certain medications due to limited access to healthcare.

Self-Medication Behaviors of Chinese Residents and Consideration Related to Drug Prices and Medical Insurance Reimbursement When Self-Medicating: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Self-medication has become a common phenomenon. Economic factors are important factors that affect the self-medication of residents. This study aimed to investigate the current status of self-medication behaviors in China and explored the related factors affecting considerations associated with medical insurance reimbursement or drug price in self-medication.

METHODS

A national cross-sectional investigation was conducted among Chinese people over 18 years old under a multi-stage sampling method through a questionnaire, which includes demographic sociological characteristics, self-medication behaviors and scales. The Chi-square test was used to analyze whether the respondents consider medical insurance reimbursement or drug price as an important factor when purchasing over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. Logistic regression was used to examine the associated factors of considering medical insurance reimbursement or drug price.

RESULTS

In total, 9256 respondents were included in this study; 37.52% of the respondents regarded drug prices as an important consideration, and 28.53% of the respondents attached great importance to medical insurance reimbursement. Elderly respondents who lived in the central region, had medical insurance, and had lower levels of health literacy were more likely to consider the medical insurance reimbursement, while respondents with high monthly family income as well as students were less likely to consider the same issue (p < 0.05). Respondents settled in the central and western regions, students, those without fixed occupations, those who suffered from chronic diseases, or those with lower health literacy were more likely to consider drug prices, while the respondents with bachelor degrees, urban population and high per capita monthly income were less likely to consider the drug prices (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Self-medication behaviors with OTC drugs were prevalent in China, and consideration factors of medical insurance reimbursement or drug prices were related to socio-demographic characteristics and health literacy. There is a need to take measures to reduce the economic burden of self-medication, improve the health literacy of residents and strengthen public health education.

Self-medication and its typology in Chinese elderly population: A cross-sectional study

Purpose

This paper aims to evaluate the prevalence of self-medication and its associated factors among the Chinese elderly. Also, according to whether the elderly communicate with doctors (no matter before or after self-medication), we aimed to categorize self-medication and explore the associated factors.

Methods

It was a cross-sectional study. Data were derived from the 2018 wave of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). According to whether communicate with doctors or not, self-medication was reclassified as "self-medicate and NOT communicating with a doctor," and "self-medicate and communicate with a doctor." A binary logistic regression was used to identify which elderly were more likely to self-medicate, and a multinomial logistic regression was applied to explore the associated influencing factors of self-medication classifications.

Results

A total of 17,445 individuals aged ≥45 years were enrolled. The prevalence of self-medication was 58.60%. Self-medication was strongly associated with sex, education level, pension, self-reported general health status, chronic illness, satisfaction with local medical services, and three province-level socioeconomic welfare variables. About 19.64% of self-medication populations had communicated with a doctor. Higher education level and younger age were significantly associated with a higher probability of "self-medication and communication with a doctor."

Conclusion

The prevalence of self-medication among the Chinese elderly is increasing over the year. Health education on appropriate medication use targeting elder adults with low education levels is highly recommended. The typology of self-medication and its factors are new research entry points and could be meaningful for future studies.

A Cross-Sectional Study of the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Self-Medication Among the General Population in the Western Region of Saudi Arabia

Introduction Self-medication (SM) is defined as consuming pharmaceutical drugs without the advice of a physician for either diagnosis or treatment. Reliance on self-medication has become a more common worldwide issue and now plays a major role in self-care. However, the practice is linked to many risks for patients and the whole community. This study assesses knowledge, attitudes, and practices associated with self-medication in the western region of Saudi Arabia. Methods This is an observational questionnaire-based cross-sectional study conducted over two months, between January and March 2022. The survey comprised 29 questions adapted from similar studies and was translated into Arabic to fit the study population. All residents of the three major cities, Makkah, Jeddah, and Taif, were included; the population under 18 years of age and health workers were excluded. We used OpenEpi version 3.0 (www.OpenEpi.com) for sample size calculation and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM Corp, Armonk, USA) was used for data analysis. Results Most of the participants (67.7%) declared that they practiced self-medication: (28.6%) men and (39.1%) women. Self-medicating for different indications showed differences between men and women but without statistical significance. Major indications for self-medicating were headache (45.3%), cough, cold/flu (42.7%), and fever (34.0%). The primary reasons participants gave for choosing to self-medicate were easy availability of the medicines (41.4%) and that they were treating a minor illness (40.8%). Many types of medicines were used, most commonly analgesics (44.0%) and antipyretics (43.6%). Conclusion The practice of self-medication is high among the population in Makkah, Jeddah, and Taif. Educating the public on the consequences and adverse effects is necessary.

Determinants of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Frontline Health Workers During the First Wave of COVID-19 in Africa: A Multicenter Online Cross-Sectional Study

Background

During its first wave of COVID-19 infection in sub-Saharan Africa, there was insufficient understanding of the pandemic among frontline health workers. This study was carried out to determine the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of frontline health workers (HWs) towards COVID-19 in Africa and their related factors.

Methods

This was a multicenter online cross-sectional study conducted between April 2020 and July 2020 using a Google survey link among frontline HWs involved in the COVID-19 response in 26 African countries. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression were used to analyse the determinants of KAP. Data were analyzed using STATA ver 16; all tests were two-sided with 95% confidence interval.

Results

Five hundred and seventeen participated in this study from 26 African countries; 289 (55.9%) were male and 228 (44.1%) female. Most of HWs, 379 (73.3%) showed poor knowledge about COVID-19 infection and preventive measures. In contrast, majority of them showed good attitude (89%) and practice (90.3%) towards prevention of COVID-19 infections. Knowledge varied among countries; Uganda had the greatest number of HWs with good knowledge (OR: 28.09, p<0.0001) followed by Ghana (OR=10.92, p=0.001) and DRC (OR: 4.59, p=0.015). The cadre of HWs also influenced knowledge; doctors were the most knowledgeable as compared to other cadres (OR: 3.4, p= 0.005). Attitude and practice were both influenced by HWs country of workplace and their cadre (p<0.05).

Conclusion

Majority of the frontline HWs in the African region had an overall good attitude and practice towards COVID-19 infection and practice measures despite relatively poor knowledge. The KAP is influenced by HWs country of workplace, their cadre. The knowledge of HWs in Africa should be increased to concourt with their attitude and practice to reduce the burden of intra-hospital transmission of the COVID-19.

The Reasons for Self-Medication from the Perspective of Iranian Nursing Students: A Qualitative Study

Background

The prevalence of self-medication has increased dramatically worldwide. This study was conducted to determine the reasons for self-medication from the perspective of Iranian nursing students.

Methods

This qualitative study was conducted using the content analysis method. Fifteen nursing students were selected by the purposeful sampling method. Data were collected by in-depth semistructured interviews. Qualitative content analysis method was used for data analysis. The MAXQDA software was used for data management.

Results

Data saturation was achieved with fifteen interviews with nine women and six men, with a mean age of 26.5 ± 4.8 years. The reasons for self-medication were explained in five categories and fifteen subcategories. Some of the reasons for self-medication were having medication information, having previous experience, easy access to medicine, lack of enough time, access to medical staff, cost of a doctor's visit, inadequate respect for patient privacy, pharmaceutical advertising in the media, and information explosion. Discussion. Several factors are involved in self-medication. Given the dangers of self-medication, health policymakers must adopt strict policies for pharmacies that sell drugs without a prescription. Furthermore, it is helpful to run training courses on self-medication risks for students.

Self-Medication Practice with Antibiotics and Its Associated Factors Among Community of Bule-Hora Town, South West Ethiopia

Background

Self-medication with antibiotics is being practiced worldwide with high prevalence, mostly in developing countries. Several factors induce the practice of self-medication, such as irrational and uncontrolled dispensing of medicinal substances, difficulty accessing health-care systems, and cost of diagnosis. Thus, this study assessed the prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics, and its associated factors among the community of Bule-Hora town, South West Ethiopia.

Methods

A community-based cross-sectional study design was used. All households residing in Bule Hora town were used as source population and households in the selected kebeles were included by using a systematic random sampling method. Eight hundred twenty-six study participants were selected for the study. Pre-tested structured questionnaires had been used to collect the required data. Then the collected data were checked for completeness and analyzed by using SPSS version 20. Odds ratios with 95% C.I. were used to measure the association between independent variables and outcome and variables with p-value <0.05 had been considered statistically significant.

Results

Prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics in the past 12 months prior to the data collection was found to be 38.9% [95% CI (1.56, 1.64)]. Being male (AOR = 1.53; 95% CI: 0.489, 0.869) with p value of 0.004, no health insurance scheme (AOR = 2.16; 95% CI: 0.274, 0.779) and availability of some drugs in shop (AOR = 12.98; 95% CI: 0.017, 0.353) with p value of 0.001 were found to be significantly associated with self-medication of antibiotics.

Conclusion

The study revealed that more than one-third of the respondents practiced self-medication. Availability and irrational dispensing of some drugs in the shops were significantly associated with self-medication practice. Therefore, it is important to educate society on the appropriate use of drugs and discourage the use of prescription drugs without medication order.

Prevalence, Perception, and Practice, and Attitudes Towards Self-Medication Among Undergraduate Medical Students of Najran University, Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Demand of COVID-19 medicines without prescription among community pharmacies in Jodhpur, India: Findings and implications

Background:

COVID-19 pandemic led to increased self-medication of antimicrobials, vitamins, and immune boosters among the common people and consuming without prescription can lead to adverse consequences including antimicrobial resistance.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study was conducted on community pharmacies in Jodhpur, India. They were inquired regarding the prescription and increased sales (<25%, 25—50%, 50--75%, or 75--100%) of various medicines (Hydroxychloroquine, Azithromycin, Ivermectin, and Vitamin C) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between requests for certain COVID-19 medications and an increase in their sale.

Results:

A total of 204 pharmacies took part, and 88.23% reported patients to approach them without prescriptions. Most of the pharmacies revealed that <25% of patients came without prescription. The majority came for azithromycin (68%) and vitamin C (92%). Increased sales of the four targeted medications were seen by 85.92% of pharmacies compared to last year. A majority (51.5%) reported <25% increased sales of azithromycin, but no change in the sale of hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin. However, 39.6% reported >75% increase in vitamin C sales.

Conclusion:

There was an increase in the demand for COVID-19 medications without prescription. This study was unable to detect a significant increase in sales of antimicrobials, which is encouraging.

Prioritizing intervention measures to prevent inappropriate self-medication practices using the Analytical Hierarchy Process

Background

United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 3 outlines the target of reducing premature mortality from non-communicable diseases by one third through prevention and treatment by 2030. In low and middle-income countries (LMICs) like Nepal, a significant number of people do not have accessible and affordable healthcare services available to them, leading to self-medication practices (SMP). Limited numbers of health professionals, ineffective regulation and easy availability of prescription medicines encourage the use of inappropriate SMP, which could result in health risks.

Objectives

The objection of the study is to test the application of Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) for prioritizing the intervention measures for preventing inappropriate SMP.

Methods

The 25 experts were included in the study, out of which only 16 experts passed the consistency test. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire by the application of AHP model for ranking the intervention measures for preventing inappropriate SMP from March 2020 to May 2020. During this process, the purposively selected experts compared seven intervention measures based on three criteria: control use of prescription and non-prescription medicine, knowledge regarding the medicine and its use, and minimizing healthcare cost.

Result

The criteria, “control use of prescription and non-prescription medicine” was judged 3.58 times and 1.53 times more important than to “minimize the healthcare cost” and “knowledge regarding the medicine and its use” respectively. “Regulation of prescription and non-prescription dispensing practice” was the most prioritized intervention measure to prevent inappropriate SMP with a priority score of 20.68% followed by the “accessibility of healthcare system” (19.27%) and “awareness program for the consumers” (17.13%).

Conclusion

The AHP method can be used in decision-making related to prioritizing the intervention measures to prevent inappropriate SMP. Among the seven intervention measures considered, “regulation of prescription and non-prescription dispensing practice” was the most preferred intervention measure to improve SMP followed by “access to healthcare” and an “awareness program”.

•

Significant people use inappropriate self-medication practices due to lack of accessible and affordable healthcare service.

•

Analytical Hierarchy Process can be used for prioritizing intervention measures to control inappropriate self-medication.

•

Control use of medicine was given 3.5 times more importance than healthcare cost minimization.

•

Regulation of dispensing practice, healthcare service accessibility and awareness program were most prioritized measures.

[Frequency and characterization of self-medication for dental manifestations in patients attending private clinics in Lima in 2021]

Introduction

The self-medication is the use of drugs without health professionals' prescription that many times, instead of helping, aggravate the patient's health. Dental pain is the main reason for performing this act in the area of odontology. It is important to know if patients self-medicate in order to develop strategies to reduce the misuse of drugs and avoid this practice.

Objective

Establish the frequency and characterization of self-medication in patients who visit to the three private dental clinics between the months of march to July in the year 2021.

Materials and methods

Cross-sectional observational study with a sample of 450 patients from three dental clinics in the city of Lima. The assessment tool was a 13-question quiz about the main characteristics of self-medication.

Results

The 85,8% of patients use drugs without medical prescription. 41.5% of the patients self-medicated did it with old prescriptions made by the dentist. The age group that more self-medicated was 26-35 years old with 35.5%. The most frequent type of disease was dental pain with 45.6%, The degree of instruction with the highest percentage was complete university superior with 32.9%.

Conclusions

The frequency of self-medication of the patients who visited the three dental centers is considerably high.

Occurrence, transformation, bioaccumulation, risk and analysis of pharmaceutical and personal care products from wastewater: a review

Almost all aspects of society from food security to disease control and prevention have benefited from pharmaceutical and personal care products, yet these products are a major source of contamination that ends up in wastewater and ecosystems. This issue has been sharply accentuated during the coronavirus disease pandemic 2019 (COVID-19) due to the higher use of disinfectants and other products. Here we review pharmaceutical and personal care products with focus on their occurrence in the environment, detection, risk, and removal.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10311-022-01498-7.

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Patients on Antibiotic Resistance and Use in Public Hospitals of Amhara Regional State, Northwestern Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background

Although inappropriate antibiotic use could contribute to the spread of antimicrobial resistance, data on the knowledge, attitude and  practice of antibiotic use and resistance among patients in north-western Ethiopia are scarce. This study assessed patients’ knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance in selected public hospitals of Amhara regional state, Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in selected public hospitals of Amhara regional state from November to December 2020 to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice of patients on antibiotic resistance and use. Data were collected from 233 participants using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS version 23.

Results

According to the findings, 60.3% of the participants obtained their antibiotics without a prescription from private pharmacies, and the most commonly used antibiotic to treat human diseases was ampicillin (70.7%). Even though 69.8% of the patients heard about antibiotics and antibiotic resistance from several sources, 68.1–87.9% of them were unaware on the factors that contribute to the transmission of resistant bacteria to humans and the impact of antibiotic resistance on human and animal health. Using the mean score of 3.15 ± 0.08 as the cut-off, 37.5% of patients know about antimicrobial resistance and use. With a mean score of 27.6 ± 0.3, 45.3% of patients had positive attitudes toward prudent antibiotic use and resistance. About 44% of participants had a good practice, with a mean practice score of 4.95 ± 0.17. A higher level of education was associated with better knowledge, positive attitudes, and better practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance. Although 57.3% of respondents viewed poor handwashing practices in hospitals as a major factor contributing to increased antibiotic resistance, 59.9% of respondents viewed implementing hygiene, infection prevention, and control practices as a major strategy contributing to reducing antibiotic use and resistance.

Conclusion

According to the present study, there is a low level of awareness among patients about the proper antibiotics use and resistance. It is essential to raise awareness, develop, and implement interventions to reduce antimicrobial use and antibiotic resistance in the study area.

Extent of and Factors Associated with Self-Medication among Clients Visiting Community Pharmacies in the Era of COVID-19: Does It Relieve the Possible Impact of the Pandemic on the Health-Care System?

Background

Self-medication is one aspect of self-care that has been shown to benefit primary health care. When done correctly, it provides significant benefits to customers, such as self-reliance and cost savings. Inappropriate methods, on the other hand, such as incorrect self-diagnosis and therapy selection, can be disastrous. The COVID-19 pandemic context may benefit the community in easing the burden on the health system. There have been no studies conducted on this possibility in the context of COVID-19 in a selected area, hence the purpose of this study was to determine the extent of and factors associated with self-medication among clients visiting community pharmacies in west Harerghe, Ethiopia from June 1 to 30, 2020.

Methods

This institution-based cross-sectional study used a systemic random sample of 416 community-pharmacy clients. To collect data, face-to-face interviews were conducted using pretested semistructured questionnaires modified from established techniques. EpiData 3.1 was used to enter data and SPSS 24 for analysis. To determine factors associated with self-medications, bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed. AORs with 95% CIs are used to report associations, and the level of significance was set at P<0.05.

Results

The proportion of people self-medicating was 73.6% (95% CI 69.2%–77.9%). Self-medications were significantly associated with age 18–24 years (AOR 9.28, 95% CI 3.56–24.21) and 25–34 years (AOR 3.54, 95% CI 1.35–9.27), Amhara ethnicity (AOR 1.72, 95% CI 1.01–2.94), current single status (AOR 0.28, 95% CI 0.15–0.51), government employment (AOR 0.31, 95% CI 0.12–0.82), and limited knowledge (AOR 2.31, 95% CI 1.40–3.79).

Conclusion

Three in four participants practiced self-medication in the era of COVID-19. Repetition was significantly associated with age, ethnicity, current marital status, type of occupation, and knowledge about self-medications. An alternative medical care–delivery system by all health-care providers and increasing community awareness should be promoted.

PREVALENCE OF SELF-MEDICATION FOR DYSPEPTIC SYMPTOMS IN PRIMARY CARE: A BRAZILIAN SURVEY

BACKGROUND

Dyspeptic symptoms are among the eight symptoms that most lead to the use of self-medication globally.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the frequency of use and profile of the population doing self-medication to control dyspeptic symptoms in a capital from South Brazil.

METHODS

Application of a survey consisting of topics regarding individual's socio-cultural data, self-reported comorbidities, use of self-medication in the 15 days prior to the interview and information on the use of this medication. Statistical analysis was performed on the data collected to determine the prevalence of self-medication for dyspeptic symptoms (SMDS) and to establish correlations with independent factors, such as gender, age, body mass index (BMI), education, family income and self-reported comorbidities.

RESULTS

A total of 719 individuals from the public health system were interviewed. Overall, 67.7% were female, 65.3% had a BMI greater than 25; 28.4% presented with self-reported hypertension, 21.4% with depression and 13.8% with diabetes. The prevalence of self-medication to control digestive symptoms in this population was 28.7% (95%CI: 25.3-32), 91.8% (n=189) due to complaints of dyspeptic origin. Proton pump inhibitors were the most used class of medication (67%), followed by antacids (15%). There was a relationship between SMDS and age >38 years (OR=1.734, 95%CI: 1.177-2.580, P=0.001), BMI >26 (OR=1.660, 95%CI: 1.166-2.362, P<0.001) and self-reported depression (OR=1.471, 95%CI: 0.983-2.201, P=0.04).

CONCLUSION

There was a higher prevalence of the use of self-medication to control dyspeptic symptoms in relation to previous data from the literature. Age >38 years, BMI >26 and self-reported depression were associated with SMDS.

Assessing the Syrian Population's Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Usage

Background Antibiotic resistance is a serious public health threat that results mainly secondary to antibiotics misuse. The present study aimed to determine the knowledge, attitude, and practice toward antibiotic use among the Syrian population. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted at the outpatient clinics of two major hospitals in Damascus, Syria. Applying a random convenience sampling, data were collected in a 1-week period by interviewing participants using a structured questionnaire, which targeted demographics, practice, knowledge, and attitude. Data were used to assess the relationship between the knowledge level and attitudes and demographics. Results Most respondents had a moderate level of knowledge (187, 74.8%) and a moderate attitude score (148, 59.2%). In addition, most respondents (149, 59.6%) stated that they take antibiotics based on pharmacist advice only and do not complete the full antibiotic course (200, 80%). A significant association was found between the knowledge level and financial status ( p -value = 0.003), education level ( p -value = 0.001), and having relatives working in the health care sector ( p -value = 0.021). In addition, a significant association was found between the attitude and having health insurance. Conclusion This study provides baseline evidence about the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotics among the Syrian population, that will help in designing targeted interventions to solve the inappropriate use of antibiotics.

Self-Medication With Over-the-counter Medicines Among the Working Age Population in Metropolitan Areas of Thailand

Background and Objectives: Self-medication with over-the-counter (OTC) medicines is becoming an increasingly popular practice around the world. The global prevalence rate of self-medication ranges from 11.2% to 93.7%, depending on the target population and country. However, there is a lack of data on the prevalence and practices of self-medication among the working-age population, particularly in Thailand metropolitan areas. The current study describes the prevalence of self-medication practices, adverse drug reactions and severity, reasons for self-medication, and basic medication knowledge among people of working age in metropolitan areas in Thailand.

Methods: We conducted an online cross-sectional study between December 2020 and January 2021. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze self-medication data. A chi-square test was used to assess the association between self-medication and sociodemographic characteristics.

Results: This study found high prevalence of self-medication among the working-age population in metropolitan areas of Thailand (88.2%). The most commonly used drug groups were NSAIDs (34.8%) and antibiotics (30.2%). Minor illness and easy access to pharmacies were the most common reasons for self-medication. Almost half of the participants&apos; illnesses (42.6%) for which they self-medicated were not always completely cured, necessitating treatment at a hospital or clinic. Although only a small number of participants (ranged from 0.6 to 6.6%) experienced adverse drug reactions as a result of self-medication, some had severe symptoms that disrupted their daily lives or required hospitalization. In terms of basic medication knowledge, we discovered that study participants misunderstood some antibiotic drug concepts.

Conclusions: According to the study findings, it is recommended that more information about the risks of self-medication, drug adverse reactions, antibiotic stewardship, more supervision of the prohibition of over-the-counter drugs and selling practices, and adequate facilities for peoples access to medical services be provided at the policy level.

Predictors of Self-medication in Iran: A Notional Survey Study

While logical use of medicine is a priority in all health systems, people do self-medication- mainly using Nonprescription Drugs or Over the Counter (OTC) drugs- for different reasons. Self-medication is rising in many developing countries that could increase healthcare expenditure. The present study aimed to find the self-medication rate and predisposing, enabling, and need factors affecting it based on the Anderson behavioral model in the Iranian population. The present study uses 22470 households’ data acquired from Iranian utilization of healthcare survey at the national level (2016). Due to the study objective, the data of 13005 people who were over 15 years old and had outpatient healthcare needs two weeks before the survey. The survey included a binary question about self-medication, which is considered a dependent variable. Age, gender, marital status, literacy, job status, socio-economic status, location, basic health insurance, complementary health insurance, and need for health services were considered as independent variables. Data were analyzed using logistic regression. The self-medication rate was calculated at 26.3% that was different among different subgroups of the population. According to the model estimates, married (OR = 0.80, CI = 0.71-0.91) and housekeepers (OR = 0.79, CI = 0.67-0.93) had significantly lower self-medication. Moreover, the urban population (OR = 1.29, CI = 1.17-1.43), people without basic (OR = 1.32, CI = 1.10-1.58), and supplementary (OR = 1.18, CI = 1.04-1.35) health insurance and also people who had two or higher number of outpatient healthcare needs had significantly more self-medication (OR = 2.96, CI = 2.67-3.29). It can be concluded that need, enabling, and predisposing factors are respectively the main determinants of self-medication behavior. From a policy point of view, increasing effective health insurance coverage with a focus on people who have more health care needs can be helpful.

Self-medication Practice and Associated Factors among Private Health Sciences Students in Gondar Town, North West Ethiopia. A Cross-sectional Study

Self-medication is the most common practice worldwide and it may lead to irrational use of drugs. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of self-medication practice and its associated factors among health science students. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 600 health science students in Gondar town. The data regarding self-medication practice and its associated factors were collected using a face-to-face interview on a structured questionnaire. SPSS −24 was used for data analysis and explained with univariate, and multivariate logistic regression analysis to determine the factors associated with self-medication practice (sex, age, religion, marital status, residence, department, year of study, monthly income, access to pharmacy, and peer/family pressure). A total of 554 students responded to the questionnaire with a response rate of 92.3%. Out of 554 respondents, 78.2% were practiced self-medication. Headache/fever 37.88% (n = 164) was reported as the most common complaint to practice self-medication. Among the reasons for self-medication practice, similarity of symptoms with past illness 33.49% (n = 145) was the most frequently reported. In current study, Females (AOR = 3.11, 95% CI = 1.55, 6.25), Muslim followers (AOR = 2.78, 95% CI = 1.30, 5.91), Protestant followers (AOR = 4.25, 95% CI = 1.38, 13.07), pharmacy students (AOR = 3.72, 95% CI = 1.97, 9.30), clinical nursing students (AOR = 2.88, 95% CI = 1.87, 14.48), monthly income (>500ETB) (AOR = 2.49, 95% CI = 1.12, 5.56), distance of health institution (<30 min) (AOR = 2.79, 95% CI = 1.39, 5.61), and accessibility of pharmacy (AOR = 4.85, 95% CI = 2.08, 11.29) were the independent predictors of self-medication practice. Self-medication is common in health science students in Gondar town. Health professionals should educate students on the risks and benefits of self-medication to encourage responsible self-medication. National guidelines on medicine access should be developed and strong measures should be implemented to halt the selling of medications without a proper prescription.

Prevalence and Predictors of Self-Medication Practice Among Teachers' Education Training College Students in Amhara Region, Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Self-medication practice is the use of medications without healthcare professional requests. It can lead to inappropriate medication usage, wastage of resources, increased chance of microbial resistance, and adverse drug reactions. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the prevalence and associated factors of self-medication practice among teachers' education training college students in the Amhara region, Ethiopia. Methods: A multicentre cross-sectional study was conducted on 344 teachers' education training college students in the Amhara region, Ethiopia, from January 1 to February 28, 2020. Data on sociodemography, the practice of self-medication, and factors associated with self-medication practice were collected through a self-administered structured questionnaire. Systematic random sampling was used to select participants. Descriptive statistics and univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were done to determine various variables and factors associated with self-medication practice. Results: Out of the 344 respondents, 234 (68.0%) practiced self-medication. The most commonly cited indication for self-medication practice was headache (75, 32.05%), followed by abdominal discomfort (53, 22.6%). The respondents who were older than 26 years of age (AOR: 2.47, 95% CI: 1.18-3.94), were in the third year of study (AOR: 3.14, 95% CI: 1.94-5.79), lived in urban residence (AOR: 2.97, 95% CI: 1.06-3.64), had accessibility to a nearby pharmacy (AOR: 2.12, 95% CI: 1.43-4.46), and had peer/family pressure (AOR: 2.34, 95% Cl: 1.53-3.56) were significantly associated with self-medication practice. Conclusion: More than two-thirds of the study participants practiced self-medication. Being from an urban area, having access to a private pharmacy, and higher year of study positively affect self-medication practice.

Prescription, over-the-counter (OTC), herbal, and other treatments and preventive uses for COVID-19

The current COVID-19 pandemic has spread rapidly worldwide and has challenged fragile health care systems, vulnerable socioeconomic conditions, and population risk factors, and has led to an overwhelming tendency to misuse prescription drugs and self-medication with prescription drugs, over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, herbals products, and unproven chemicals as a desperate preventive or curative measure for COVID-19. In this chapter, we present the legislative differences between prescription drugs, OTC drugs, and herbals. Various approved and nonapproved prescription and OTC drugs as symptomatic treatment for COVID-19 are listed and evaluated based on their reported efficacy, safety, and toxicological profile. We also present the various herbal products that are currently studied and used as treatment and preventive for COVID-19. The efficacy, toxicology profile, safety, and legal issues of some speculative preventive and treatment options against COVID-19, such as Miracle Mineral Solution (MMS), chlorine dioxide solution (CDS), colloidal silver, and hydrogen peroxide is presented. The chapter also emphasizes the specific strategies that need to be implemented to guide the population in the effective and safe use of prescribed medications, such as the Medication Therapy Management or Pharmaceutical Care process. Finally, this chapter aims to provide a deeper insight into the lack of health literacy in the population and the effect that drug utilization research (DUR) has in the decision making of health authorities and general public. We aim to provide the current information about the various treatment and preventive options used for COVID-19.

Self-Medication Practices among Undergraduate University Students in Northeast Ethiopia

Background

Inappropriate self-medication is a public-health problem worldwide. Major problems associated with self-medication include wastage of resources, increased resistance of pathogens, and adverse drug reactions.

Objective

The aim of this study was to assess self-medication practices and associated factors among undergraduate Wollo University students in Northeast Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 341 undergraduate university students using a pretested and self-administered questionnaire from January to February 2019. Simple random sampling was used to select study participants. Data were collected using the self-administered questionnaire and analyzed with SPSS version 20. Multiple logistic regression was employed in data analysis, with P<0.05 considered statistically significant.

Results

The prevalence of self-medication in this study was 64.98%. Mildness of disease (57, 34.13%) and dissatisfaction with health-care services, (44, 26.34%) were the main reasons for self-medication practice. The most common types of diseases for self-medication were headache (80, 47.9%), gastrointestinal infections (74, 44.31%), and respiratory tract infections (48, 28.74%). Analgesics (94, 56.28%) and antibiotics (60, 35.9%) were the leading classes of medicine used in self-medication. Multivariate regression analysis indicated that agriculture students (AOR 0.163, 95% CI 0.049-0.545) were 84% less likely to practice self-medication than medicine and health-science students.

Conclusion

This study revealed that self-medication practices are common among study participants and significantly associated with their field of study. Awareness promotion on the risk of inappropriate self-medication for university students is highly recommended.

Current self-medication practices in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: an observational study

Introduction

medication without prescription is a growing public health concern or phenomenon worldwide. This cross-sectional study was designed to study the trends of self-medication among Saudi population.

Methods

a prospective, cross-sectional study including 2004 participants was carried out from different family clinics across the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The clinicians used a self-designed questionnaire to collect the data, using stringent inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria. The questionnaire recorded participants' demographics and included several closed-ended and open-ended questions with options to choose from. The results were gathered, inserted into an excel spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS version 23. The analyzed information was presented as frequencies and percentages.

Results

our research showed that 924 respondents (46.1%) found it difficult to reach a hospital. Another 45.2% considered the inefficiency of health centers in providing necessary care as the main reason for self-medication. Other causes of self-medication included a lack of medical insurance, insurance not covering the costs for the drugs, and symptoms of the disease being mild enough for not going to the hospital. Analgesics were the most commonly self-administered drugs (84.58%), followed by antipyretics (71.26%), cough syrups (46.86%), eye drops (35.98%), antibiotics (35.28%), flu medication (32.83%), heartburn medication (23.15%), medicines for joint pain (15.02%), and so on.

Conclusion

the majority of Saudi Arabians engage in self-medication and rely on advice from friends and family most of the time, instead of consulting a health professional.

Self-medication Practices among the Peri-urban Households of Two Communities of Dharan Sub-metropolitan city of Eastern Nepal: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study

Introduction:

Self-medication practice is the use of medication without prescription of health care professionals. Drug resistance, drug side effects, wastage of resources, and serious health hazards including death are associated with self-medication. We conducted this study to find out the prevalence of self-medication among the peri-urban population of two randomly selected communities of Dharan, Nepal.

Methods:

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among people residing in two randomly selected wards of peri-urban areas of Dharan from November 2017 and April 2018 after obtaining ethical clearance (IRC/1030/017). A pretested, structured self-administered questionnaire was used for data collection. Data were collected and entered in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 11.5; point estimate at 95% Confidence Interval was calculated along with frequency and proportion for binary data.

Results:

Among 426 respondents, the overall prevalence of self-medication was 312 (73.23%) at 95% Confidence Interval (67.83-78.63%). It was more common among female 158 (78.60%). Common symptoms were headache 201 (64.42%), fever 135 (43.26%), gastrointestinal 93 (29.8%) and respiratory illness 87 (27.88%). Analgesics and antipyretics 275 (88.14%) were the most common drugs selfmedicated with. Seeking opinion from pharmacist 112 (35.89%) was the commonest method adopted to procure drugs and comfort 127 (40.7%) and time constraints 122 (39.1%) were the commonest reasons.

Conclusions:

Prevalence of self-medication among the peri-urban population was similar to other studies. Headache and fever was the common symptoms for which self-medication were adopted. Awareness regarding potential dangers of self-medication and different drug side effects are recommended at the community level.

Prevalence of Self-medication Practices for Oral Health Problems among Dental Patients in a dental college: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study

Introduction:

Self-medication means the use of medications for the treatment of any disease on their own, without consulting any healthcare professional. At times self-medication can be useful if practiced correctly by saving time and money, whereas disadvantages often occur due to lack of evaluation by trained medical professionals and delay ineffective treatment and can result in unnecessary expenses and drug dependence. This study was conducted to find out the self-medication behavior and its associated factors among patients visiting a dental hospital in Kathmandu.

Methods:

A hospital-based, cross-sectional study was conducted on 265 patients in Kantipur Dental College from December 2019 to January 2020 among the patients attending the dental Out Patient Department. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Committee of Kantipur Dental College. A convenience sampling technique was used. Proformas were prepared in English, translated to Nepali and re-translated to English by the back-translation method. Data entry was done in Microsoft Excel and analysis in SPSS 20. Descriptive statistics was done.

Results:

The prevalence of self-medication practice was found to be 166 (62.6%). Out of total participants, 99 (59.6%) consumed medicines for few days only and the most common triggering factor was found to be toothache in 101 (60.8%) participants. The most common reason for self-medication was found to be a previous experience of treating similar illnesses.

Conclusions:

The prevalence of self-medication was found to be low as compared to the study done in similar settings. Self-medication practice is a sensitive issue that hasn't been given the required consideration. It is of concern to find every other dental patient being indulged in self-medication whether in the present or the past.

Self-medication practice and associated factors among adult community members of Jigjiga town, Eastern Ethiopia

Background

Self-medication is the use of any drug or medication to treat an illness or ailment without the supervision of a licensed medical doctor/health care providers. Self-medication practice in Eastern Ethiopia is quite common. However, there is little information with regard to magnitude and associated factors. The objective of this study was to assess the magnitude of self-medication practice and associated factors among adult community members of Jigjiga town, Eastern Ethiopia.

Methods

A community based cross-sectional study was conducted from June 27- July 12, 2017. Multistage sampling method was used and the number of kebeles and Sub-kebeles were selected using simple random sampling technique. Finally, sampled households in the Sub-kebeles were selected using systematic random sampling. Data were collected using face to face interview with 547 adult (≥18 years) participants. It was entered and cleaned using EPI-Data version 3.02 and exported to Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 23 for further analysis. Bi-variable and multivariable logistic regression models were carried out to identify factors associated with the self-medication.

Result

The magnitude of self-medication was found to be 37.5% (95% CI: (33.6%–41.7%). Educational status of secondary school [(AOR = 0.46; 95% CI: (0.22–0.98)], high income [(AOR = 3.00; 95% CI: (1.77–5.06)], advised by neighbors, friends or relatives to take drug for their complaint [(AOR = 2.59; 95% CI: (1.62–4.14)], used old prescription /past experience to bought drugs [(AOR = 12.19; 95% CI: (6.65–22.35)], follow advertisements of drugs by television [(AOR = 0.21; 95% CI: (0.05–0.85)], and perception about Hospital drugs (clinics, health centers and hospitals) do not work [(AOR = 2.36; 95% CI: (1.39–3.99)] were significantly associated with self-medication.

Conclusion

High income, advice by neighbors, friends or relatives to take drug for their complaint, old prescription/past experience use to bought drugs, and perception of hospital drugs do not work was positively associated with self-medication. Therefore, health education should be given to the community on the importance of hospital drugs (clinics, health centers and hospitals) to shift their perception.

Self-medication practices and associated factors among households at Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study

Objective

Self-medication practice is the selection and use of medicines by individuals or a member of the individual’s family without physician’s order to treat self-recognized or self-diagnosed conditions. It is highly prone to inappropriate use and wastage of resources, increase drug resistance pathogens and adverse reactions. Therefore, this study aimed to assess self-medication practices and associated factors among households at Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia.

Results

This community based cross-sectional study was conducted among households at Gondar town from March to June, 2018. The overall prevalence of self-medication practices among households at Gondar town were 50.2%. The odds of self-medication practices among unmarried participants (AOR = 3.12; 95% CI 2.35, 5.34), influenced by peer (AOR = 3.58; 95% CI 2.89, 7.28), poor perceived quality of health care services (AOR = 4.67; 95% CI 2.56, 7.96) and access to pharmacy (AOR = 2.32; 95% CI 1.65, 6.76) were higher compared with their counterparts. In the contrary, the lesser odd was observed among knowledgeable participants about medications (AOR = 0.27; 95% CI 0.16, 0.39) compared with non-knowledgeable. Therefore, improving perception of participants about quality of services, conducting awareness creation and managing negative effects of peer may reduce self-medication practices.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-019-4195-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Epidemiology of self-medication in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

Background

Self-medication is the use of drugs to treat self-diagnosed disorders and/or symptoms, or the intermittent or continued use of a prescribed drug for recurrent disease or symptoms. This phenomenon is alarmingly increasing over time despite the occurrence of health-related hazards. This study is, therefore, aimed to quantitatively estimate self-medication practice and possible reasons for it in Ethiopia.

Methods

Data were identified from major databases and indexing services including EMBASE (Ovid), PubMed, MEDLINE (Ovid), and Google Scholar. Both published and unpublished records addressing self medication practice in Ethiopia without time limit were included for the study. Data were extracted with structured format prepared in Microsoft Excel and exported to OpenMeta[analyst] version 3.3 software for analyses. Pooled estimation of outcomes was performed with DerSimonian-Laird random-effects model at 95% confidence level. Sensitivity and subgroup analyses were also considered. Degree of heterogeneity of studies was presented with I² statistics. Publication bias was also performed with the help of Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version-3 software and presented with funnel plots of standard error supplemented by Begg’s and Egger’s tests. The study protocol is registered on PROSPERO with reference number ID: CRD42018093790.

Results

A total of 27 studies with 9586 participants were included for the study. The pooled prevalence of self-medication in Ethiopia was found to be 44.0% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 35.1, 52.8). Geographical-based subgroup analysis revealed that the highest prevalence was observed at the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, 62.8% (95% CI: 42.3, 83.2). Population based analysis indicated that healthcare professionals and students were the main practitioners of self-medication. Besides, the prevalence of self-medication practice in pregnant women is approximately 22.9% (95% CI: 9.8, 36). The most common reasons to practice self-medication were previous experience of clients and/or familiarity of treatments, 31.3% (95% CI: 21.5, 41.1) and perceived mildness of the illness, 31.1% (95% CI: 26.0, 36.2). The pooled prevalence of analgesics, antimicrobial agents and gastrointestinal drugs were 46.1% (95% CI: 36.2, 56.1), 28.2% (95% CI: 19.6, 36.8), and 14.9% (95% CI: 7.8, 21.9), respectively.

Conclusion

Self-medication practice becomes a common phenomenon in Ethiopia. The use of prescription-only medications including antimicrobial agents without medical consult has become alarmingly high. This practice will come with potential health related hazards including emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, there must be a multitude of strategies for reversing the current worrying trends of self-medication.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40360-018-0248-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Self-Medication Practices among Community of Harar City and Its Surroundings, Eastern Ethiopia

Purpose

Self-medication practice is often associated with irrational medication use. The aim of this study was to assess self-medication practices among community of Harar City and its surroundings, Eastern Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted through exit interview in selected drug outlets of Harar City among 370 clients from March to April, 2017. The data was coded and entered into epi-data and processed and analyzed using SPSS version 20.

Results

Many participants practiced self-medication to alleviate their headache (30.30%), to treat their respiratory disorders (29.50%), and to treat their gastrointestinal disorders (27%). More than half (57.8%) of study participants declared that they were practicing self-medication due to prior experience and seeking less expensive service (20.50%). Two-fifths of them (40.3%) reported pharmacy professionals as source of information while 18.9% of respondents were advised by neighbors, friends, or relatives. About one-third (31.9%) of them did not have any source of information for self-medication practice. The most common type of drug used for self-medication by the participants was analgesic (42.2%). Approximately one-third (31.1%) of the subjects were expecting to be counseled by the pharmacy professionals about the drug side effects and to be helped in selecting their self-medication drug (30.3%).

Conclusion

Varieties of medications were used among study participants ranging from antipain to that of antibiotics for different complaints including headache, respiratory complaints, and gastrointestinal problems. Experience with drugs and diseases as well as affordability were frequently reported reasons for self-medication practice. Participants had different views toward the role of pharmacy professionals. Hence, it is very important to educate patients on responsible use of medications and create awareness on the role of pharmacist in self-selected medication use in community.