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Deng JY, Wang YJ, Chen LF, Luo T, Wang R, Chen XY. Functional trait divergence associated with heteromorphic leaves in a climbing fig. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1261240. [PMID: 37794929 PMCID: PMC10546399 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1261240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Plants that display heteroblasty possess conspicuous variations in leaf morphology between their juvenile and adult phases, with certain species retaining juvenile-like leaves even in adulthood. Nevertheless, the ecological advantages of maintaining two or more distinct leaf types in heteroblastic plants at the adult stage remain unclear. Method The aim of this study is to examine the adaptive significance of heteroblastic leaves sampled from branches with divergent functions (sterile and fertile branches) of mature Ficus pumila individuals by comparing their morphological, anatomical, and physiological characteristics. Result Leaves on sterile branches (LSs) exhibited a significantly larger specific leaf area, thinner palisade and spongy tissues, lower chlorophyll contents, and lower light saturation points than leaves on fertile branches (LFs). These results demonstrate that LSs are better adapted to low light environments, while LFs are well equipped to take advantages of high light conditions. However, both LFs and LSs have a low light compensation point with no significant difference between them, indicating that they start to accumulate photosynthetic products under similar light conditions. Interestingly, significant higher net photosynthetic rate was detected in LFs, showing they have higher photosynthetic capacity. Furthermore, LFs produced significant more nutrients compared to LSs, which may associate to their ability of accumulating more photosynthetic products under full light conditions and higher photosynthetic capacity. Discussion Overall, we observed a pattern of divergence in morphological features of leaves on two functional branches. Anatomical and physiological features indicate that LFs have an advantage in varied light conditions, providing amounts of photosynthetic products to support the sexual reproduction, while LSs adapt to low light environments. Our findings provide evidence that heteroblasty facilitates F. pumila to utilize varying light environments, likely associated with its growth form as a climbing plant. This strategy allows the plant to allocate resources more effectively and optimize its overall fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Yin Deng
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong-Jin Wang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lu-Fan Chen
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tong Luo
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rong Wang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control & Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Yong Chen
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control & Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
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Chou PA, Bain A, Chantarasuwan B, Tzeng HY. Parasitism Features of a Fig Wasp of Genus Apocrypta (Pteromalidae: Pteromalinae) Associated with a Host Belonging to Ficus Subgenus Ficus. INSECTS 2023; 14:insects14050437. [PMID: 37233065 DOI: 10.3390/insects14050437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Non-pollinating fig wasps (NPFWs), particularly long-ovipositored Sycoryctina wasps, exhibit a high species specificity and exert complex ecological effects on the obligate mutualism between the plant genus Ficus and pollinating fig wasps. Apocrypta is a genus of NPFWs that mostly interacts with the Ficus species under the subgenus Sycomorus, and the symbiosis case between Apocrypta and F. pedunculosa var. mearnsii, a Ficus species under subgenus Ficus, is unique. As fig's internal environments and the wasp communities are distinct between the two subgenera, we addressed the following two questions: (1) Are the parasitism features of the Apocrypta wasp associated with F. pedunculosa var. mearnsii different from those of other congeneric species? (2) Is this Apocrypta species an efficient wasp that lives in its unique host? Our observation revealed that this wasp is an endoparasitic idiobiont parasitoid, as most congeneric species are, but developed a relatively long ovipositor. Furthermore, the relationships of the parasitism rate versus the pollinator number, the fig wall, and the sex ratio of the pollinator, respectively, showed that it possessed a higher parasitism ability than that of other congeners. However, its parasitism rate was low, and thus it was not an efficient wasp in its habitat. This difference between parasitism ability and parasitism rate might be a consequence of its oviposition strategy and the severe habitat conditions. These findings may also provide insights into the mechanism to maintain the interaction between the fig tree and the fig wasp community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-An Chou
- Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145 Xingda Rd., Taichung City 40227, Taiwan
| | - Anthony Bain
- Department of Biological Science, National Sun Yat-sen University, No. 70 Lien-Hai Rd., Kaohsiung City 80424, Taiwan
| | | | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry, National Chung Hsing University, No. 145 Xingda Rd., Taichung City 40227, Taiwan
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Chen HH, Shyu YT, Wu SJ. Physicochemical characteristics and retardation effects on in vitro starch digestibility of non-starch polysaccharides in jelly-fig (Ficus pumila L. var. awkeotsang). Lebensm Wiss Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
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Yu H, Zhang Z, Liu L, Cheng Y, Deng X, Segar ST, Compton SG. Asymmetric sharing of pollinator fig wasps between two sympatric dioecious fig trees: a reflection of supply and demand or differences in the size of their figs? BOTANICAL STUDIES 2022; 63:7. [PMID: 35316420 PMCID: PMC8941105 DOI: 10.1186/s40529-022-00338-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Host specificity among pollinator fig wasps (Agaonidae) depends on host plant specific volatile cues, but fig wasps must also pass through a narrow physical barrier (the ostiole) if they are to pollinate and oviposit. Across South East Asia the dioecious shrub Ficus hirta is associated with at least ten pollinator species allied to Valisia javana. Ficus triloba has a single recorded pollinator, Valisia esquirolianae. Receptive figs of F. hirta are usually much smaller than those of F. triloba, but at a mainland site where F. hirta has atypically large figs we identified both V. esquirolianae and V. javana from both Ficus species using COI and ITS2 sequencing. To investigate whether this host overlap was exceptional we reared fig wasps from the two trees elsewhere and recorded features that may facilitate host transfer between them, including attractant volatiles, reproductive phenology and the sizes of their figs and fig wasps. RESULTS The two Ficus species were found to support both Valisia species at several of the sites, suggesting that the differences we detected in volatile profiles, ostiole sizes and pollinator head sizes are not strict barriers to host sharing. Valisia javana colonised F. triloba more frequently than V. esquirolianae colonised F. hirta. CONCLUSIONS This asymmetric sharing of pollinators may reflect the relative abundance of the two species of fig wasps and differences in host reproductive phenology. Asynchronous flowering of individual F. hirta may favor local retention of pollinators, in contrast to the tree-wide synchrony of F. triloba figs, which can generate local shortages of V. esquirolianae. If the pollinator sharing by male figs of F. triloba and F. hirta also occurs in female figs then this could result in gene flow between them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yu
- School of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, China.
- South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xingke Road 723, Tianhe district, Guangzhou, 510650, China.
| | - Zhiwei Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, 273165, Shandong, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, China
| | - Yufen Cheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, China
| | - Xiaoxia Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany and Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, China
| | - Simon T Segar
- Department of Crop and Environment Sciences, Harper Adams University, Newport, TF10 8NB, UK
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Bernard J, Brock KC, Tonnell V, Walsh SK, Wenger JP, Wolkis D, Weiblen GD. New Species Assemblages Disrupt Obligatory Mutualisms Between Figs and Their Pollinators. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.564653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Huang YT, Lee YF, Kuo YM, Chang SY, Wu CL. Fruiting phenology and nutrient content variation among sympatric figs and the ecological correlates. BOTANICAL STUDIES 2019; 60:27. [PMID: 31728663 PMCID: PMC6856236 DOI: 10.1186/s40529-019-0275-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Figs are key resources for tropical frugivores and display unique fruiting patterns. While monoecious figs support both seeds and wasp rearing, dioecious plants perform the tasks separately and produce seeded figs in smaller asynchronous crops. Thus dioecious females, compared to monoecious figs, may afford to invest more efforts to maximize seediness, or increase fruit pulp, water content, and nutrient rewards to attract frugivores for better seed dispersal. Yet size variation among and within fig species in either breeding system may lead to complicated resource allocation. We assessed fruiting phenology, measured fig morphological traits, and analyzed fig nutrient contents of the monoecious Ficus caulocarpa and F. subpisocarpa and the dioecious F. ampelas and F. irisana in a sympatric tropical forest to investigate species differences and size effects on fig functional traits and their ecological correlates. RESULTS All four species fruited nearly year-round. Monoecious figs' inter-tree asynchronous crops had high peak mature crop sizes over much shorter fruiting periods than dioecious figs. Among trees, F. subpisocarpa and F. irisana were greater in fig-size and size variation, F. caulocarpa and F. ampelas comparatively displayed large variation in fig compositions. As fig size increased, water contents gradually increased in large-fig species, but seediness with a decreasing trend in small-fig species. Dioecious figs had lower pulp-seed ratio but tended to have higher water contents than monoecious figs, particularly within a similar size range. Dioecious figs also had higher carbohydrates, whereas monoecious figs contained higher fiber and lipid contents. CONCLUSIONS Our study revealed species differences in certain fig functional traits that were correlated with fig size or their breeding systems, with substantial inter-tree variation. This partially supported the predictions regarding their fruiting strategies of aiding seed dispersal by frugivores, yet suggests a fruiting plasticity of individual trees subject to environmental constraints and their biotic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Huang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Fu Lee
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan.
| | - Yen-Min Kuo
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Sing-Yi Chang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Ling Wu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
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Marinho CR, Pereira RAS, Peng YQ, Teixeira SP. Laticifer distribution in fig inflorescence and its potential role in the fig-fig wasp mutualism. ACTA OECOLOGICA-INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actao.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Walther BA, Geier J, Chou LS, Bain A. The figs of winter: Seasonal importance of fruiting fig trees (Ficus: Moraceae) for urban birds. ACTA OECOLOGICA 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actao.2017.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Topographic effect on the phenology of Ficus pedunculosa var. mearnsii (Mearns fig) in its northern boundary distribution, Taiwan. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14699. [PMID: 29116109 PMCID: PMC5676713 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14402-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mearns fig grows at the edge of coastal vegetation on uplifted coral reefs, its population and mutualistic-pollinators are susceptible to the influence of extreme weather. To determine the phenology of Mearns fig and the effects of various weather events under small-scale topographic differences, phenology was conducted for 3 years and 7 months. Results showed that Mearns figs had multiple leaf and fig productions year-round. Topographic effects caused population in Frog Rock Trail and Jialeshuei, which are less than 10 km away from each other, to exhibit different phenological patterns after experiencing severe weather events. Northeast monsoons led the Jialeshuei population to show low amounts of leaves and figs in winter and the phenological production was also susceptible to disturbances by typhoons in summer. Fig reproduction in such environment was disadvantageous to maintain pollinators. Besides, topographic complex in microhabitat of Frog Rock Trail protected some individuals from these same events thus safeguard population’s survival. The phenology of Mearns fig would respond to the weather events sensitively, which serve as references for estimating the mutualism system, and as indicators of climate change.
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Chiu YT, Bain A, Deng SL, Ho YC, Chen WH, Tzeng HY. Effects of climate change on a mutualistic coastal species: Recovery from typhoon damages and risks of population erosion. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0186763. [PMID: 29073190 PMCID: PMC5658060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Presently, climate change has increased the frequency of extreme meteorological events such as tropical cyclones. In the western Pacific basin, these cyclones are called typhoons, and in this area, around Taiwan Island, their frequency has almost doubled since 2000. When approaching landmasses, typhoons have devastating effects on coastal vegetation. The increased frequency of these events has challenged the survival of coastal plant species and their posttyphoon recovery. In this study, a population of coastal gynodioecious Ficus pedunculosa var. mearnsii (Mearns fig) was surveyed for two years to investigate its recovery after Typhoon Morakot, which occurred in August 2009. Similar to all the Ficus species, the Mearns fig has an obligate mutualistic association with pollinating fig wasp species, which requires syconia (the closed Ficus inflorescence) to complete its life cycle. Moreover, male gynodioecious fig species produces both pollen and pollen vectors, whereas the female counterpart produces only seeds. The recovery of the Mearns fig was observed to be rapid, with the production of both leaves and syconia. The syconium:leaf ratio was greater for male trees than for female trees, indicating the importance of syconium production for the wasp survival. Pollinating wasps live for approximately 1 day; therefore, receptive syconia are crucial. Every typhoon season, few typhoons pass by the coasts where the Mearns fig grows, destroying all the leaves and syconia. In this paper, we highlight the potential diminution of the fig population that can lead to the extinction of the mutualistic pair of species. The effects of climate change on coastal species warrant wider surveys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Chiu
- Department of Forestry, National Chung- Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Anthony Bain
- Department of Forestry, National Chung- Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, College of Life Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Lin Deng
- Chungpu Research Center, Forestry Research Institute, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chiao Ho
- Department of Forestry, National Chung- Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsuan Chen
- Department of Forestry, National Chung- Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry, National Chung- Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Rodriguez LJ, Bain A, Chou LS, Conchou L, Cruaud A, Gonzales R, Hossaert-McKey M, Rasplus JY, Tzeng HY, Kjellberg F. Diversification and spatial structuring in the mutualism between Ficus septica and its pollinating wasps in insular South East Asia. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:207. [PMID: 28851272 PMCID: PMC5576367 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-1034-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interspecific interactions have long been assumed to play an important role in diversification. Mutualistic interactions, such as nursery pollination mutualisms, have been proposed as good candidates for diversification through co-speciation because of their intricate nature. However, little is known about how speciation and diversification proceeds in emblematic nursery pollination systems such as figs and fig wasps. Here, we analyse diversification in connection with spatial structuring in the obligate mutualistic association between Ficus septica and its pollinating wasps throughout the Philippines and Taiwan. RESULTS Ceratosolen wasps pollinating F. septica are structured into a set of three vicariant black coloured species, and a fourth yellow coloured species whose distribution overlaps with those of the black species. However, two black pollinator species were found to co-occur on Lanyu island. Microsatellite data on F. septica indicates the presence of three gene pools that broadly mirrors the distribution of the three black clades. Moreover, receptive fig odours, the specific message used by pollinating wasps to locate their host tree, varied among locations. CONCLUSIONS F. septica and its black pollinator clades exhibited similar geographic structuring. This could be due originally to geographic barriers leading to isolation, local adaptation, and finally co-structuring. Nevertheless, the co-occurrence of two black pollinator species on Lanyu island suggests that the parapatric distribution of the black clades is now maintained by the inability of migrating individuals of black pollinators to establish populations outside their range. On the other hand, the distribution of the yellow clade strongly suggests an initial case of character displacement followed by subsequent range extension: in our study system, phenotypic or microevolutionary plasticity has allowed the yellow clade to colonise hosts presenting distinct odours. Hence, while variation in receptive fig odours allows specificity in the interaction, this variation does not necessarily lead to coevolutionary plant-insect diversification. Globally, our results evidence evolutionary plasticity in the fig-fig wasp mutualism. This is the first documentation of the presence of two distinct processes in pollinating fig wasp diversification on a host species: the formation of vicariant species and the co-occurrence of other species over large parts of their ranges probably made possible by character displacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lillian Jennifer Rodriguez
- Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
- INRA, UMR 1062 CBGP, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France
| | - Anthony Bain
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lien-Siang Chou
- Institute of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lucie Conchou
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
- Institut d’Ecologie et des Sciences de l’Environnement de Paris—ECOSENS, INRA-UPMC, Versailles, France
| | | | - Regielene Gonzales
- Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Martine Hossaert-McKey
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Finn Kjellberg
- CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS—Université de Montpellier—Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier—EPHE, Montpellier, France
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Wachi N, Kusumi J, Tzeng HY, Su ZH. Genome-wide sequence data suggest the possibility of pollinator sharing by host shift in dioecious figs (Moraceae,Ficus). Mol Ecol 2016; 25:5732-5746. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nakatada Wachi
- JT Biohistory Research Hall; 1-1 Murasaki-cho Takatsuki Osaka 569-1125 Japan
| | - Junko Kusumi
- Department of Environmental Changes; Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies; Kyushu University; 744 Motooka Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
| | - Hsy-Yu Tzeng
- Department of Forestry; National Chung Hsing University; Taichung 402 Taiwan
| | - Zhi-Hui Su
- JT Biohistory Research Hall; 1-1 Murasaki-cho Takatsuki Osaka 569-1125 Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences; Graduate School of Science; Osaka University; 1-1 Machikaneyama Toyonaka Osaka 560-0043 Japan
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Winter cropping in Ficus tinctoria: an alternative strategy. Sci Rep 2015; 5:16496. [PMID: 26560072 PMCID: PMC4642331 DOI: 10.1038/srep16496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The many species of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) have evolved a variety of reproductive phenologies that ensure the survival of both the fig plants and their short-lived, species-specific, pollinating wasps. A phenological study of 28 male and 23 female plants of a dioecious hemiepiphytic fig, Ficus tinctoria, was conducted in Xishuangbanna, SW China at the northern margin of tropical SE Asia. In contrast to other figs of seasonal climates, which have a winter low in fig production, both sexes produced their major fig crops at the coldest time of the year. Male plants released pollinators during the period when most female trees were receptive and male syconia had a long wasp-producing (D) phase, which ensured high levels of pollination. Female crops ripened at the end of the dry season, when they attracted numerous frugivorous birds and dispersed seeds can germinate with the first reliable rains. Few syconia were produced by either sex during the rest of the year, but these were sufficient to maintain local pollinator populations. We suggest that this unique phenological strategy has evolved to maximize seed dispersal and establishment in this seasonal climate.
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