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Krause MP, Haile L, Antonio DS, Peres AL, Robertson RJ. The Use of a Just Noticeable Difference Approach to Improve Perceptual Acuity Ability in Male Runners. Percept Mot Skills 2024; 131:1341-1359. [PMID: 38889916 DOI: 10.1177/00315125241252852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
We were interested in micro-variations in an athlete's psychophysical state that separate peak exertion from physiological collapse. Thus, we measured perceptual acuity in runners using a classic psychophysical approach, the just noticeable difference (JND) on two standard stimuli runs at treadmill speed corresponding to 70%VO2max and 80%VO2max. Thirty-four male runners (M age = 35.26, SD = 7.33 years) first performed a maximal treadmill test to determine the speed of a standard exercise bout for the JND trials. The JND trials consisted of four 5-minute running bouts on a treadmill with 5-minute rests between bouts. For bouts 1 and 3, participants ran at the standard stimuli pace, but for bouts 2 and 4, they adjusted their speeds to achieve a level of exertion at a JND above/below the SS. They achieved differences in the final 30 seconds of the VO2 between each JND bout and the previous standard stimuli at just above (JND-A) and just below (JND-B) the JND perceived exertions. We used a Generalized Linear Model analysis to compare the JND-A and JND-B within and between ventilatory threshold groups (lower/higher) in absolute and relative VO2 and in terms of the total JND magnitude. The magnitude of JND-A was greater than that of JND-B at 70%VO2max and 80%VO2max in absolute units (70%VO2 Δ = 2.62; SE = 0.37; p < .001; 80%VO2 Δ = 1.67; SE = 0.44; p = .002) and in relative units (70%VO2max Δ = 4.70; SE = 0.66; p < .001; 80%VO2max Δ = 2.96; SE = 0.80; p = .002). The total magnitude was greater in the 70%VO2max trial than 80%VO2max in absolute units (70%VO2 M = 3.78, SE = 0.31 mL·kg-1·min-1; 80%VO2 M = 2.62, SE = 0.37 mL·kg-1·min-1; p = .020) and in relative units (70%VO2max M = 6.57, SE = 0.53%VO2max; 80%VO2max M = 4.71, SE = 0.64%VO2max; p = .030). The JND range narrowed when physiologic demand increased, for both physical (speed) and psychological (RPE) variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maressa Priscila Krause
- Departamento Acadêmico de Educação Física, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Luke Haile
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Commonwealth University of Pennsylvania - Bloomsburg, Bloomsburg, PA, USA
| | | | - Andre L Peres
- Departamento de Educação Física, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Robert J Robertson
- Department of Health and Physical Activity, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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O'Malley CA, Smith SA, Mauger AR, Norbury R. Exercise-induced pain within endurance exercise settings: Definitions, measurement, mechanisms and potential interventions. Exp Physiol 2024. [PMID: 38985528 DOI: 10.1113/ep091687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
Pain can be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with or resembling that associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Though consistent with this definition, different types of pain result in different behavioural and psychophysiological responses. For example, the transient, non-threatening, acute muscle pain element of exercise-induced pain (EIP) is entirely different from other pain types like delayed onset muscle soreness, muscular injury or chronic pain. However, studies often conflate the definitions or assume parity between distinct pain types. Consequently, the mechanisms through which pain might impact exercise behaviour across different pain subcategories may be incorrectly assumed, which could lead to interventions or recommendations that are inappropriate. Therefore, this review aims to distinguish EIP from other subcategories of pain according to their aetiologies and characteristics, thereby providing an updated conceptual and operational definition of EIP. Secondly, the review will discuss the experimental pain models currently used across several research domains and their relevance to EIP with a focus on the neuro-psychophysiological mechanisms of EIP and its effect on exercise behaviour and performance. Finally, the review will examine potential interventions to cope with the impact of EIP and support wider exercise benefits. HIGHLIGHTS: What is the topic of this review? Considerations for future research focusing on exercise-induced pain within endurance exercise settings. What advances does it highlight? An updated appraisal and guide of research concerning exercise-induced pain and its impact on endurance task behaviour, particularly with reference to the aetiology, measurement, and manipulation of exercise-induced pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum A O'Malley
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Nutritional Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Samuel A Smith
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Alexis R Mauger
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Ryan Norbury
- Faculty of Sport, Technology, and Health Sciences, St Mary's University, Twickenham, UK
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Niu X, Yang K, Li Y, Wang X, Wang T, Shi L. Meta-analysis of acupuncture intervening exercise-induced fatigue. JOURNAL OF ACUPUNCTURE AND TUINA SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11726-022-1318-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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de Camargo R, Vilaça A, Mota GR, Elsangedy HM, Haile L, Sasaki JE. The Influence of L-menthol on Time Trial Running Performance in Recreational Runners. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2022:1-9. [PMID: 35412444 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2021.2014049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: This study investigated the effects of combined mouth rinse and topical application of L-menthol on perceptual responses and running performance under thermoneutral conditions (22 ± 2°C and 30-60% relative humidity). Methods: Twelve recreational male runners (age: 31.7 ± 3.8 years; age range: 27-39 years) completed a familiarization, a control test (CON) and two maximal 10-km time trials (counterbalanced randomized crossover design) performed in different days with a non-thermal cooling intervention (combined application of a L-menthol mouth rinse and topical L-menthol gel - MEN) or placebo (PLA). Performance and perceptual measures (thermal sensation, thermal comfort, ratings of perceived exertion and affective response) were recorded for every km completed in the 10-km test. Results: Performance time was lower in MEN (P = 0.03) and PLA (P = 0.003) compared to CON, but no differences were found between MEN vs PLA (P = 1.00). All perceptual responses increased over time in all conditions (P < 0.0001), but only the thermal sensation was lower (P = 0.01) in the MEN compared to CON. Conclusion: L-menthol strategies promote fresh sensations and may improve running performance in 10-km time trial in recreational runners, but the performance improvement could mainly be due to a placebo effect.
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Retentive capacity of power output and linear versus non-linear mapping of power loss in the isotonic muscular endurance test. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22677. [PMID: 34811406 PMCID: PMC8608821 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02116-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The limit of dynamic endurance during repetitive contractions has been referred to as the point of muscle fatigue, which can be measured by mechanical and electrophysiological parameters combined with subjective estimates of load tolerance for revealing the human real-world capacity required to work continuously. In this study, an isotonic muscular endurance (IME) testing protocol under a psychophysiological fatigue criterion was developed for measuring the retentive capacity of the power output of lower limb muscles. Additionally, to guide the development of electrophysiological evaluation methods, linear and non-linear techniques for creating surface electromyography (sEMG) models were compared in terms of their ability to estimate muscle fatigue. Forty healthy college-aged males performed three trials of an isometric peak torque test and one trial of an IME test for the plantar flexors and knee and hip extensors. Meanwhile, sEMG activity was recorded from the medial gastrocnemius, lateral gastrocnemius, vastus medialis, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, gluteus maximus, and biceps femoris of the right leg muscles. Linear techniques (amplitude-based parameters, spectral parameters, and instantaneous frequency parameters) and non-linear techniques (a multi-layer perception neural network) were used to predict the time-dependent power output during dynamic contractions. Two mechanical manifestations of muscle fatigue were observed in the IME tests, including power output reduction between the beginning and end of the test and time-dependent progressive power loss. Compared with linear mapping (linear regression) alone or a combination of sEMG variables, non-linear mapping of power loss during dynamic contractions showed significantly higher signal-to-noise ratios and correlation coefficients between the actual and estimated power output. Muscular endurance required in real-world activities can be measured by considering the amount of work produced or the activity duration via the recommended IME testing protocol under a psychophysiological termination criterion. Non-linear mapping techniques provide more powerful mapping of power loss compared with linear mapping in the IME testing protocol.
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Timpka T, Jacobsson J, Bargoria V, Dahlström Ö. Injury Pain in Track and Field Athletes: Cross-Sectional Study of Mediating Factors. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:E110. [PMID: 31083441 PMCID: PMC6572447 DOI: 10.3390/sports7050110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This exploratory study aimed to investigate whether data from track and field athletes support a conceptual model where the perception of pain affects self-evaluated health directly, yet is also indirectly mediated through personal factors and external stressors. A cross-sectional study was performed among athletes (n = 278) competing at the highest national level in the sport. Data for the dependent and independent variables were collected using the EuroQol-5 dimensions (EQ-5D) standardized measure of health status, and the mediator variables were collected by the Body Consciousness Scale (BCS-HA), Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ), Commitment to Exercise Scale (CtES), and Brief Cope survey instruments. Two hundred and twenty-five (81%) athletes provided complete data sets. A strong direct association (c = -16.49; p < 0.001) was found between pain and self-estimated health, and a global mediation was found through the mediators (mediation effect (ME), -1.814, 90% confidence interval (CI), -3.414, -0.351). Specific mediation was observed for body competence (ME, -0.721; 90% CI, -2.028, -0.097) and private body consciousness (ME, -0.514; 90% CI, -1.761, -0.017). In conclusion, we found a negative association between perceived pain and self-evaluated health among competitive track and field athletes, and we found that a portion of the association was mediated through mediating factors. Under the assumption that the analyzed pain data primarily represented noxious pain, the conceptual model of the relationships between pain and self-estimated health among high-level track and field athletes was supported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toomas Timpka
- Athletics Research Center, Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Jenny Jacobsson
- Athletics Research Center, Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Victor Bargoria
- Athletics Research Center, Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden.
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Moi University, Eldoret 30107, Kenya.
| | - Örjan Dahlström
- Athletics Research Center, Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden.
- Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden.
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Venhorst A, Micklewright D, Noakes TD. Perceived Fatigability: Utility of a Three-Dimensional Dynamical Systems Framework to Better Understand the Psychophysiological Regulation of Goal-Directed Exercise Behaviour. Sports Med 2019; 48:2479-2495. [PMID: 30238409 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0986-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A three-dimensional framework of perceived fatigability emphasises the need to differentiate between the qualitatively distinct inputs of sensory-discriminatory, affective-motivational and cognitive-evaluative processes that shape the perceptual milieu during prolonged endurance exercise. This article reviews the framework's utility to better understand how cause-effect relationships come to be and how perception-action coupling underpins pacing behaviour and performance fatigability. Preliminary evidence supports the hypotheses that perceived strain plays a primary role in trajectory regulation of pacing behaviour, core affect plays a primary and mediatory role in behavioural performance regulation, and the mindset shift associated with an action crisis plays a primary role in the intensity dependent volitional self-regulatory control of conflicting motivational drives. The constructs hypothesised to underpin perceived fatigability are systematically linked, context-dependent, constraint-based, distinguishable and show proportional continuous interdependency. They are further interrelated with dynamic changes in pacing behaviour, performance fatigability and physiological disturbance. Appropriate measurement selections for the subordinate constructs perceived physical strain, perceived mental strain, valence, arousal, action crisis and flow state are discussed. To better understand the non-proportional discontinuous effects of fatigue on discrete shifts in thought states and mindsets, non-linear dynamical systems theory is introduced as an unbiased overarching theory of governing principles in the temporal evolution of complex systems. This provides the opportunity to discuss the bio-psycho-social fatigue phenomenon from a dynamical and holistic perspective. The proposed framework offers a sophisticated alternative to the Gestalt concept of perceived exertion and comprehensively accounts for the psychophysiological processes that determine pacing behaviour and performance. It has the potential to enrich theory development and facilitate a deeper understanding of the psychophysiological regulation of goal-directed exercise behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Venhorst
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Newlands, 7725, South Africa.
| | - Dominic Micklewright
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, UK
| | - Timothy D Noakes
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Newlands, 7725, South Africa
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Venhorst A, Micklewright DP, Noakes TD. Modelling perception-action coupling in the phenomenological experience of "hitting the wall" during long-distance running with exercise induced muscle damage in highly trained runners. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2018; 4:30. [PMID: 29987475 PMCID: PMC6037658 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-018-0144-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background “Hitting the wall” (HTW) can be understood as a psychophysiological stress process characterised by (A) discrete and poignant onset, (B) dynamic interplay between physiological, affective, motivational, cognitive, and behavioural systems, and (C) unintended alteration of pace and performance. A preceding companion article investigated the psychophysiological responses to 20-km self-paced treadmill time trials after producing exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) via a standardised muscle-lengthening contraction protocol. Methods A 5-step procedure was applied determining the extent to which the observed data fit the hypothesised cause-effect relationships. Running with EIMD negatively impacts performance fatigability via (A) amplified physiological responses and a non-adaptive distress response and (B) deterioration in perceived fatigability: increase in perceived physical strain precedes decrease in valence, which in turn precedes increase in action crisis, eventually dissolving the initially aspired performance goal. Results First, haematological indicators of EIMD predicted increased blood cortisol concentration, which in turn predicted increased performance fatigability. Second, perceived physical strain explained 44% of the relationship between haematological indicators of EIMD and valence, which in turn predicted increased action crisis, which in turn predicted increased performance fatigability. The observed data fitted the hypothesised dual-pathway model well with good model-fit indices throughout. Conclusions The hypothesised interrelationships between physiological strain, perception, and heuristic and deliberative decision-making processes in self-regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour were applied, tested, and confirmed: amplified physiological strain and non-adaptive distress response as well as strain-perception-thinking-action coupling impact performance fatigability. The findings provide novel insights into the psychophysiological processes that underpin the phenomenological experience of HTW and alteration in pacing behaviour and performance. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40798-018-0144-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Venhorst
- Department of Human Biology, Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Cape Town, Newlands, 7725, South Africa.
| | - Dominic P Micklewright
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, UK
| | - Timothy D Noakes
- Department of Human Biology, Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Cape Town, Newlands, 7725, South Africa
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