1
|
Dolleman-van der Weel MJ, Witter MP. The thalamic midline nucleus reuniens: potential relevance for schizophrenia and epilepsy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 119:422-439. [PMID: 33031816 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Anatomical, electrophysiological and behavioral studies in rodents have shown that the thalamic midline nucleus reuniens (RE) is a crucial link in the communication between hippocampal formation (HIP, i.e., CA1, subiculum) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), important structures for cognitive and executive functions. A common feature in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative brain diseases is a dysfunctional connectivity/communication between HIP and mPFC, and disturbances in the cognitive domain. Therefore, it is assumed that aberrant functioning of RE may contribute to behavioral/cognitive impairments in brain diseases characterized by cortico-thalamo-hippocampal circuit dysfunctions. In the human brain the connections of RE are largely unknown. Yet, recent studies have found important similarities in the functional connectivity of HIP-mPFC-RE in humans and rodents, making cautious extrapolating experimental findings from animal models to humans justifiable. The focus of this review is on a potential involvement of RE in schizophrenia and epilepsy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J Dolleman-van der Weel
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience and Centre for Neural Computation, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway.
| | - M P Witter
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience and Centre for Neural Computation, NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mesías AC, Garg NJ, Zago MP. Redox Balance Keepers and Possible Cell Functions Managed by Redox Homeostasis in Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:435. [PMID: 31921709 PMCID: PMC6932984 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxicity of oxygen and nitrogen reactive species appears to be merely the tip of the iceberg in the world of redox homeostasis. Now, oxidative stress can be seen as a two-sided process; at high concentrations, it causes damage to biomolecules, and thus, trypanosomes have evolved a strong antioxidant defense system to cope with these stressors. At low concentrations, oxidants are essential for cell signaling, and in fact, the oxidants/antioxidants balance may be able to trigger different cell fates. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the current knowledge of the oxidant environment experienced by T. cruzi along the different phases of its life cycle, and the molecular tools exploited by this pathogen to deal with oxidative stress, for better or worse. Further, we discuss the possible redox-regulated processes that could be governed by this oxidative context. Most of the current research has addressed the importance of the trypanosomes' antioxidant network based on its detox activity of harmful species; however, new efforts are necessary to highlight other functions of this network and the mechanisms underlying the fine regulation of the defense machinery, as this represents a master key to hinder crucial pathogen functions. Understanding the relevance of this balance keeper program in parasite biology will give us new perspectives to delineate improved treatment strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea C Mesías
- Instituto de Patología Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Salta, Salta, Argentina
| | - Nisha J Garg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - M Paola Zago
- Instituto de Patología Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Salta, Salta, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
The key molecular events that provoke Parkinson's disease (PD) are not fully understood. Iron deposit was found in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) of PD patients and animal models, where dopaminergic neurons degeneration occurred selectively. The mechanisms involved in disturbed iron metabolism remain unknown, however, considerable evidence indicates that iron transporters dysregulation, activation of L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (LTCC) and ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels, as well as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (NMDARs) contribute to this process. There is emerging evidence on the structural links and functional modulations between iron and α-synuclein, and the key player in PD which aggregates in Lewy bodies. Iron is believed to modulate α-synuclein synthesis, post-translational modification, and aggregation. Furthermore, glia, especially activated astroglia and microglia, are involved in iron deposit in PD. Glial contributions were largely dependent on the factors they released, e.g., neurotrophic factors, pro-inflammatory factors, lactoferrin, and those undetermined. Therefore, iron chelation using iron chelators, the extracts from many natural foods with iron chelating properties, may be an effective therapy for prevention and treatment of the disease.
Collapse
|
4
|
Olfactory dysfunction and quality of life in patients with transfusion-dependent thalassemia. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2017; 274:3417-3421. [DOI: 10.1007/s00405-017-4668-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
5
|
Jiang H, Wang J, Rogers J, Xie J. Brain Iron Metabolism Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3078-3101. [PMID: 27039308 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9879-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of iron metabolism, which includes its uptake, storage, and release, plays a key role in neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease. Understanding how iron accumulates in the substantia nigra (SN) and why it specifically targets dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons is particularly warranted for PD, as this knowledge may provide new therapeutic avenues for a more targeted neurotherapeutic strategy for this disease. In this review, we begin with a brief introduction describing brain iron metabolism and its regulation. We then provide a detailed description of how iron accumulates specifically in the SN and why DAergic neurons are especially vulnerable to iron in PD. Furthermore, we focus on the possible mechanisms involved in iron-induced cell death of DAergic neurons in the SN. Finally, we present evidence in support that iron chelation represents a plausable therapeutic strategy for PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Jiang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Jack Rogers
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Psychiatric Neurosciences and Genetics and Aging Research Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Junxia Xie
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Disease Influence on BBB Transport in Neurodegenerative Disorders. DRUG DELIVERY TO THE BRAIN 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-9105-7_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
7
|
Shin EJ, Jeong JH, Chung YH, Kim WK, Ko KH, Bach JH, Hong JS, Yoneda Y, Kim HC. Role of oxidative stress in epileptic seizures. Neurochem Int 2011; 59:122-37. [PMID: 21672578 PMCID: PMC3606551 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2011.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 03/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress resulting from excessive free-radical release is likely implicated in the initiation and progression of epilepsy. Therefore, antioxidant therapies aimed at reducing oxidative stress have received considerable attention in epilepsy treatment. However, much evidence suggests that oxidative stress does not always have the same pattern in all seizures models. Thus, this review provides an overview aimed at achieving a better understanding of this issue. We summarize work regarding seizure models (i.e., genetic rat models, kainic acid, pilocarpine, pentylenetetrazol, and trimethyltin), oxidative stress as an etiologic factor in epileptic seizures (i.e., impairment of antioxidant systems, mitochondrial dysfunction, involvement of redox-active metals, arachidonic acid pathway activation, and aging), and antioxidant strategies for seizure treatment. Combined, this review highlights pharmacological mechanisms associated with oxidative stress in epileptic seizures and the potential for neuroprotection in epilepsy that targets oxidative stress and is supported by effective antioxidant treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Joo Shin
- Neuropsychopharamcology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Jeong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, South Korea
| | - Yoon Hee Chung
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, South Korea
| | - Won-Ki Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul 136-705, South Korea
| | - Kwang-Ho Ko
- Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 143-701, South Korea
| | - Jae-Hyung Bach
- Neuropsychopharamcology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
| | - Jau-Shyong Hong
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Yukio Yoneda
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- Neuropsychopharamcology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Iron in arterial plaque: A modifiable risk factor for atherosclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2009; 1790:718-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2008] [Revised: 06/03/2008] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
9
|
Chelation of mitochondrial iron prevents seizure-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal injury. J Neurosci 2008; 28:11550-6. [PMID: 18987191 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3016-08.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chelatable iron is an important catalyst for the initiation and propagation of free radical reactions and implicated in the pathogenesis of diverse neuronal disorders. Studies in our laboratory have shown that mitochondria are the principal source of reactive oxygen species production after status epilepticus (SE). We asked whether SE modulates mitochondrial iron levels by two independent methods and whether consequent mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal injury could be ameliorated with a cell-permeable iron chelator. Kainate-induced SE resulted in a time-dependent increase in chelatable iron in mitochondrial but not cytosolic fractions of the rat hippocampus. Systemically administered N,N'-bis (2-hydroxybenzyl) ethylenediamine-N,N'-diacetic acid (HBED), a synthetic iron chelator, ameliorated SE-induced changes in chelatable iron, mitochondrial oxidative stress (8-hydroxy-2' deoxyguanosine and glutathione depletion), mitochondrial DNA integrity and hippocampal cell loss. Measurement of brain HBED levels after systemic administration confirmed its penetration in hippocampal mitochondria. These results suggest a role for mitochondrial iron in the pathogenesis of SE-induced brain damage and subcellular iron chelation as a novel therapeutic approach for its management.
Collapse
|
10
|
Stankiewicz J, Panter SS, Neema M, Arora A, Batt CE, Bakshi R. Iron in chronic brain disorders: imaging and neurotherapeutic implications. Neurotherapeutics 2007; 4:371-86. [PMID: 17599703 PMCID: PMC1963417 DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron is important for brain oxygen transport, electron transfer, neurotransmitter synthesis, and myelin production. Though iron deposition has been observed in the brain with normal aging, increased iron has also been shown in many chronic neurological disorders including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. In vitro studies have demonstrated that excessive iron can lead to free radical production, which can promote neurotoxicity. However, the link between observed iron deposition and pathological processes underlying various diseases of the brain is not well understood. It is not known whether excessive in vivo iron directly contributes to tissue damage or is solely an epiphenomenon. In this article, we focus on the imaging of brain iron and the underlying physiology and metabolism relating to iron deposition. We conclude with a discussion of the potential implications of iron-related toxicity to neurotherapeutic development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Stankiewicz
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
| | - S. Scott Panter
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Veteran’s Administration Hospital, University of California, 94121 San Francisco, California
| | - Mohit Neema
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ashish Arora
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Courtney E. Batt
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Rohit Bakshi
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02115 Boston, Massachusetts
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Although the pathophysiology underlying a number of neurodegenerative diseases is complex and, in many aspects, only partly understood, increased iron levels in pathologically relevant brain areas and iron-mediated oxidative stress seem to play a central role in many of them. Much has been learned from monogenetically caused disturbances of brain iron metabolism including pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration type 2, hereditary ferritinopathies affecting the basal ganglia, and aceruloplasminemia that may well be applied to the most common neurodegenerative disorders associated with brain iron accumulation including Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease. Iron-mediated oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases caused by other genetic pathways like Huntington disease and Friedreich ataxia underscore the complex interaction of this trace metal and genetic variations. Therapeutical strategies derived from application of iron chelators in monogenetically caused disturbances of brain iron metabolism and new iron and oxidative stress diminishing substances in animal models of Parkinson disease are promising and warrant further investigational effort.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Berg
- Center of Neurology, Department of Neurodegeneration and Hertie Institute of Clinical Brain, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Mandel S, Amit T, Reznichenko L, Weinreb O, Youdim MBH. Green tea catechins as brain-permeable, natural iron chelators-antioxidants for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Mol Nutr Food Res 2006; 50:229-34. [PMID: 16470637 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200500156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegeneration in Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, or other neurodegenerative diseases appears to be multifactorial, where a complex set of toxic reactions, including oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, reduced expression of trophic factors, and accumulation of protein aggregates, lead to the demise of neurons. One of the prominent pathological features is the abnormal accumulation of iron on top of the dying neurons and in the surrounding microglia. The capacity of free iron to enhance and promote the generation of toxic reactive oxygen radicals has been discussed numerous times. The observations that iron induces aggregation of inert alpha-synuclein and beta-amyloid peptides to toxic aggregates have reinforced the critical role of iron in OS-induced pathogenesis of neurodegeneration, supporting the notion that a combination of iron chelation and antioxidant therapy may be one significant approach for neuroprotection. Tea flavonoids (catechins) have been reported to possess divalent metal chelating, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, to penetrate the brain barrier and to protect neuronal death in a wide array of cellular and animal models of neurological diseases. This review aims to shed light on the multipharmacological neuroprotective activities of green tea catechins with special emphasis on their brain-permeable, nontoxic, transitional metal (iron and copper)-chelatable/radical scavenger properties.
Collapse
|
13
|
Huang E, Ong WY, Go ML, Connor JR. Upregulation of iron regulatory proteins and divalent metal transporter-1 isoforms in the rat hippocampus after kainate induced neuronal injury. Exp Brain Res 2005; 170:376-86. [PMID: 16328268 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-005-0220-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Accepted: 09/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Iron regulatory proteins (IRP1 and IRP2) bind to iron response elements (IRE) on specific mRNAs, to affect the translation of many proteins involved in iron metabolism. An increase in iron levels and divalent metal transporter-1 (DMT1) expression have been observed in the rat hippocampus after excitotoxic injury induced by kainate, but thus far, it is not known whether these could be associated with changes in IRPs. The present study was therefore carried out to elucidate the expression of IRP1 or IRP2 and the IRE or non-IRE forms of DMT1 (DMT1 or -IRE DMT1) in the hippocampus after neuronal injury induced by kainate. A sustained upregulation of IRP1, IRP2, DMT1 and -IRE DMT1 protein was detected in the lesioned hippocampus by western blot and immunohistochemical analyses up to 2 months post-injection. Double immunofluorescence labeling showed that IRP1, IRP2, DMT1 and -IRE DMT1 were mostly expressed in GFAP positive astrocytes. The increased IRP expression could lead to increased expression of the +IRE form of DMT1. On the other hand, the increased expression of the -IRE DMT1 indicates that IRPs are unlikely to be only factor determining the expression of DMT1. It is postulated that transcription factors acting on putative AP-1, NF-kappaB binding sites, or gamma-interferon responsive elements on the DMT1 promoter may also play a role in upregulating the expression of the transporter. This could lead to increased iron influx into the brain areas undergoing neurodegeneration, and might be a factor contributing to neuronal damage after the initial excitotoxic injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- En Huang
- Department of Anatomy, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119260, Singapore
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
|
15
|
Mandel SA, Avramovich-Tirosh Y, Reznichenko L, Zheng H, Weinreb O, Amit T, Youdim MBH. Multifunctional Activities of Green Tea Catechins in Neuroprotection. Neurosignals 2005; 14:46-60. [PMID: 15956814 DOI: 10.1159/000085385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2005] [Accepted: 03/01/2005] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many lines of evidence suggest that oxidative stress resulting in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and inflammation play a pivotal role in the age-associated cognitive decline and neuronal loss in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson's (PD) and Huntington's diseases. One cardinal chemical pathology observed in these disorders is the accumulation of iron at sites where the neurons die. The buildup of an iron gradient in conjunction with ROS (superoxide, hydroxyl radical and nitric oxide) are thought to constitute a major trigger in neuronal toxicity and demise in all these diseases. Thus, promising future treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and aging depends on availability of effective brain permeable, iron-chelatable/radical scavenger neuroprotective drugs that would prevent the progression of neurodegeneration. Tea flavonoids (catechins) have been reported to possess potent iron-chelating, radical-scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities and to protect neuronal death in a wide array of cellular and animal models of neurological diseases. Recent studies have indicated that in addition to the known antioxidant activity of catechins, other mechanisms such as modulation of signal transduction pathways, cell survival/death genes and mitochondrial function, contribute significantly to the induction of cell viability. This review will focus on the multifunctional properties of green tea and its major component (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and their ability to induce neuroprotection and neurorescue in vitro and in vivo. In particular, their transitional metal (iron and copper) chelating property and inhibition of oxidative stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia A Mandel
- Eve Topf and USA National Parkinson Foundation Centers of Excellence for Neurodegenerative Diseases Research, Technion-Faculty of Medicine, Haifa, Israel
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome L Sullivan
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Zecca L, Youdim MBH, Riederer P, Connor JR, Crichton RR. Iron, brain ageing and neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2004; 5:863-73. [PMID: 15496864 DOI: 10.1038/nrn1537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1302] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that iron is involved in the mechanisms that underlie many neurodegenerative diseases. Conditions such as neuroferritinopathy and Friedreich ataxia are associated with mutations in genes that encode proteins that are involved in iron metabolism, and as the brain ages, iron accumulates in regions that are affected by Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. High concentrations of reactive iron can increase oxidative-stress induced neuronal vulnerability, and iron accumulation might increase the toxicity of environmental or endogenous toxins. By studying the accumulation and cellular distribution of iron during ageing, we should be able to increase our understanding of these neurodegenerative disorders and develop new therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies-Italian National Research Council, 20090 Segrate, Milano, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|