Management of Thrombosis in Antiphospholipid Syndrome and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Pregnancy

Pregnancy in Women With Systemic Lupus and Lupus Nephritis

Pregnancy is an altered immunologic state in which hormonal changes impact the immune system to enable maternal tolerance of the fetus. These hormonal and immunologic changes may affect disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Conversely, lupus nephritis and its complications may adversely impact pregnancy. Systemic lupus erythematosus increases the risk of pre-eclampsia and its complications, including preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction. Comorbidities such as impaired kidney function and hypertension confer additional risk and complexity. Medications used to treat lupus nephritis may impact the fetus, so therapy needs to be tailored to balance maternal benefit and fetal risk. The diagnosis of lupus nephritis during pregnancy can be difficult, as it shares overlapping features with pre-eclampsia. Kidney biopsy is generally safe in pregnancy, and should be considered if the result will affect management. Here we review the clinical aspects of counseling, diagnosis, and management of lupus nephritis in pregnancy.

Effectiveness of high-dose i.v. immunoglobulin therapy for pregnant women with aspirin-heparin-resistant secondary antiphospholipid syndrome

Purpose

This study aimed to assess the efficacy of high‐dose i.v. immunoglobulin (HIVIg) therapy in pregnant women with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus with a history of pregnancy failure, despite receiving low‐dose aspirin plus unfractionated heparin therapy, of which condition being designated as “aspirin–heparin‐resistant APS” (AHRAPS).

Methods

The HIVIg therapy (20 g/d, 5 days) was performed for the pregnancies of five women with AHRAPS.

Results

Five of the eight pregnancies ended in live births. The gestational ages of delivery in four of the five pregnancies were extended, compared with previous pregnancies. The HIVIg therapy was considered to be successful for these four pregnancies. Excluding one pregnancy that ended in miscarriage with an abnormal chromosome karyotype of the villi, the HIVIg therapy was considered to be successful in four (57.1%) of the seven pregnancies of the women with AHRAPS. Although all the live newborns were prematurely delivered, no adverse effect of the HIVIg therapy was observed.

Conclusions

The HIVIg therapy might be beneficial as an immune modifier for pregnant women with AHRAPS. However, the precise indication of which women with AHRAPS who should receive HIVIg therapy remains unknown.

Laboratory diagnosis and management challenges in the antiphospholipid syndrome

The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by recurrent arterial and/or venous thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity manifested by early or late losses. Laboratory diagnosis of APS relies on the demonstration of a positive test for antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). In clinical practice, the gold standard tests are those that detect anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL) and/or the lupus anticoagulant (LA). Although other specificities for aPL have been described their clinical utility and standardization has still to be established. Persistence of aPL positive tests must be demonstrated, and other causes and underlying factors considered. Although it is universally recognized that the routine screening tests (aCL and/or LA) might miss some cases, careful differential diagnosis and repeat testing are mandatory before the diagnosis of ‘seronegative APS’ can be made. Correct identification of patients with APS is important, because prophylactic anticoagulant therapy can prevent thrombosis from recurring, and treatment of affected women during pregnancy can improve fetal and maternal outcome.

Immunomodulatory effects of therapeutic plasma exchange on monocytes in antiphospholipid syndrome

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by thrombosis and recurrent fetal loss, with the persistent presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPLs). aPLs exert their pathogenic effect via the overproduction of tissue factor and activation of complement and several cell types, including endothelial cells, platelets and notably monocytes. As a result, a hypercoagulable state develops leading to APS-associated obstetric complications and fetal loss. Despite being far from optimal, treatment of APS usually includes heparin and low dose aspirin. Recently, plasma exchange (PE) therapy was successfully used in patients with APS with obstetric complications who did not respond to the standard treatment. Therefore, the present study investigated the mechanism underlying PE action, and aimed to determine whether PE affects the functional activity of APS monocytes by examining the expression of 11 mRNA transcripts encoding cytokines, signaling molecules and transcription factors. Monocytes were collected prior to and following the PE treatment from women with APS who experienced recurrent pregnancy losses, as well as from healthy volunteers. Compared with control cells, APS monocytes showed deregulated expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-23, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10), toll-like receptor 2, and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3. PE treatment resulted in increased IL-1β, IL-6, IL-23, CCL2, P2X7 and tumor necrosis factor-α mRNA transcripts in APS monocytes, restoring the mRNA expression levels to within normal ranges. Furthermore, PE therapy counterbalanced the expression levels of CCL2 and CXCL10, the levels of which are indicative of T helper cell 1/2 balance. The results of the present study indicate that the altered transcriptional profile in APS monocytes was restored by the immunomodulatory effect of plasmapheresis.

Bone status of children born from mothers with autoimmune diseases treated during pregnancy with prednisone and/or low molecular weight heparin

BACKGROUND

To evaluate bone status in children born from mothers followed for autoimmune diseases and treated during pregnancy with low molecular weight heparin (LMVH) and/or prednisone.

FINDINGS

History, physical examination, laboratory tests and phalangeal ultrasonography were performed. Demographic, clinical, and laboratory data were entered into a customized database, and results were analyzed with SPSS software. In children whose mothers were treated with LMWH, we retrieved dried blood spots taken for newborn screening, and analyzed the presence of heparin with tandem mass spectrometry. We enrolled 27 females and 14 males born from 31 mothers with SLE or connective tissue diseases. These women were continuously treated during pregnancy with LMWH (n = 10), prednisone (n = 16), or both (n = 15). Bone ultrasound revealed low values (≤ 3 centile for age) in ten patients. In a multistep regression analysis, age at examination resulted the single predictor of low ultrasound values (p < 0.004). Tandem mass spectroscopy failed to determine traces of heparin in newborn blood.

CONCLUSIONS

Children born from mothers with autoimmune diseases are at risk to develop reduced bone mass. The administration of LMWH and of prednisone seems to be safe with regard to children's bone health.

Risk of Venous Thromboembolic Events in Pregnant Patients With Autoimmune Diseases

Objective:

The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of autoimmune disease on the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) including deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) in pregnant women.

Methods:

Using the Health Care Cost and Utilization Project, Nationwide Inpatient Sample database from 2003 to 2011, the risk of developing DVT, PE, and VTE among pregnant patients with selected autoimmune diseases was estimated using unconditional logistic regression analysis.

Results:

Our study cohort consisted of 7 917 453 women of which 43 523 had underlying autoimmune diseases. Risk of VTE was high in pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease.

Conclusion:

Most autoimmune diseases considerably increase the risk of VTE. Thromboprophylaxis may be considered in pregnancies with autoimmune disease, particularly those with systemic lupus erythematosus and dermatomyositis.

[Management of pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus]

Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus are exposed to a remarkably high number of maternal-fetal complications during pregnancy. Knowledge regarding the reciprocal influence between lupus and pregnancy is the starting point to assure that these patients are correctly monitored. It is also important to carry out comprehensive preconception evaluation to individually evaluate the risk of each patient. The immunological profile, history of nephritis, presence of chronic damage and disease activity are the basic data that will determine the specific individual risk profile. Finally, correct drug management must be assured during this period, based on the safety profile of the different treatments during pregnancy and lactation.

Antiphospholipid syndrome: laboratory detection, mechanisms of action and treatment

The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) identifies a condition at increased risk of vascular occlusion and/or pregnancy complications. Patients are defined as having APS if they have at least one clinical (vascular occlusion and/or pregnancy complications) and one laboratory criterion at the same time. The laboratory criteria that define APS are repeated positivity (confirmed 12 weeks apart) for lupus anticoagulants and/or antibodies targeted against cardiolipin or β(2) -glycoprotein I immobilized on solid surfaces. Over the years, APS has attracted the interest of many medical specialties. The aim of this review is to provide an update on (i) the laboratory criteria that determine the presence of APS, (ii) how the antibodies increase the risk of vascular occlusion and foetal loss and (iii) the treatment of the related clinical events.

The treatment of antiphospholipid syndrome: a harmonic contrast

The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by a wide variability in clinical manifestations. Recommendations for therapy are conditioned by the lack of appropriate studies, due either to methodological limitations or excessive selection of patients. There is consensus in treating patients with APS and first venous thrombosis with warfarin to a target international normalized ratio (INR) of 2.3-3.0. However, a recent systematic review including observational studies found patients with APS and stroke to be at a high risk of recurrent events. We thus recommend a target INR>3.0 in this group. Likewise, the optimal approach for women with obstetric manifestations of APS is not completely defined; some authors recommend universal aspirin plus heparin whereas others consider aspirin in monotherapy useful for women with recurrent early miscarriage only. Correction of vascular risk factors and a high-risk management of pregnancy, including Doppler studies of the uterine and umbilical vessels, are warranted. Hydroxychloroquine and statins are likely to become important in the future.

Antiphospholipid Syndrome in Pregnancy

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is frequently associated with complications during pregnancy. Miscarriage and maternal thrombosis are the most common problems, but prematurity, intrauterine growth retardation, pregnancy-induced hypertensive disorders, and pulmonary hypertension can complicate pregnancy as well. The correct treatment of these women requires an accurate preconceptual counseling and a close collaboration between obstetricians and physicians. Doppler studies of the umbilical and uterine arteries play an important role in predicting APS-related complications during pregnancy.

Systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with a high risk of maternal disease exacerbation and adverse fetal outcome. This review summarizes recent published findings on lupus pregnancy.

RECENT FINDINGS

The literature is in agreement that for most women with inactive and stable systemic lupus erythematosus, pregnancy is safe for both mother and fetus. The main risk factors for adverse pregnancy course and outcome are active disease, nephritis with proteinuria, hypertension, and maternal serum antibodies to SS-A/Ro, SS-B/La, cardiolipin, beta2-glycoprotein I, and lupus anticoagulant. Recent studies have broadened our understanding of the immunological mechanism underlying congenital heart block induced by anti-Ro/La antibodies. In addition, the approach to oral contraceptives has been modified on the basis of two well controlled studies suggesting that they do not cause exacerbation of inactive or mild disease.

SUMMARY

Pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is safe and manageable provided the disease is stable. Patients should be evaluated before pregnancy for pregestational risk factors and be closely followed during pregnancy. In most cases of lupus flare during pregnancy, the disease can be safely managed.

Lupus and pregnancy: complex yet manageable

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a chronic multi-system autoimmune disease that occurs predominantly in women of childbearing age. The risk of complications and adverse fetal outcomes in pregnant women with lupus is high. Moreover, pregnancy can cause flares of lupus disease activity necessitating maternal immunosuppressive intervention. Interestingly, many potential complications of pregnancy present as symptoms of lupus making diagnosis and treatment a challenge. Advancing technology and better understanding of the maternal-fetal dyad in lupus have improved outcomes in lupus pregnancies over the last 40 years. This article will briefly review the important issues in pregnancies complicated by lupus and provide a general guideline to physicians for monitoring and treatment.

Systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy

Women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) face significant risks when embarking on a pregnancy, but attending a multidisciplinary clinic staffed by an experienced team can improve pregnancy outcome for women and their babies. Pregnancy in SLE should be planned and a management strategy should be agreed in full consultation with the patient, prior to conception. Pregnancy increases the likelihood of a lupus flare. It is not possible to predict when, or if, an individual patient will flare, although flare is more likely if disease has been active within 6 months of conception. Worsening of proteinuria in pregnancy could herald a lupus flare, but the differential diagnosis also includes the physiological response to pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Corticosteroids, hydroxychloroquine and azathioprine are safe to use in pregnancy, with no adverse fetal effects reported despite many years of experience with their use. Correct identification of patients with antiphospholipid syndrome is important because treatment of affected women during pregnancy can improve fetal and maternal outcome. Neonatal SLE, although rare, carries a significant mortality and morbidity when the fetal heart is the targeted organ. Prophylaxis therapies, including treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin, await larger trials.

[Systematic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome during pregnancy]

Women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) are subject to several complications during pregnancy, including reactivation of SLE, thrombosis, miscarriage, neonatal lupus, pregnancy-induced hypertension, pulmonary hypertension and drug toxicity. Correct management of these patients requires combined medical-obstetric care, close surveillance of baby's growth and well-being, control of SLE activity and correct thromboprophylaxis. With good care, most pregnancies in women with SLE and APS end successfully.