Role of transforming growth factor Beta in human cancer

ECM1 attenuates hepatic fibrosis by interfering with mediators of latent TGF-β1 activation

OBJECTIVE

Extracellular matrix protein 1 (ECM1) serves as a gatekeeper of hepatic fibrosis by maintaining transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) in its latent form. ECM1 knockout (KO) causes latent (L) TGF-β1 activation, resulting in hepatic fibrosis with rapid mortality. In chronic liver disease (CLD), ECM1 decreases with increasing CLD severity. We investigate the regulatory role of ECM1 in TGF-β1 bioavailability and its impact on CLD progression.

DESIGN

RNAseq was performed to analyse hepatic gene expression. Functional assays were performed using hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), Ecm1-KO and Fxr-KO mice, patient liver tissue and computer simulations.

RESULTS

Expression of LTGF-β1 activators, including thrombospondins (TSPs), ADAMTS proteases and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), increased along with profibrotic gene expression in liver tissue of Ecm1-KO mice. In HSCs, overexpression of ECM1 prevented LTGF-β1 activation mediated by TSP-1, ADAMTS1, and MMP-2/9. In vitro interaction assays demonstrated that ECM1 inhibited LTGF-β1 activation by interacting with TSP-1 and ADAMTS1 via their respective, intrinsic KRFK or KTFR amino acid sequences and by suppressing MMP-2/9 proteolytic activity. In mice, ECM1 overexpression attenuated KRFK-induced LTGF-β1 activation while KTFR treatment reversed Ecm1-KO-mediated and Fxr-KO-mediated liver injury. In patients with CLD, ECM1 expression was inversely correlated with TSP-1, ADAMTS1, MMP-2/9 expression and LTGF-β1 activation. And, these results were complemented by a computational compartment model representing the key network of cellular phenotypes and predicted interactions in liver fibrogenesis.

CONCLUSION

Our findings underscore the hepatoprotective effect of ECM1, which interferes with mediators of LTGF-β1 activation, suggesting ECM1 or its representative peptide as potential antifibrotic therapies in CLD.

Malignancy risk factors based on endometrial polyp

AIMS

This study aims to examine cases identified with endometrial polyp and carcinoma originating from polyps in patients presenting with gynaecological problems, and to highlight the significance of risk factors contributing to malignancy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study comprised 203 patients who visited our clinic between January 2019 and 2024 with various gynaecological problems and were identified with endometrial polyps after a clinical, radiographic, and laboratory assessment. We retrospectively analysed data from 191 benign endometrial polyps and hyperplasia without atypia and 12 patients with endometrial polyps and underlying endometrial hyperplasia with atypia and/or endometrial carcinoma, diagnosed histopathologically after hysteroscopic resection, retrieved from our hospital's electronic archive system. Two hundred three participants were tested in the study, with 191 classifieds with benign tumours and 12 diagnosed with malignant tumours and atypical endometrial hyperplasia (premalignant). Cases were chosen according on consistent criteria for age, BMI, gravida, parity, abortion, educational level, smoking habits, operation history, and co-morbidities. After determining the sample size for the malignant group, patients from the control group were selected to be included in the study. Initially, patients with similar age and BMI distributions were included into the study. Next, the cases were analysed for similarities in gravida, parity, and abortion parameters, and those that matched were chosen. Following this step, the educational status was compared for resemblance, and examples with matching educational status were chosen. Consequently, the study covered a total of 34 patients, with 12 identified with malignant tumours and atypical endometrial hyperplasia (premalignant) and 22 with benign tumours. Two groups of cases were diagnosed with endometrial polyp, and risk factors that may cause the development of endometrial polyp and underlying carcinoma: age, gravida, parity, abortion, education level, smoking, previous operation history, comorbidity, gynaecological complaints, fasting blood sugar, CRP values, haemoglobin, and haematocrit were evaluated in terms of endometrial polyp sizes, endometrial thickness level, and endometrial polyp localization. By examining the pathological risk factors of these cases, particularly during the premenopausal period, the goal is to predict endometrial cancer, the most prevalent gynaecological cancer in women, along with its antecedents, and implement preventive measures proactively.

RESULTS

Age, BMI, gravida, parity, number of abortions, educational status, smoking status, operation history, co-morbidity, and complaint variables did not exhibit a statistically significant difference between the groups (p > 0.05). It was revealed that the FBG level, CRP level, Polyp length and Endometrial thickness level of the malignant group were statistically significantly higher than the benign group (p < 0.01) (p < 0.05). Upon analysing the FBG distribution among groups, it is noted that the ODDS ratio is 10.20 for FBG values of 122.5 and above (95% CI: 1.97 - 52.78). Upon analysing the CRP distribution by groups, it is noted that the ODDS ratio is 231 for CRP values of 9.7 and above (95% CI: 13.15 - 4058.67). Upon analysing the distribution of Polyp length based on groups, it was determined that the ODDS ratio is 13.5 for Polyp lengths of 2.25 and above (95% CI: 2.47 - 73.71). Upon analysing the distribution of EM thickness based on groups, it is shown that the ODDS ratio is 5.25 for EM thicknesses of 11 and above (95% CI: 1.09 - 25.21).

CONCLUSION

Endometrial polyps are common benign growths that are typically not seen as cancer precursors but may be linked to cancer in people with advanced age. It is vital to remember that in cases of endometrial polyps, variables such as increasing polyp length, endometrial thickness, fasting glucose level, and elevated CRP levels are significant risk factors for the development of cancer associated with polyps.

Integrative prediction model for radiation pneumonitis incorporating genetic and clinical-pathological factors using machine learning

Purpose

We aimed to develop a machine learning-based prediction model for severe radiation pneumonitis (RP) by integrating relevant clinicopathological and genetic factors, considering the associations of clinical, dosimetric parameters, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of genes in the TGF-β1 pathway with RP.

Methods

We prospectively enrolled 59 primary lung cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy and analyzed pretreatment blood samples, clinicopathological/dosimetric variables, and 11 functional SNPs in TGFβ pathway genes. Using the Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE) and nested cross-validation, we developed a machine learning-based prediction model for severe RP (grade ≥ 2). Feature selection was conducted using four methods (filtered-based, wrapper-based, embedded, and logistic regression), and performance was evaluated using three machine learning models.

Results

Severe RP occurred in 20.3 % of patients with a median follow-up of 39.7 months. In our final model, age (>66 years), smoking history, PTV volume (>300 cc), and AG/GG genotype in BMP2 rs1979855 were identified as the most significant predictors. Additionally, incorporating genomic variables for prediction alongside clinicopathological variables significantly improved the AUC compared to using clinicopathological variables alone (0.822 vs. 0.741, p = 0.029). The same feature set was selected using both the wrapper-based method and logistic model, demonstrating the best performance across all machine learning models (AUC: XGBoost 0.815, RF 0.805, SVM 0.712, respectively).

Conclusion

We successfully developed a machine learning-based prediction model for RP, demonstrating age, smoking history, PTV volume, and BMP2 rs1979855 genotype as significant predictors. Notably, incorporating SNP data significantly enhanced predictive performance compared to clinicopathological factors alone.

Targeting SMAD3 Improves Response to Oxaliplatin in Esophageal Adenocarcinoma Models by Impeding DNA Repair

PURPOSE

TGFβ signaling is implicated in the progression of most cancers, including esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). Emerging evidence indicates that TGFβ signaling is a key factor in the development of resistance toward cancer therapy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

In this study, we developed patient-derived organoids and patient-derived xenograft models of EAC and performed bioinformatics analysis combined with functional genetics to investigate the role of SMAD family member 3 (SMAD3) in EAC resistance to oxaliplatin.

RESULTS

Chemotherapy nonresponding patients showed enrichment of SMAD3 gene expression when compared with responders. In a randomized patient-derived xenograft experiment, SMAD3 inhibition in combination with oxaliplatin effectively diminished tumor burden by impeding DNA repair. SMAD3 interacted directly with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a key regulator of the DNA damage repair protein ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM). SMAD3 inhibition diminished ATM phosphorylation by enhancing the binding of PP2A to ATM, causing excessive levels of DNA damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results identify SMAD3 as a promising therapeutic target for future combination strategies for the treatment of patients with EAC.

Extracellular matrix viscoelasticity regulates TGFβ1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition and apoptosis via integrin linked kinase

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 is a multifunctional cytokine that plays important roles in health and disease. Previous studies have revealed that TGFβ1 activation, signaling, and downstream cell responses including epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and apoptosis are regulated by the elasticity or stiffness of the extracellular matrix. However, tissues within the body are not purely elastic, rather they are viscoelastic. How matrix viscoelasticity impacts cell fate decisions downstream of TGFβ1 remains unknown. Here, we synthesized polyacrylamide hydrogels that mimic the viscoelastic properties of breast tumor tissue. We found that increasing matrix viscous dissipation reduces TGFβ1-induced cell spreading, F-actin stress fiber formation, and EMT-associated gene expression changes, and promotes TGFβ1-induced apoptosis in mammary epithelial cells. Furthermore, TGFβ1-induced expression of integrin linked kinase (ILK) and colocalization of ILK with vinculin at cell adhesions is attenuated in mammary epithelial cells cultured on viscoelastic substrata in comparison to cells cultured on nearly elastic substrata. Overexpression of ILK promotes TGFβ1-induced EMT and reduces apoptosis in cells cultured on viscoelastic substrata, suggesting that ILK plays an important role in regulating cell fate downstream of TGFβ1 in response to matrix viscoelasticity.

Longtime evolution and stationary response of a stochastic tumor-immune system with resting T cells

In this paper, we take the resting T cells into account and interpret the progression and regression of tumors by a predator-prey like tumor-immune system. First, we construct an appropriate Lyapunov function to prove the existence and uniqueness of the global positive solution to the system. Then, by utilizing the stochastic comparison theorem, we prove the moment boundedness of tumor cells and two types of T cells. Furthermore, we analyze the impact of stochastic perturbations on the extinction and persistence of tumor cells and obtain the stationary probability density of the tumor cells in the persistent state. The results indicate that when the noise intensity of tumor perturbation is low, tumor cells remain in a persistent state. As this intensity gradually increases, the population of tumors moves towards a lower level, and the stochastic bifurcation phenomena occurs. When it reaches a certain threshold, instead the number of tumor cells eventually enter into an extinct state, and further increasing of the noise intensity will accelerate this process.

Design and characterization of a novel tumor-homing cell-penetrating peptide for drug delivery in TGFBR3 high-expressing tumors

Targeted therapy has attracted more and more attention in cancer treatment in recent years. However, due to the diversity of tumor types and the mutation of target sites on the tumor surface, some existing targets are no longer suitable for tumor therapy. In addition, the long-term administration of a single targeted drug can also lead to drug resistance and attenuate drug potency, so it is important to develop new targets for tumor therapy. The expression of Type III transforming growth factor β receptor (TGFBR3) is upregulated in colon, breast, and prostate cancer cells, and plays an important role in the occurrence and development of these cancers, so TGFBR3 may be developed as a novel target for tumor therapy, but so far there is no report on this research. In this study, the structure of bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), one of the ligands of TGFBR3 was analyzed through the docking analysis with TGFBR3 and sequence charge characteristic analysis, and a functional tumor-targeting penetrating peptide T3BP was identified. The results of fluorescent labeling experiments showed that T3BP could target and efficiently enter tumor cells with high expression of TGFBR3, especially A549 cells. When the expression of TGFBR3 on the surface of tumor cells (HeLa) was knocked down by RNA interference, the high delivery efficiency of T3BP was correspondingly reduced by 40%, indicating that the delivery was TGFBR3-dependent. Trichosanthin (TCS, a plant-derived ribosome inactivating protein) fused with T3BP can enhance the inhibitory activity of the fusion protein on A549 cells by more than 200 times that of TCS alone. These results indicated that T3BP, as a novel targeting peptide that can efficiently bind TGFBR3 and be used for targeted therapy of tumors with high expression of TGFBR3. This study enriches the supply of tumor-targeting peptides and provides a new potential application option for the treatment of tumors with high expression of TGFBR3.

Direct early growth response-1 knockdown decreases melanoma viability independent of mitogen-activated extracellular signal-related kinase inhibition

To investigate downstream molecular changes caused by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) inhibitor treatment and further explore the impact of direct knockdown of early growth response-1 ( EGR1 ) in melanoma cell culture. RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed to determine gene expression changes with MEK inhibitor treatment. Treatment with MEK inhibitor (trametinib) was then assessed in two cutaneous (MEL888, MEL624) and one conjunctival (YUARGE 13-3064) melanoma cell line. Direct knockdown of EGR1 was accomplished using lentiviral vectors containing shRNA. Cell viability was measured using PrestoBlueHS Cell Viability Reagent. Total RNA and protein were assessed by qPCR and SimpleWestern. RNA-Seq demonstrated a profound reduction in EGR1 with MEK inhibitor treatment, prompting further study of melanoma cell lines. Following trametinib treatment of melanoma cells, viability was reduced in both cutaneous (MEL888 26%, P  < 0.01; MEL624 27%, P  < 0.001) and conjunctival (YUARGE 13-3064 33%, P  < 0.01) melanoma compared with DMSO control, with confirmed EGR1 knockdown to 0.04-, 0.01-, and 0.16-fold DMSO-treated levels (all P  < 0.05) in MEL888, MEL624, and YUARGE 13-3064, respectively. Targeted EGR1 knockdown using shRNA reduced viability in both cutaneous (MEL624 78%, P  = 0.05) and conjunctival melanoma (YUARGE-13-3064 67%, P  = 0.02). RNA-Sequencing in MEK inhibitor-treated cells identified EGR1 as a candidate effector molecule of interest. In a malignant melanoma cell population, MEK inhibition reduced viability in both cutaneous and conjunctival melanoma with a profound downstream reduction in EGR1 expression. Targeted knockdown of EGR1 reduced both cutaneous and conjunctival melanoma cell viability independent of MEK inhibition, suggesting a key role for EGR1 in melanoma pathobiology.

Helicobacter pylori-activated fibroblasts as a silent partner in gastric cancer development

The discovery of Helicobacter pylori (Hp) infection of gastric mucosa leading to active chronic gastritis, gastroduodenal ulcers, and MALT lymphoma laid the groundwork for understanding of the general relationship between chronic infection, inflammation, and cancer. Nevertheless, this sequence of events is still far from full understanding with new players and mediators being constantly identified. Originally, the Hp virulence factors affecting mainly gastric epithelium were proposed to contribute considerably to gastric inflammation, ulceration, and cancer. Furthermore, it has been shown that Hp possesses the ability to penetrate the mucus layer and directly interact with stroma components including fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. These cells, which are the source of biophysical and biochemical signals providing the proper balance between cell proliferation and differentiation within gastric epithelial stem cell compartment, when exposed to Hp, can convert into cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) phenotype. The crosstalk between fibroblasts and myofibroblasts with gastric epithelial cells including stem/progenitor cell niche involves several pathways mediated by non-coding RNAs, Wnt, BMP, TGF-β, and Notch signaling ligands. The current review concentrates on the consequences of Hp-induced increase in gastric fibroblast and myofibroblast number, and their activation towards CAFs with the emphasis to the altered communication between mesenchymal and epithelial cell compartment, which may lead to inflammation, epithelial stem cell overproliferation, disturbed differentiation, and gradual gastric cancer development. Thus, Hp-activated fibroblasts may constitute the target for anti-cancer treatment and, importantly, for the pharmacotherapies diminishing their activation particularly at the early stages of Hp infection.

TGF-β in correlation with tumor progression, immunosuppression and targeted therapy in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a complex malignancy responsible for the second-highest cancer deaths worldwide. TGF-β maintains normal cellular homeostasis by inhibiting the cell cycle and inducing apoptosis, but its elevated level is correlated with colorectal cancer progression, as TGF-β is a master regulator of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, a critical step of metastasis. Tumors, including CRC, use elevated TGF-β levels to avoid immune surveillance by modulating immune cell differentiation, proliferation, and effector function. Presently, the treatment of advanced CRC is mainly based on chemotherapy, with multiple adverse effects. Thus, there is a need to develop alternate tactics because CRC continue to be mostly resistant to the present therapeutic regimen. TGF-β blockade has emerged as a promising therapeutic target in cancer therapy. Blocking TGF-β with phytochemicals and other molecules, such as antisense oligonucleotides, monoclonal antibodies, and bifunctional traps, alone or in combination, may be a safer and more effective way to treat CRC. Furthermore, combination immunotherapy comprising TGF-β blockers and immune checkpoint inhibitors is gaining popularity because both molecules work synergistically to suppress the immune system. Here, we summarize the current understanding of TGF-β as a therapeutic target for managing CRC and its context-dependent tumor-promoting or tumor-suppressing nature.

Cytokine network imbalance in children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia at diagnosis

Immune imbalance has been proved to be involved in the pathogenesis of hematologic neoplasm. However, little research has been reported altered cytokine network in childhood B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) at diagnosis. Our study aimed to evaluate the cytokine network in peripheral blood of newly diagnosed pediatric patients with B-ALL. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interferon (IFN)-γ, and IL-17A in 45 children with B-ALL and 37 healthy control children were measured by cytometric bead array, while the level of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) in the serum was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Patients showed a significant increase in IL-6 (p < 0.001), IL-10 (p < 0.001), IFN-γ (p = 0.023) and a significant reduction in TGF-β1 (p = 0.001). The levels of IL-2, IL-4, TNF and IL-17A were similar in the two groups. Higher concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines were associated with febrile in patients without apparent infection by using unsupervised machine learning algorithms. In conclusion, our results indicated a critical role for aberrant cytokine expression profiles in the progression of childhood B-ALL. Distinct cytokine subgroups with different clinical features and immune response have been identified in patients with B-ALL at the time of diagnosis.

Anoikis resistance--protagonists of breast cancer cells survive and metastasize after ECM detachment

Breast cancer exhibits the highest global incidence among all tumor types. Regardless of the type of breast cancer, metastasis is a crucial cause of poor prognosis. Anoikis, a form of apoptosis initiated by cell detachment from the native environment, is an outside-in process commencing with the disruption of cytosolic connectors such as integrin-ECM and cadherin-cell. This disruption subsequently leads to intracellular cytoskeletal and signaling pathway alterations, ultimately activating caspases and initiating programmed cell death. Development of an anoikis-resistant phenotype is a critical initial step in tumor metastasis. Breast cancer employs a series of stromal alterations to suppress anoikis in cancer cells. Comprehensive investigation of anoikis resistance mechanisms can inform strategies for preventing and regressing metastatic breast cancer. The present review first outlines the physiological mechanisms of anoikis, elucidating the alterations in signaling pathways, cytoskeleton, and protein targets that transpire from the outside in upon adhesion loss in normal breast cells. The specific anoikis resistance mechanisms induced by pathological changes in various spatial structures during breast cancer development are also discussed. Additionally, the genetic loci of targets altered in the development of anoikis resistance in breast cancer, are summarized. Finally, the micro-RNAs and targeted drugs reported in the literature concerning anoikis are compiled, with keratocin being the most functionally comprehensive. Video Abstract.

Combination of Polymeric Micelle Formulation of TGFβ Receptor Inhibitors and Paclitaxel Produce Consistent Response Across Different Mouse Models of TNBC

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is notoriously difficult to treat due to the lack of targetable receptors and sometimes poor response to chemotherapy. The transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) family of proteins and their receptors (TGFR) are highly expressed in TNBC and implicated in chemotherapy-induced cancer stemness. Here we evaluated combination treatments using experimental TGFR inhibitors (TGFβi), SB525334 (SB), and LY2109761 (LY) with Paclitaxel (PTX) chemotherapy. These TGFβi target TGFR-I (SB) or both TGFR-I&II (LY). Due to the poor water solubility of these drugs, we incorporated each of them in poly(2-oxazoline) (POx) high-capacity polymeric micelles (SB-POx and LY-POx). We assessed their anti-cancer effect as single agents and in combination with micellar Paclitaxel (PTX-POx) using multiple immunocompetent TNBC mouse models that mimic human subtypes (4T1, T11-Apobec and T11-UV). While either TGFβi or PTX showed a differential effect in each model as single agents, the combinations were consistently effective against all three models. Genetic profiling of the tumors revealed differences in the expression levels of genes associated with TGFβ, EMT, TLR-4, and Bcl2 signaling, alluding to the susceptibility to specific gene signatures to the treatment. Taken together, our study suggests that TGFβi and PTX combination therapy using high-capacity POx micelle delivery provides a robust anti-tumor response in multiple TNBC subtype mouse models.

A Novel Hydroxyapatite/Vitamin B12 Nanoformula for Treatment of Bone Damage: Preparation, Characterization, and Anti-Arthritic, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antioxidant Activities in Chemically Induced Arthritic Rats

The usage of nanomaterials for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment can improve bioavailability and enable selective targeting. The current study prepares and evaluates the in vivo biological effects of a novel hydroxyapatite/vitamin B₁₂ nanoformula in Complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. The synthesized nanoformula was characterized using XRD, FTIR, BET analysis, HERTEM, SEM, particle size, and zeta potential. We synthesized pure HAP NPs with 71.01% loading weight percentages of Vit B12 and 49 mg/g loading capacity. Loading of vitamin B₁₂ on hydroxyapatite was modeled by Monte Carlo simulation. Anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of the prepared nanoformula were assessed. Treated arthritic rats showed lower levels of RF and CRP, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-17, and ADAMTS-5, but higher IL-4 and TIMP-3 levels. In addition, the prepared nanoformula increased GSH content and GST antioxidant activity while decreasing LPO levels. Furthermore, it reduced the expression of TGF-β mRNA. Histopathological examinations revealed an improvement in joint injuries through the reduction of inflammatory cell infiltration, cartilage deterioration, and bone damage caused by Complete Freund's adjuvant. These findings indicate that the anti-arthritic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of the prepared nanoformula could be useful for the development of new anti-arthritic treatments.

Interplay between Signaling Pathways and Tumor Microenvironment Components: A Paradoxical Role in Colorectal Cancer

The study of the tumor microenvironment (TME) has become an important part of colorectal cancer (CRC) research. Indeed, it is now accepted that the invasive character of a primary CRC is determined not only by the genotype of the tumor cells, but also by their interactions with the extracellular environment, which thereby orchestrates the development of the tumor. In fact, the TME cells are a double-edged sword as they play both pro- and anti-tumor roles. The interaction of the tumor-infiltrating cells (TIC) with the cancer cells induces the polarization of the TIC, exhibiting an antagonist phenotype. This polarization is controlled by a plethora of interconnected pro- and anti-oncogenic signaling pathways. The complexity of this interaction and the dual function of these different actors contribute to the failure of CRC control. Thus, a better understanding of such mechanisms is of great interest and provides new opportunities for the development of personalized and efficient therapies for CRC. In this review, we summarize the signaling pathways linked to CRC and their implication in the development or inhibition of the tumor initiation and progression. In the second part, we enlist the major components of the TME and discuss the complexity of their cells functions.

Sperm DNA methylome abnormalities occur both pre- and post-treatment in men with Hodgkin disease and testicular cancer

BACKGROUND

Combination chemotherapy has contributed to increased survival from Hodgkin disease (HD) and testicular cancer (TC). However, questions concerning the quality of spermatozoa after treatment have arisen. While studies have shown evidence of DNA damage and aneuploidy in spermatozoa years following anticancer treatment, the sperm epigenome has received little attention. Our objectives here were to determine the impact of HD and TC, as well as their treatments, on sperm DNA methylation. Semen samples were collected from community controls (CC) and from men undergoing treatment for HD or TC, both before initiation of chemotherapy and at multiple times post-treatment. Sperm DNA methylation was assessed using genome-wide and locus-specific approaches.

RESULTS

Imprinted gene methylation was not affected in the sperm of HD or TC men, before or after treatment. Prior to treatment, using Illumina HumanMethylation450 BeadChip (450 K) arrays, a subset of 500 probes was able to distinguish sperm samples from TC, HD and CC subjects; differences between groups persisted post-treatment. Comparing altered sperm methylation between HD or TC patients versus CC men, twice as many sites were affected in TC versus HD men; for both groups, the most affected CpGs were hypomethylated. For TC patients, the promoter region of GDF2 contained the largest region of differential methylation. To assess alterations in DNA methylation over time/post-chemotherapy, serial samples from individual patients were compared. With restriction landmark genome scanning and 450 K array analyses, some patients who underwent chemotherapy showed increased alterations in DNA methylation, up to 2 to 3 years post-treatment, when compared to the CC cohort. Similarly, a higher-resolution human sperm-specific assay that includes assessment of environmentally sensitive regions, or "dynamic sites," also demonstrated persistently altered sperm DNA methylation in cancer patients post-treatment and suggested preferential susceptibility of "dynamic" CpG sites.

CONCLUSIONS

Distinct sperm DNA methylation signatures were present pre-treatment in men with HD and TC and may help explain increases in birth defects reported in recent clinical studies. Epigenetic defects in spermatozoa of some cancer survivors were evident even up to 2 years post-treatment. Abnormalities in the sperm epigenome both pre- and post-chemotherapy may contribute to detrimental effects on future reproductive health.

Transforming growth factor-β signaling: from tumor microenvironment to anticancer therapy

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling is an important pathway for promoting the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, including cancer. The roles of TGF-β signaling are heterogeneous and versatile in cancer development and progression, both anticancer and protumoral actions are reported. Interestingly, increasing evidence suggests that TGF-β enhances disease progression and drug resistance via immune-modulatory actions in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of solid tumors. A better understanding of its regulatory mechanisms in the TME at the molecular level can facilitate the development of precision medicine to block the protumoral actions of TGF-β in the TME. Here, the latest information about the regulatory mechanisms and translational research of TGF-β signaling in the TME for therapeutic development had been summarized.

RNA m6A methyltransferase METTL14 promotes the procession of non-small cell lung cancer by targeted CSF1R

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most malignant cancer types, characterized by a poor prognosis. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a prevalent internal modification of mRNA. METTL14, an RNA methyltransferase that mediates m6A modification, is implicated in mRNA biogenesis. However, the biomechanism of METTL14 in NSCLC is not very clear.

METHODS

Here, immunohistochemical (IHC) assay was employed to detect METTL14 in NSCLC tissues. The biological functions of METTL14 were demonstrated using cell transfection, cell proliferation assay, cell clone formation assay, cell cycle analysis, cell death analysis, transwell and wound healing assays. Transcriptome and methylated RNA immunoprecipitation (MERIP)-sequencing were used to explore the pathways and potential mechanism of METTL14 in NSCLC. RNA sequencing, METTL14 rip-sequencing, and METTL14 merip-sequencing were conducted to identify the potential targets of METTL14.

RESULTS

METTL14 was significantly correlated with clinical pathological parameters of differentiation and M stage. Additionally, METTL14 promotes cell proliferation, induces cell death, and enhances cell migration and invasion in vitro. Transcriptome and MeRIP-sequencing reveal oncogenic mechanism of METTL14. RIP-sequencing highlights CSF1R and AKR1C1 as targets of METTL14. After validation with TCGA dataset, colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) showed significant positive coefficient with METTL14, and was presumed to be one target of METTl14 in lung cancer and verified by the cellular experiments.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our results revealed the clinical significance of m6A RNA modification atlas, the function, and molecular targets CSF1R of METTL14 in NSCLC cell lines. The RNA m6A methyltransferase METTL14 promotes the progression of NSCLC by targeted CSF1R.

Extracellular vesicles as central regulators of blood vessel function in cancer

Blood vessels deliver oxygen and nutrients that sustain tumor growth and enable the dissemination of cancer cells to distant sites and the recruitment of intratumoral immune cells. In addition, the structural and functional abnormalities of the tumor vasculature foster the development of an aggressive tumor microenvironment and impair the efficacy of existing cancer therapies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as major players of tumor progression, and a growing body of evidence has demonstrated that EVs derived from cancer cells trigger multiple responses in endothelial cells that alter blood vessel function in tumors. EV-mediated signaling in endothelial cells can occur through the transfer of functional cargos such as miRNAs, lncRNAs, cirRNAs, and proteins. Moreover, membrane-bound proteins in EVs can elicit receptor-mediated signaling in endothelial cells. Together, these mechanisms reprogram endothelial cells and contribute to the sustained exacerbated angiogenic signaling typical of tumors, which, in turn, influences cancer progression. Targeting these angiogenesis-promoting EV-dependent mechanisms may offer additional strategies to normalize tumor vasculature. Here, we discuss the current knowledge pertaining to the contribution of cancer cell-derived EVs in mechanisms regulating blood vessel functions in tumors. Moreover, we discuss the translational opportunities in targeting the dysfunctional tumor vasculature using EVs and highlight the open questions in the field of EV biology that can be addressed using mass spectrometry-based proteomics analysis.

Recurrent NOMO1 Gene Deletion Is a Potential Clinical Marker in Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer and Is Involved in the Regulation of Cell Migration

Simple Summary

The incidence of EOCRC (age < 50 years at diagnosis) with unknown causes is rising worldwide, necessitating the mechanistical analysis of its molecular basis. The NOMO1 gene is deleted in a high number of EOCRC tumors compared to LOCRC. In this work, we aimed to test the NOMO1 gene mutational profile in EOCRC tumors and to characterize the effect of NOMO1 loss in different CRISPR/cas9-edited cell lines, as well as in murine models. Here, we show that the NOMO1 gene can be inactivated not only by deletion but also by pathogenic mutations in EOCRC. Our results indicate that NOMO1 loss could be a passenger mutation in the development of EOCRC, although it contributes significantly to colon cancer cell migration.

Abstract

The incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC; age younger than 50 years) has been progressively increasing over the last decades globally, with causes unexplained. A distinct molecular feature of EOCRC is that compared with cases of late-onset colorectal cancer, in EOCRC cases, there is a higher incidence of Nodal Modulator 1 (NOMO1) somatic deletions. However, the mechanisms of NOMO1 in early-onset colorectal carcinogenesis are currently unknown. In this study, we show that in 30% of EOCRCs with heterozygous deletion of NOMO1, there were pathogenic mutations in this gene, suggesting that NOMO1 can be inactivated by deletion or mutation in EOCRC. To study the role of NOMO1 in EOCRC, CRISPR/cas9 technology was employed to generate NOMO1 knockout HCT-116 (EOCRC) and HS-5 (bone marrow) cell lines. NOMO1 loss in these cell lines did not perturb Nodal pathway signaling nor cell proliferation. Expression microarrays, RNA sequencing, and protein expression analysis by LC–IMS/MS showed that NOMO1 inactivation deregulates other signaling pathways independent of the Nodal pathway, such as epithelial–mesenchymal transition and cell migration. Significantly, NOMO1 loss increased the migration capacity of CRC cells. Additionally, a gut-specific conditional NOMO1 KO mouse model revealed no subsequent tumor development in mice. Overall, these findings suggest that NOMO1 could play a secondary role in early-onset colorectal carcinogenesis because its loss increases the migration capacity of CRC cells. Therefore, further study is warranted to explore other signalling pathways deregulated by NOMO1 loss that may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of the disease.

Smad4-deficient T cells promote colitis-associated colon cancer via an IFN-γ-dependent suppression of 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase

Immune cells and the cytokines they produce are important mediators of the transition from colitis to colon cancer, but the mechanisms mediating this disease progression are poorly understood. Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) is known to contribute to the pathogenesis of colitis through immune modulatory mechanisms, and through direct effects on endothelial and epithelial homeostasis. Here we explore whether IFN-γ influences tumor progression by expanding the effector memory T cells (T_EM) population and restricting the expression of tumor suppressors in a preclinical model of spontaneous colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC). We show that IFN-γ expression is significantly increased both in the T cells and the colonic mucosal epithelia of mice with a T cell-restricted deletion of the TGF-β intermediate, SMAD4 (Smad4^TKO). The increase of IFN-γ expression correlates with the onset of spontaneous CAC in Smad4^TKO mice by 6 months of age. This phenotype is greatly ameliorated by the introduction of a germline deletion of IFN-γ in Smad4^TKO mice (Smad4^TKO/IFN-γ^KO, DKO). DKO mice had a significantly reduced incidence and progression of CAC, and a decrease in the number of mucosal CD4⁺ T_EM cells, when compared to those of Smad4^TKO mice. Similarly, the colon epithelia of DKO mice exhibited a non-oncogenic signature with a decrease in the expression of iNOS and p-STAT1, and a restoration of the tumor suppressor gene, 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH). In vitro, treatment of human colon cancer cells with IFN-γ decreased the expression of 15-PGDH. Our data suggest that Smad4-deficient T cells promote CAC through mechanisms that include an IFN-γ-dependent suppression of the tumor suppressor 15-PGDH.

Significance of combined TGF-β1 and survivin expression on the prognosis of patients with triple-negative breast cancer

Compared with other types of breast cancer, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has the characteristics of rapid progression, a lack of specific molecular targets for treatment and a poor prognosis. However, based on previously published studies, TGF-β1 and survivin are potentially meaningful for the prognosis of patients with TNBC. The present study was therefore designed to measure and compare the expression of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and survivin in tissue samples of TNBC and non-TNBC patients in order to evaluate their ability as prognostic indicators. In total, 90 TNBC and 52 non-TNBC tissue specimens were selected, following which immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of TGF-β1 and survivin in the cancer tissues. Subsequently, the potential association between the expression levels of these two proteins and the clinicopathological variables was analyzed. The expression levels of TGF-β1 and survivin in TNBC tissues were found to be significantly higher compared with those in the non-TNBC tissues. In addition, the results of the present study demonstrated that TGF-β1 expression was positively associated with survivin expression in the TNBC samples, but no significant correlation was found between TGF-β1 and survivin expression in the non-TNBC samples. Kaplan-Meier (K-M) analysis was performed to assess the levels of TGF-β1 and survivin in regard to patient survival, and univariate and multivariate Cox analyses of TGF-β1 and survivin protein expression were performed to analyze the overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) rates of patients with TNBC and non-TNBC. Although multivariate Cox analysis demonstrated that neither TGF-β1 or survivin were independent prognostic predictors of TNBC or non-TNBC, results of the K-M curve revealed that patients with TNBC with TGF-β1- and survivin-positive breast cancer exhibited shorter OS and PFS times. Multivariate Cox analysis demonstrated that in patients with TNBC, the combined expression of TGF-β1 and survivin may yield additional prognostic information, compared with patients with non-TNBC.

α-Viniferin and ε-Viniferin Inhibited TGF-β1-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition, Migration and Invasion in Lung Cancer Cells through Downregulation of Vimentin Expression

Resveratrol has well-known anticancer properties; however, its oligomers, including α-viniferin, ε-viniferin, and kobophenol A, have not yet been well investigated. This is the first study examining the anti-epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) effects of α-viniferin and ε-viniferin on A549, NCI-H460, NCI-H520, MCF-7, HOS, and U2OS cells. The results showed that α-viniferin and ε-viniferin significantly inhibited EMT, invasion and migration in TGF-β1- or IL-1β-induced non-small cell lung cancer. α-Viniferin and ε-viniferin also reversed TGF-β1-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), MMP2, vimentin, Zeb1, Snail, p-SMAD2, p-SMAD3, and ABCG2 expression in A549 cells. Furthermore, ε-viniferin was found to significantly inhibit lung metastasis in A549 cell xenograft metastatic mouse models. In view of these findings, α-viniferin and ε-viniferin may play an important role in the prevention of EMT and cancer metastasis in lung cancer.

TGF-β-induced FLRT3 attenuation is essential for cancer-associated fibroblast-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition in colorectal cancer

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) constitute a major component of the tumor microenvironment. The effects of CAFs on the progression of colorectal cancer (CRC) remain controversial. In this study, we found the ectopic overexpression of Fibronectin leucine-rich transmembrane protein 3 (FLRT3) inhibited the process of Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), as well as the proliferation, migration, invasion, and promote apoptosis of CRC cells, whereas silencing FLRT3 expression resulted in the opposite phenomenon. FLRT3 downregulation was associated with a poor prognosis in CRC. Also, FLRT3 expression was significantly related to some clinicopathological factors, including T stage (p=0.037), N stage (p=0.042), and E-cadherin (p=0.002) level. Via univariate and multivariate analyses, M stage (p<0.0001), FLRT3 (p=0.044), and E-cadherin (p=0.003) were associated with overall survival and were independent prognostic factors for it. Mechanistically, CAFs secreted TGF-β, which downregulated FLRT3 expression by activating SMAD4 to promote aggressive phenotypes in CRC cells. Moreover, FLRT3 repressed tumorigenesis and lung metastasis, which could be reversed by LY2109761, a dual inhibitor of TGF-β receptor type I and II. Treatment with LY2109761 increased IFN-γ expression in CD8+ T cells and reduced the number of regulatory T cells in the tumor microenvironment. Taken together, we revealed the metastasis-suppressive function of FLRT3, which was attenuated during the CAFs-mediated activation of the TGF-β/SMAD4 signaling pathway to promote EMT in CRC. LY2109761 that significantly inhibited metastasis could be a new treatment option for advanced CRC. Implications: CAFs enhance CRC aggressiveness by reducing FLRT3 expression through activating TGF-β/SMAD4 signaling pathway. CAFs-targeted therapy and/or LY2109761 were promising treatments for CRC.

Targeting transforming growth factor-β signalling for cancer prevention and intervention: Recent advances in developing small molecules of natural origin

BACKGROUND

Cancer is the world's second leading cause of death, but a significant advancement in cancer treatment has been achieved within the last few decades. However, major adverse effects and drug resistance associated with standard chemotherapy have led towards targeted treatment options.

OBJECTIVES

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling plays a key role in cell proliferation, differentiation, morphogenesis, regeneration, and tissue homeostasis. The prime objective of this review is to decipher the role of TGF-β in oncogenesis and to evaluate the potential of various natural and synthetic agents to target this dysregulated pathway to confer cancer preventive and anticancer therapeutic effects.

METHODS

Various authentic and scholarly databases were explored to search and obtain primary literature for this study. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) criteria was followed for the review.

RESULTS

Here we provide a comprehensive and critical review of recent advances on our understanding of the effect of various bioactive natural molecules on the TGF-β signaling pathway to evaluate their full potential for cancer prevention and therapy.

CONCLUSION

Based on emerging evidence as presented in this work, TGF-β-targeting bioactive compounds from natural sources can serve as potential therapeutic agents for prevention and treatment of various human malignancies.

A concise review on tyrosine kinase targeted cancer therapy

Abstract:

The tyrosine kinase (TK) family is considered one of the important family members of the kinase family due to its important role in various cellular processes like cell growth, cell differentiation, apoptosis, etc. Mutation, overexpression, and dysfunction of tyrosine kinase receptors lead to the development of malignancy; thus, they are considered as one of the important targets for the development of anti-cancer molecules. The tyrosine kinase family is majorly divided into two classes; receptor and non-receptor tyrosine kinase. Both of the classes have an important role in the development of tumour cells. Currently, there are more than 40 FDA-approved tyrosine kinase inhibitors, which are used in the treatment of various types of cancers. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors mainly block the phosphorylation of tyrosine residue of the corresponding kinase substrate and so activation of downstream signalling pathways can be inhibited. The promising results of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in solid tumours provide a revolution in oncology research. In this article, we had summarized the role of some important members of the tyrosine kinase family in the development and progression of tumour cells and the significance of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of various types of cancer.

Prognostic impact of count of extratumoral lymphatic permeation in lung adenocarcinoma and its relation to immune microenvironment

Extratumoral lymphatic permeation (ly‐ext) has been reported as an independent poor prognostic factor for lung adenocarcinoma, but whether or not the number of ly‐ext foci is associated with prognosis and its relationship to the immune microenvironment is unclear. We counted the number of ly‐ext foci on pathological slides from patients with completely resected lung adenocarcinoma with ly‐ext, and divided them into two groups: a group with a high number of ly‐ext foci (ly‐ext high) and one with a low number of ly‐ext foci (ly‐ext low). Among the patients with ly‐ext, only a high number of ly‐ext foci was an independent poor prognostic factor. The 3‐year recurrence‐free survival (RFS) rate of the ly‐ext high group was significantly lower than that of the ly‐ext low group (14.7% vs. 50.0%, P < 0.01). Then, we analyzed the immune microenvironment of pT1 lung adenocarcinoma with ly‐ext (13 cases of ly‐ext high and 11 cases of ly‐ext low tumor) by immunohistochemistry using antibodies for stem cell markers (aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 A1 and CD44), tumor‐promoting mucin (MUC1), tumor‐infiltrating lymphocytes (CD4, CD8, FOXP3, and CD79a), and tumor‐associated macrophages (CD204). The number of CD8+ TILs within the primary lesion was significantly lower and the number of FOXP3+ TILs within the primary lesion was significantly higher in the ly‐ext high group (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01, respectively). Our results indicated that a high number of ly‐ext foci was an independent poor prognostic factor. Moreover, tumors with high numbers of ly‐ext foci had a more immunosuppressive microenvironment.

TGF-β1 in Seminal Plasma Promotes Endometrial Mesenchymal Stem Cell Growth via p42/44 and Akt Pathway in Patients With or Without Endometriosis

The cause of endometriosis, which is characterized by the existence of functional endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity, is poorly understood. Seminal plasma (SP) is rich in multiple cytokines that may promote endometrial tissue survival. Here, we evaluated the effect of SP on growth of endometrial mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from women with endometriosis (E-MSCs) and women without endometriosis (NE-MSCs). Proliferation, cell foci formation, cell cycle progression, and growth marker expression of E- and NE-MSCs were promoted by SP. These effects may be mediated through activation of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), Akt, and p42/44 signaling, which enhances CDK2 and CDK6 expression and accelerates cell cycle progression. Xenografts exposed to SP exhibited a three-fold increase in volume and four-fold increase in weight after 14 days. Our findings demonstrate that TGF-β1 in SP may promote endometrial tissue survival which will allow us to understand the pathogenesis and develop novel approaches for prevention and therapies of endometriosis.

PD-1/PD-L1, Treg-related proteins, and tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes are associated with the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma

Cancer immunomodulation has been implicated in the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), however the role of specific immunomodulatory proteins is not completely understood, particularly in the early stages of the disease. Oral potentially malignant disorders such as leukoplakia commonly precede OSCC but not all will undergo malignant transformation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic utility of specific immunomodulator proteins and their role in the progression of OSCC. Samples from 101 patients were included in the study. Cases were classified based on histopathology into four groups: non-dysplastic epithelial hyperplasia/keratosis, low-grade dysplasia, high-grade dysplasia, and OSCC. The PD-1/PD-L1 pathway, as well as regulatory T cell (Treg)-related proteins including FOXP3, TGF-β, IL-6, and IL-10 were immunohistochemically quantified. The number of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) was also assessed for each case. Multinominal regression models were undertaken to assess the significance of each protein in predicting the histopathological grade of oral epithelial disorders, and three diagnostic models were assessed. Significant positive associations were found between the immunoreactive score of each protein and the histopathological grade, p<0.05 suggesting that the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway, Treg-related proteins, and TILs are associated with the development of OSCC. Diagnostic models using the investigated proteins and TILs predicted the grade of oral epithelial disorder, p<0.05. The associated accuracy of this approach was 84.92%. Our findings support the notion that immunomodulation events may play a role in evading the immune system and contributing to potential malignant transformation of oral epithelial disorders. Our data also provide supporting evidence for the potential application of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the chemoprevention of OSCC. Further longitudinal studies to assess individual T-cell populations within the immune microenvironment of various oral potentially malignant disorders are warranted.

Genetic variation of TGF-ΒR2 as a protective genotype for the development of colorectal cancer in men

BACKGROUND

The role of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling, including both the cytokine and their receptors, in the etiology of colorectal cancer (CRC) has been of particular interest lately.

AIM

To investigate the association between promoter polymorphism in TGF-β receptor 2 TGF-ΒR2G^[-875]A with a CRC risk in a cohort of Bulgarian patients using a case-control gene association study approach, as well as the protein levels of TGF-β1 in the peripheral blood.

METHODS

A cohort of 184 CRC patients and 307 sex and age-matched healthy subjects were recruited in the study. A genotyping of the TGF-ΒR2G^[-875]A (rs3087465) polymorphism was performed by primer-introduced restriction analyses-polymerase chain reaction approaches.

RESULTS

The frequency of TGF-ΒR2G^[-875]A genotype was decreased in male patients with CRC than in healthy men (31.3% vs 44.8%; P = 0.058). Among males, the TGF-ΒR2G^[-509]G genotype was related to a significantly increased risk of CRC development (OR = 1.820, 95%CI: 0.985-3.362, P = 0.055) than the GA + AA genotype. Also, TGF-ΒR2^[-875]*A-allele itself was rarer in men with CRC than healthy men (19.1% vs 26.9%, P = 0.086) and was associated with a protective effect (OR = 0.644; 95%CI: 0.389-1.066; P = 0.086). Regarding the genotypes, we found that TGF-β1 serum levels were higher in GG genotype in healthy persons above 50 years than the CRC patients [36.3 ng/mL interquartile range (IQR) 19.9-56.5 vs 22.4 ng/mL IQR 14.8-29.7, P = 0.014]. We found significant differences between higher levels of TGF-β1 serum levels in healthy controls above 50 years (GG genotype) and CRC patients (GG genotype) at the early stage (36.3 ng/mL IQR 19.9-56.5 vs 22.8 ng/mL IQR 14.6-28.6, P = 0.037) and advanced CRC (36.3 ng/mL IQR 19.9-56.5 vs 21.6 ng/mL IQR 15.9-33.9, P = 0.039).

CONCLUSION

In summary, our results demonstrated that TGF-ΒR2 AG and AA genotypes were associated with a reduced risk of CRC, as well as circulating levels of TGF-β could prevent CRC development in a gender-specific manner. Notably, male carriers of TGF-ΒR2 -875A allele genotypes had a lower risk of CRC development and progression, suggesting that TGF-ΒR2 -875A/G polymorphism significantly affects the protective biological factors that also impact the risk of colon and rectal carcinogenesis.

Cellular senescence as a possible link between prostate diseases of the ageing male

Senescent cells accumulate with age in all tissues. Although senescent cells undergo cell-cycle arrest, these cells remain metabolically active and their secretome - known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype - is responsible for a systemic pro-inflammatory state, which contributes to an inflammatory microenvironment. Senescent cells can be found in the ageing prostate and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype and can be linked to BPH and prostate cancer. Indeed, a number of signalling pathways provide biological plausibility for the role of senescence in both BPH and prostate cancer, although proving causality is difficult. The theory of senescence as a mechanism for prostate disease has a number of clinical implications and could offer opportunities for targeting in the future.

Changes in Wnt and TGF-β Signaling Mediate the Development of Regorafenib Resistance in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line HuH7

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive, chemo resistant neoplasm with poor prognosis and limited treatment options. Exploring activated pathways upon drug treatment can be used to discover more effective anticancer agents to overcome therapy resistance and enhance therapeutic outcomes for patients with advanced HCC. Human tumor-derived cell lines recapitulate HCC diversity and are widely used for studying mechanisms that drive drug resistance in HCC. In this study, we show that regorafenib treatment activates Wnt/β-catenin signaling only in hepatoblast-like HCC cell lines and induces enrichment of markers associated with hepatic stem/progenitor cells. Moreover, activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling via Wnt3a/R-Spo1 treatment protects these cells from regorafenib induced apoptosis. On the other hand, regorafenib resistant cells established by long-term regorafenib treatment demonstrate diminished Wnt/β-catenin signaling activity while TGF-β signaling activity of these cells is significantly enhanced. Regorafenib resistant cells (RRCs) also show increased expression of several mesenchymal genes along with an induction of CD24 and CD133 cancer stem cell markers. Moreover, regorafenib resistant cells also exhibit significantly augmented in vitro and in vivo migration capacity which could be reversed by TGF-β type 1 receptor (TGFb -R1) inhibition. When combined with regorafenib treatment, TGFβ-R1 inhibition also significantly decreased colony formation ability and augmented cell death in resistant spheroids. Importantly, when we knocked down TGFβ-R1 using a lentiviral plasmid, regorafenib resistant cells entered senescence indicating that this pathway is important for their survival. Treatment of RRCs with TGFβ-R1 inhibitor and regorafenib significantly abolished pSTAT3, pSMAD2 and pERK (44/42) expression suggesting the involvement of both canonical and non-canonical pathways. In conclusion, our data suggest that HCC tumors with aberrant activation in the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, might have higher intrinsic regorafenib resistance and the inhibition of this pathway along with regorafenib administration might increase regorafenib-induced cell death in combinational therapies. However, to resolve acquired regorafenib resistance developed in HCC patients, the combined use of TGF-β pathway inhibitors and Regorafenib constitute a promising approach that can increase regorafenib sensitization and prevent tumor recurrence.

A mesenchymal-like subpopulation in non-neuroendocrine SCLC contributes to metastasis

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is the most aggressive lung cancer with high heterogeneity. Mouse SCLC cells derived from the Rb1L/L/Trp53L/L (RP) autochthonous mouse model grew as adhesion or suspension in cell culture, and the adhesion cells are defined as non-neuroendocrine (non-NE) SCLC cells. Here, we uncover the heterogenous subpopulations within the non-NE cells and referred to them as mesenchymal-like (Mes) and epithelial-like (Epi) SCLC cells. The Mes cells have increased capability to form colonies in soft agar and harbored stronger metastatic capability in vivo when compared with the Epi cells. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis reveals that the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling is enriched in the Mes cells. Importantly, inhibition of the TGF-β signaling through ectopic expression of dominant-negative Tgfbr2 (Tgfbr2-DN) or treatment with Tgfbr1 inhibitor SD-208 consistently abrogates tumor metastasis in nude mouse allograft assays. Moreover, genetic deletion of Tgfbr2 or Smad4, the key components of the TGF-β signaling pathway, dramatically attenuates SCLC metastasis in the RP autochthonous mouse model. Collectively, our results uncover the high heterogeneity in non-NE SCLC cells and highlight an important role of TGF-β signaling in promoting SCLC metastasis.

TGF-β/Smad Signalling in Neurogenesis: Implications for Neuropsychiatric Diseases

TGF-β/Smad signalling has been the subject of extensive research due to its role in the cell cycle and carcinogenesis. Modifications to the TGF-β/Smad signalling pathway have been found to produce disparate effects on neurogenesis. We review the current research on canonical and non-canonical TGF-β/Smad signalling pathways and their functions in neurogenesis. We also examine the observed role of neurogenesis in neuropsychiatric disorders and the relationship between TGF-β/Smad signalling and neurogenesis in response to stressors. Overlapping mechanisms of cell proliferation, neurogenesis, and the development of mood disorders in response to stressors suggest that TGF-β/Smad signalling is an important regulator of stress response and is implicated in the behavioural outcomes of mood disorders.

Differential Impact of TGFB1 Variation by Metastatic Status in Androgen-Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer

Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) plays a dual role in cancer, acting as a tumor suppressor in the early stage of cancer development and as a tumor promoter in the later stage of cancer progression in various cancers. In this study, we investigated the association between genetic polymorphisms in TGFB1 and clinicopathological characteristics or oncological outcome in prostate cancer cases treated with androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) according to metastasis status. Japanese male patients with hormone-sensitive prostate cancer treated with ADT from 1993 to 2005 were included in this study. Genomic DNA was obtained from whole blood samples, and genotyping of TGFB1 (rs2241716 and rs4803455) was performed by PCR-based technique. No significant association between genetic polymorphisms in TGFB1 (rs2241716 and rs4803455) and clinicopathological parameters or prognosis was observed in patients with non-metastatic disease. In patients with metastatic disease, Gleason score in CT/TT carriers (rs2241716) and CA/AA carriers (rs4803455) was unfavorable compared with CC carriers. In addition, the CT/TT alleles in rs2241716 (hazard ratio, 1.82; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-2.94; P = 0.015) and the CA/AA alleles in rs4803455 (hazard ratio, 1.75; 95% confidence interval, 1.03-2.98; P = 0.040) were associated with a higher risk of progression during ADT compared with the CC allele in patients with metastatic disease. TGFB1 genetic variations were associated with adverse characteristics and progression risk in ADT among patients with metastatic disease, but not those with non-metastatic disease, supporting a distinct role of TGF-β signaling between non-metastatic and metastatic prostate cancer.

p62/Sequestosome 1 regulates transforming growth factor beta signaling and epithelial to mesenchymal transition in A549 cells

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) receptor trafficking regulates many TGFβ-dependent cellular outcomes including epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT in A549 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells has recently been linked to the regulation of cellular autophagy. Here, we investigated the role of the autophagy cargo receptor, p62/sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1), in regulating TGFβ receptor trafficking, TGFβ1-dependent Smad2 phosphorylation and EMT in A549 NSCLC cells. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, p62/SQSTM1 was observed to co-localize with TGFβ receptors in the late endosome. Small interfering RNA (SiRNA)-mediated silencing of p62/SQSTM1 resulted in an attenuated time-course of Smad2 phosphorylation but did not alter Smad2 nuclear translocation. However, p62/SQSTM1 silencing promoted TGFβ1-dependent EMT marker expression, actin stress fiber formation and A549 cell migration. We further observed that Smad4-independent TGFβ1 signaling decreased p62/SQSTM1 protein levels via a proteasome-dependent mechanism. Although p62/SQSTM1 silencing did not impede TGFβ-dependent autophagy, our results suggest that p62/SQSTM1 may aid in maintaining A549 cells in an epithelial state and TGFβ1 decreases p62/SQSTM1 prior to inducing EMT and autophagy.

Tgf-β1 transcriptionally promotes 90K expression: possible implications for cancer progression

The 90K protein, also known as Mac-2 BP or LGALS3BP, can activate the immune response in part by increasing major histocompatibility (MHC) class I levels. In studies on a non-immune cell model, the rat FRTL-5 cell line, we observed that transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, like γ-interferon (IFN), increased 90K levels, despite its immunosuppressive functions and the ability to decrease MHC class I. To explain this paradoxical result, we investigated the mechanisms involved in the TGF-β1 regulation of 90K expression with the aim to demonstrate that TGF-β1 utilizes different molecular pathways to regulate the two genes. We found that TGF-β1 was able to increase the binding of Upstream Stimulatory Factors, USF1 and USF2, to an E-box element, CANNTG, at -1926 to -1921 bp, upstream of the interferon response element (IRE) in the 90K promoter. Thyrotropin (TSH) suppressed constitutive and γ-IFN-induced 90K expression by decreasing USF binding to the E-box. TGF-β1 was able to overcome TSH suppression at the transcriptional level by increasing USF binding to the E-box. We suggest that the ability of TGF-β1 to increase 90K did not result in an increase in MHC class I because of a separate suppressive action of TGF-β1 directly on the MHC class I gene. We propose that the increased levels of 90K may play a role, rather than in immune response, in the context of the TGF-β1-induced changing of the cellular microenvironment that predisposes to cell motility and cancer progression. Consistently, analyzing the publicly available cancer patient data sets cBioPortal, we found that 90K expression directly correlated with TGF-β1 and USFs and that high levels of 90K were significantly associated with increased mortality in patients affected by different types of cancer.

A tumor-specific mechanism of Treg enrichment mediated by the integrin αvβ8

Regulatory T cells (T_regs) that promote tumor immune evasion are enriched in certain tumors and correlate with poor prognosis. However, mechanisms for T_reg enrichment remain incompletely understood. We described a mechanism for T_reg enrichment in mouse and human tumors mediated by the αvβ8 integrin. Tumor cell αvβ8 bound to latent transforming growth factor-β (L-TGF-β) presented on the surface of T cells, resulting in TGF-β activation and immunosuppressive T_reg differentiation in vitro. In vivo, tumor cell αvβ8 expression correlated with T_reg enrichment, immunosuppressive T_reg gene expression, and increased tumor growth, which was reduced in mice by αvβ8 inhibition or T_reg depletion. Structural modeling and cell-based studies suggested a highly geometrically constrained complex forming between αvβ8-expressing tumor cells and L-TGF-β-expressing T cells, facilitating TGF-β activation, independent of release and diffusion, and providing limited access to TGF-β inhibitors. These findings suggest a highly localized tumor-specific mechanism for T_reg enrichment.

The Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transcription Factor SNAI1 Represses Transcription of the Tumor Suppressor miRNA let-7 in Cancer

Simple Summary

When cells undergo epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) they gain characteristics of stem cells. We investigated the mechanism by which the EMT transcription factor SNAI1 induces stem cell features. In these studies, we observed that SNAI1 represses a microRNA that maintains differentiation, let-7. This microRNA is lost in cancer, and its loss correlates with poor prognosis. In breast, pancreatic, and ovarian cancer cell lines the cell stemness in increased by SNAI1 overexpression and reduced by SNAI1 knockdown. We extended the ovarian cancer results to patient-derived cells, and to a mouse xenograft model. In mice, we used nanoparticles to deliver small RNAs (RNAi) targeting SNAI1, resulting in restoration of let-7 levels, inhibition of stemness, and reduced tumor burden. Our studies validate nanoparticle-delivered RNAi targeting SNAI1 as a clinically relevant approach.

Abstract

We aimed to determine the mechanism of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT)-induced stemness in cancer cells. Cancer relapse and metastasis are caused by rare stem-like cells within tumors. Studies of stem cell reprogramming have linked let-7 repression and acquisition of stemness with the EMT factor, SNAI1. The mechanisms for the loss of let-7 in cancer cells are incompletely understood. In four carcinoma cell lines from breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, and ovarian cancer and in ovarian cancer patient-derived cells, we analyzed stem cell phenotype and tumor growth via mRNA, miRNA, and protein expression, spheroid formation, and growth in patient-derived xenografts. We show that treatment with EMT-promoting growth factors or SNAI1 overexpression increased stemness and reduced let-7 expression, while SNAI1 knockdown reduced stemness and restored let-7 expression. Rescue experiments demonstrate that the pro-stemness effects of SNAI1 are mediated via let-7. In vivo, nanoparticle-delivered siRNA successfully knocked down SNAI1 in orthotopic patient-derived xenografts, accompanied by reduced stemness and increased let-7 expression, and reduced tumor burden. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated that SNAI1 binds the promoters of various let-7 family members, and luciferase assays revealed that SNAI1 represses let-7 transcription. In conclusion, the SNAI1/let-7 axis is an important component of stemness pathways in cancer cells, and this study provides a rationale for future work examining this axis as a potential target for cancer stem cell-specific therapies.

Study of TNF-α, IFN-γ, TGF-β, IL-6, and IL-10 Gene Polymorphism in Individuals from the Leprosy-Endemic Area in the Brazilian Amazon

This study aimed at verifying the relationship between the polymorphisms of the cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) -308 G → A (rs1800629); interferon gamma (IFN-γ) +874 T → A (rs2430561); transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) códon 10 (rs1982073) and códon 25 (rs1800471); interleukin (IL)-6 - 174 G → C (rs180079) and IL-10 - 1082 A→T (rs1800896); -819 C → T (rs1800871); -592 A→C (rs1800872); and leprosy. Blood samples were analyzed from 106 individuals, of whom 24 were paucibacillary (PB), 28 were multibacillary (MB), and 54 were patient contacts. Analysis of cytokine polymorphisms was typified by the polymerase chain reaction technique. For TGF-β +869 T → C and +915 G→C, a tendency to associate the presence of the C allele at codon 10 with leprosy was demonstrated, with the T allele being most frequently found in the CCOSI (P = 0.056). For the polymorphisms IL-10 - 1082 A→T, -819 C→T, and -592 A→C, we found an association of the GCC/GCC genotype with the susceptibility to the disease and the A allele at position 1082 with the leprosy protection. Greater predominance was found of ACC/ATA (31.3%) and GCC/ATA (37.5%) (P = 0.03) and the A allele at position -1082 (76.85%) (P = 0.043) in the CCOSI groups, whereas the GCC/GCC was found in the MB group (22.2%) (P = 0.05). For the other cytokines's single-nucleotide polymorphisms, there were no associations with susceptibility to leprosy. These results are limited by sample size, may not be conclusive, and will need further confirmation in a larger cohort.

Cytotoxic T cells isolated from healthy donors and cancer patients kill TGFβ-expressing cancer cells in a TGFβ-dependent manner

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) is a highly potent immunosuppressive cytokine. Although TGFβ is a tumor suppressor in early/premalignant cancer lesions, the cytokine has several tumor-promoting effects in advanced cancer; abrogation of the antitumor immune response is one of the most important tumor-promoting effects. As several immunoregulatory mechanisms have recently been shown to be targets of specific T cells, we hypothesized that TGFβ is targeted by naturally occurring specific T cells and thus could be a potential target for immunomodulatory cancer vaccination. Hence, we tested healthy donor and cancer patient T cells for spontaneous T-cell responses specifically targeting 38 20-mer epitopes derived from TGFβ1. We identified numerous CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses against several epitopes in TGFβ. Additionally, several ex vivo responses were identified. By enriching specific T cells from different donors, we produced highly specific cultures specific to several TGFβ-derived epitopes. Cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell clones specific for both a 20-mer epitope and a 9-mer HLA-A2 restricted killed epitope peptide were pulsed in HLA-A2+ target cells and killed the HLA-A2+ cancer cell lines THP-1 and UKE-1. Additionally, stimulation of THP-1 cancer cells with cytokines that increased TGFβ expression increased the fraction of killed cells. In conclusion, we have shown that healthy donors and cancer patients harbor CD4+ and CD8+ T cells specific for TGFβ-derived epitopes and that cytotoxic T cells with specificity toward TGFβ-derived epitopes are able to recognize and kill cancer cell lines in a TGFβ-dependent manner.

Computed tomography-based deep-learning prediction of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy treatment response in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Deep learning is promising to predict treatment response. We aimed to evaluate and validate the predictive performance of the CT-based model using deep learning features for predicting pathologic complete response to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (nCRT) in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients were retrospectively enrolled between April 2007 and December 2018 from two institutions. We extracted deep learning features of six pre-trained convolutional neural networks, respectively, from pretreatment CT images in the training cohort (n = 161). Support vector machine was adopted as the classifier. Validation was performed in an external testing cohort (n = 70). We assessed the performance using the area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) and selected an optimal model, which was compared with a radiomics model developed from the training cohort. A clinical model consisting of clinical factors only was also built for baseline comparison. We further conducted a radiogenomics analysis using gene expression profiles to reveal underlying biology associated with radiological prediction.

RESULTS

The optimal model with features extracted from ResNet50 achieved an AUC and accuracy of 0.805 (95% CI, 0.696-0.913) and 77.1% (65.6%-86.3%) in the testing cohort, compared with 0.725 (0.605-0.846)) and 67.1% (54.9%-77.9%) for the radiomics model. All the radiological models showed better predictive performance than the clinical model. Radiogenomics analysis suggested a potential association mainly with WNT signaling pathway and tumor microenvironment.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel and noninvasive deep learning approach could provide efficient and accurate prediction of treatment response to nCRT in ESCC, and benefit clinical decision making of therapeutic strategy.

Transcriptomic biomarkers for predicting response to neoadjuvant treatment in oesophageal cancer

Oesophageal cancer is a devastating disease with poor outcomes and is the sixth leading cause of cancer death worldwide. In the setting of resectable disease, there is clear evidence that neoadjuvant chemotherapy and chemoradiotherapy result in improved survival. Disappointingly, only 15%-30% of patients obtain a histopathological response to neoadjuvant therapy, often at the expense of significant toxicity. There are no predictive biomarkers in routine clinical use in this setting and the ability to stratify patients for treatment could dramatically improve outcomes. In this review, we aim to outline current progress in evaluating predictive transcriptomic biomarkers for neoadjuvant therapy in oesophageal cancer and discuss the challenges facing biomarker development in this setting. We place these issues in the wider context of recommendations for biomarker development and reporting. The majority of studies focus on messenger RNA (mRNA) and microRNA (miRNA) biomarkers. These studies report a range of different genes involved in a wide variety of pathways and biological processes, and this is explained to a large extent by the different platforms and analysis methods used. Many studies are also vastly underpowered so are not suitable for identifying a candidate biomarker. Multiple molecular subtypes of oesophageal cancer have been proposed, although little is known about how these relate to clinical outcomes. We anticipate that the accumulating wealth of genomic and transcriptomic data and clinical trial collaborations in the coming years will provide unique opportunities to stratify patients in this poor-prognosis disease and recommend that future biomarker development incorporates well-designed retrospective and prospective analyses.

The Influence of Family History on Stage and Survival of Gastric Cancer According to the <i>TGFB1</i> C-509T Polymorphism in Korea

Background/Aims

The survival rate of gastric cancer (GC) is known to be higher in patients with a family history (FH) of GC. There is an association between a polymorphism in the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFB1) gene and the risk of GC in patients with first-degree relatives with GC. This study was performed to investigate whether a FH affects GC outcomes according to the TGFB1 C-509T polymorphism.

Methods

TGFB1 was genotyped by the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method in 1,143 GC patients, including 216 patients (18.9%) with first-degree relatives with GC.

Results

The proportion of stage I–II GCs was significantly higher in patients with a FH than in those without a FH of GC (83.8 vs 74.9%, p=0.005). The association between a FH of GC and stage I–II GC was not significant in subgroups divided based on the TGFB1 C-509T polymorphism and sex. A FH did not affect the overall survival rate of GC in patient with all stages and each stage. The overall survival rates were not significantly different between patients with the CC and CT/TT genotypes of the TGFB1-509 polymorphism.

Conclusions

Patient with a FH of GC had lower cancer stage (I–II) at diagnosis than those without a FH of GC, but there was no significant difference in overall survival between the patients with and without a FH of GC. A FH did not influence the tumor stage or overall survival in patients stratified by the presence of the TGFB1 C-509T polymorphism.

OSR1 phosphorylates the Smad2/3 linker region and induces TGF-β1 autocrine to promote EMT and metastasis in breast cancer

Oxidative stress-responsive kinase 1 (OSR1) plays a critical role in multiple carcinogenic signal pathways, and its overexpression has been found in various types of cancer; however, the pathophysiological role of OSR1 in breast cancer has not been evaluated. This study aims to elaborate on the role of OSR1 in breast cancer metastasis and the specific regulatory mechanism. Our results showed that OSR1 mRNA and protein were upregulated in both human breast cancer samples and cell lines. Moreover, phosphorylated OSR1 (p-OSR1) was an independent poor prognostic indicator in patients with breast cancer. OSR1 upregulation induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in normal and malignant mammary epithelial cells with the increasing metastatic capacity. In contrast, deleting OSR1 in aggressive breast cancer cells inhibited these phenotypes. OSR1 is the critical activator for transcription factors of EMT. Mechanistically, we found that OSR1 can directly interact and phosphorylate the linker region of Smad2 at Thr220 and Smad3 at Thr179. Phosphorylated Smad2/3 translocated into the nucleus to enhance transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) autocrine signalling and increase the transcription of EMT regulators. Importantly, interruption of the OSR1-Smad2/3-TGF-β1 signalling axis elicited a robust anti-EMT and anti-metastatic effect in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, we conclude that OSR1-mediated Smad2/3-TGF-β1 signalling promotes EMT and metastasis representing a promising therapeutic target in breast cancer treatment.