Growth hormone secretagogues reduce transient outward K+ current via phospholipase C/protein kinase C signaling pathway in rat ventricular myocytes

Heal the heart through gut (hormone) ghrelin: a potential player to combat heart failure

Ghrelin, a small peptide hormone (28 aa), secreted mainly by X/A-like cells of gastric mucosa, is also locally produced in cardiomyocytes. Being an orexigenic factor (appetite stimulant), it promotes release of growth hormone (GH) and exerts diverse physiological functions, viz. regulation of energy balance, glucose, and/or fat metabolism for body weight maintenance. Interestingly, administration of exogenous ghrelin significantly improves cardiac functions in CVD patients as well as experimental animal models of heart failure. Ghrelin ameliorates pathophysiological condition of the heart in myocardial infarction, cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, cachexia, and ischemia reperfusion injury. This peptide also exerts significant impact at the level of vasculature leading to lowering high blood pressure and reversal of endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. However, the molecular mechanism of actions elucidating the healing effects of ghrelin on the cardiovascular system is still a matter of conjecture. Some experimental data indicate its beneficial effects via complex cellular cross talks between autonomic nervous system and cardiovascular cells, some other suggest more direct receptor-mediated molecular actions via autophagy or ionotropic regulation and interfering with apoptotic and inflammatory pathways of cardiomyocytes and vascular endothelial cells. Here, in this review, we summarise available recent data to encourage more research to find the missing links of unknown ghrelin receptor-mediated pathways as we see ghrelin as a future novel therapy in cardiovascular protection.

Hexarelin targets neuroinflammatory pathways to preserve cardiac morphology and function in a mouse model of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion

Acute myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury (IRI) underly the detrimental effects of coronary heart disease on the myocardium. Despite the ongoing advances in reperfusion therapies, there remains a lack of effective therapeutic strategies for preventing IRI. Growth hormone secretagogues (GHS) have been demonstrated to improve cardiac function, attenuate inflammation and modulate the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in models of cardiovascular disease. Recently, we demonstrated a reduction in infarct size after administration of hexarelin (HEX), in a murine model of myocardial infarction. In the present study we employed a reperfused ischemic (IR) model, to determine whether HEX would continue to have a cardioprotective influence in a model of higher clinical relevance. Myocardial ischemia was induced by transient ligation of the left descending coronary artery (tLAD) in C57BL/6 J mice followed by HEX (0.3 mg/kg/day; n = 20) or vehicle (VEH) (n = 18) administration for 21 days, first administered immediately prior-to reperfusion. IR-injured and sham mice were subjected to high-field magnetic resonance imaging to assess left ventricular (LV) function, with HEX-treated mice demonstrating a significant improvement in LV function compared with VEH-treated mice. A significant decrease in interstitial collagen, TGF-β1 expression and myofibroblast differentiation was also seen in the HEX-treated mice after 21 days. HEX treatment shifted the ANS balance towards a parasympathetic predominance; combined with a significant decrease in cardiac troponin-I and TNF-α levels, these findings were suggestive of an anti-inflammatory action on the myocardium mediated via HEX. In this model of IR, HEX appeared to rebalance the deregulated ANS and activate vagal anti-inflammatory pathways to prevent adverse remodelling and LV dysfunction. There are limited interventions focusing on IRI that have been successful in improving clinical outcome in acute myocardial infarction (AMI) patients, this study provides compelling evidence towards the translational potential of HEX where all others have largely failed.

Improvement of cardiomyocyte function by in vivo hexarelin treatment in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is characterized by diastolic and systolic cardiac dysfunction, yet no therapeutic drug to specifically treat it. Hexarelin has been demonstrated to improve heart function in various types of cardiomyopathy via its receptor GHS-R. This experiment aims to test the effect of hexarelin on cardiomyocytes under experimental diabetes. Streptozotocin (STZ, 65 mg/kg)-induced diabetic rat model was employed with vehicle injection group as control. Daily hexarelin (100 μg/kg) treatment was performed for 2 weeks after 4-week STZ-induced diabetes. Cardiomyocytes were isolated by enzyme treatment under O2 -saturated perfusion for single-cell shortening, [Ca2+ ]i transient, and electrophysiology recordings. GHS-R expression and apoptosis-related signaling proteins Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3 and 9, were assessed by western blot. Experimental data demonstrated a reduced cell contraction and relaxation in parallel with depressed rise and fall of [Ca2+ ]i transients in diabetic cardiomyocytes. Hexarelin reversed the changes in both contraction and [Ca2+ ]i . Action potential duration and transient outward potassium current (Ito ) density were dramatically increased in diabetic cardiomyocytes and hexarelin treatment reverse such changes. Upregulated GHS receptor (GHS-R) expression was observed in both control and diabetic groups after hexarelin treatment, which also caused antiapoptotic changes of Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3 and 9 expression. In STZ-induced diabetic rats, hexarelin is able to improve cardiomyocyte function through recovery of Ito K+ currents, intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and antiapoptotic signaling pathways.

The cardiovascular action of hexarelin

Hexarelin, a synthetic growth hormone-releasing peptide, can bind to and activate the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR) in the brain similar to its natural analog ghrelin. However, the peripheral distribution of GHSR in the heart and blood vessels suggests that hexarelin might have direct cardiovascular actions beyond growth hormone release and neuroendocrine effects. Furthermore, the non-GHSR CD36 had been demonstrated to be a specific cardiac receptor for hexarelin and to mediate its cardioprotective effects. When compared with ghrelin, hexarelin is chemically more stable and functionally more potent. Therefore, it may be a promising therapeutic agent for some cardiovascular conditions. In this concise review, we discuss the current evidence for the cardiovascular action of hexarelin.

Growth hormone secretagogues exert differential effects on skeletal muscle calcium homeostasis in male rats depending on the peptidyl/nonpeptidyl structure

The orexigenic and anabolic effects induced by ghrelin and the synthetic GH secretagogues (GHSs) are thought to positively contribute to therapeutic approaches and the adjunct treatment of a number of diseases associated with muscle wasting such as cachexia and sarcopenia. However, many questions about the potential utility and safety of GHSs in both therapy and skeletal muscle function remain unanswered. By using fura-2 cytofluorimetric technique, we determined the acute effects of ghrelin, as well as of peptidyl and nonpeptidyl synthetic GHSs on calcium homeostasis, a critical biomarker of muscle function, in isolated tendon-to-tendon male rat skeletal muscle fibers. The synthetic nonpeptidyl GHSs, but not peptidyl ghrelin and hexarelin, were able to significantly increase resting cytosolic calcium [Ca²⁺]i. The nonpeptidyl GHS-induced [Ca²⁺]i increase was independent of GHS-receptor 1a but was antagonized by both thapsigargin/caffeine and cyclosporine A, indicating the involvement of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Evaluation of the effects of a pseudopeptidyl GHS and a nonpeptidyl antagonist of the GHS-receptor 1a together with a drug-modeling study suggest the conclusion that the lipophilic nonpeptidyl structure of the tested compounds is the key chemical feature crucial for the GHS-induced calcium alterations in the skeletal muscle. Thus, synthetic GHSs can have different effects on skeletal muscle fibers depending on their molecular structures. The calcium homeostasis dysregulation specifically induced by the nonpeptidyl GHSs used in this study could potentially counteract the beneficial effects associated with these drugs in the treatment of muscle wasting of cachexia- or other age-related disorders.

Growth hormone secretagogues preserve the electrophysiological properties of mouse cardiomyocytes isolated from in vitro ischemia/reperfusion heart

Ischemic heart diseases often induce cardiac arrhythmia with irregular cardiac action potential (AP). This study aims to demonstrate that GH secretagogues (GHS) ghrelin and its synthetic analog hexarelin can preserve the electrophysiological properties of cardiomyocytes experiencing ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Isolated hearts from adult male mice underwent 20 min global ischemia followed by 30 min reperfusion using a Langendorff apparatus. Ghrelin (10 nM) or hexarelin (1 nM) was administered in the perfusion solution either 10 min before or after ischemia, termed pre- or posttreatments. Cardiomyocytes isolated from these hearts were used for whole-cell patch clamping to measure AP, voltage-gated L-type calcium current (I(CaL)), transient outward potassium current (I(to)), and sodium current (I(Na)). AP amplitude and duration were significantly decreased by I/R, but GHS treatments maintained their normality. GHS treatments prevented the decrease in I(CaL) and I(Na) after I/R, thereby maintaining AP amplitude. Although the significant increase in I(to) after I/R partially explained the shortened AP duration, the normalization of it by GHS treatments might contribute to the preservation of AP duration. Phosphorylated p38 and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase and the downstream active caspase-9 in the cellular apoptosis pathway were significantly increased after I/R but not when GHS treatments were included, whereas phosphorylation of ERK1/2 associated with cell survival showed increase after I/R and a further increase after GHS treatments by binding to its receptor GHS receptor type 1a. These results suggest GHS can not only preserve the electrophysiological properties of cardiomyocytes after I/R but also inhibit cardiomyocyte apoptosis and promote cell survival by modification of MAPK pathways through activating GHS receptor type 1a.

Motilin stimulates preadipocyte proliferation and differentiation and adipocyte lipid storage

Motilin is a circulating gastrointestinal peptide secreted primarily by duodenal mucosal M cells and recognized for its prokinetic effects on gastrointestinal tissues. Little information is available regarding effects on insulin/glucose homeostasis or adipocyte function. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of motilin on adipocyte proliferation, differentiation, lipolysis, and macronutrient uptake in adipocytes. 3T3-L1 cells and primary rat adipocytes were treated acutely and chronically with varying motilin concentrations, and effects were compared with vehicle alone (control), set as 100% for all assays. In preadipocytes, motilin stimulated proliferation ([(3)H]thymidine incorporation) and mitochondrial activity (141 ± 10%, P < 0.001 and 158 ± 10%, respectively, P < 0.001), in a concentration-dependent manner. Chronic supplementation with motilin during differentiation further increased lipogenesis (Oil red O staining 191 ± 27%, P < 0.05) and was associated with an upregulation of PPARγ (148 ± 8%, P < 0.01), C/EBPα (142 ± 17%, P < 0.05), and Cav3 (166 ± 20%, P < 0.05) expression. In mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes motilin increased fatty acid uptake/incorporation (≤ 202 ± 12%; P < 0.01) and glucose uptake (146 ± 9% P < 0.05) and decreased net fatty acid release (maximal -31%, P < 0.05) without influencing total lipolysis (glycerol release). Similar effects were obtained in primary rat adipocytes. Motilin acutely increased expression of PPARγ, CEBPβ, DGAT1, and CD36 while decreasing adiponectin mRNA and secretion. In human adipose tissue, motilin receptor GPR38 correlated with HOMA-IR and GHSR1 (r = 0.876, P < 0.0001). Motilin binding and fatty acid incorporation into adipocytes were inhibited by antagonists MB10 and [D-lys3]-GRP6 and PI 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin. Taken together, these results suggest that motilin may directly influence adipocyte functions by stimulating energy storage.

Effect of desacyl ghrelin, obestatin and related peptides on triglyceride storage, metabolism and GHSR signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Acyl-ghrelin (AG), desacyl-ghrelin (DAG) and obestatin are all derived from the same gene transcript; however their plasma levels do not necessarily change in parallel. The influence of these peptides towards the development of obesity and their direct effects on adipocyte physiology has not been thoroughly investigated. This study was designed to evaluate the direct effects of peptides of the ghrelin family on preadipocyte proliferation, differentiation and adipocyte lipid and glucose metabolism in 3T3-L1 cells. 3T3 cells were treated with physiological peptide concentrations for 1 h to 9 days, and the relevant assays measured. In preadipocytes, AG, GHRP-6 and DAG stimulated proliferation, measured as (3)H-thymidine incorporation (up to 200%, P < 0.05), while all peptides stimulated differentiation (up to 300%, P < 0.01) as compared to standard differentiation conditions. In adipocytes, FA uptake was increased in a concentration-dependent manner especially with obestatin (three- to fourfold, P < 0.001) and DAG (three- to fivefold, P < 0.001). By contrast, glucose transport was unchanged. DAG and obestatin significantly decreased lipolysis measured as non-esterified fatty acid and glycerol release by 50%, P < 0.05-0.01 and 51%, P < 0.01, respectively. Interestingly, DAG stimulation of FA uptake was blocked with GHSR1 antagonist (D-lys(3))-GHRP-6 (P < 0.05), phospholipase C inhibitor U73122 and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin (P < 0.001). Finally, in omental but not subcutaneous human adipose tissue, GHSR1 correlated with BMI (r = 0.549, P < 0.05) and insulin (r = 0.681, P < 0.01). Taken together, these results suggest that ghrelin-related peptides may directly affect adipose tissue metabolism.