Nanoparticles and the immune system

The efficacy of cercarial antigen loaded on nanoparticles as a potential vaccine candidate in Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice

Schistosomiasis is one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality from parasitic diseases. Mass treatment has proven to be insufficient because of repeated infection after treatment and the appearance of strains resistant to drug therapy. Hence, immunization is a new approach to control the disease and limit the pathological consequences of schistosomiasis. To evaluate the prophylactic effect of Cercarial antigen (CAP) loaded on chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) as a potential vaccine against Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice. 130 mice divided into 2 groups were used: Group I: Control groups (50 mice) subdivided into subgroup Ia (10 mice): Non-infected mice (normal control), subgroup Ib (20 mice): Schistosoma infected mice (infected control) and subgroup Ic (20 mice): Non-infected mice receiving NPs only. Group II: Vaccinated group (80 mice) subdivided equally into subgroup IIa (CAP): Received cercarial antigen and subgroup IIb (CAP + CSNP): Received cercarial antigen loaded on chitosan NPs then both vaccinated groups were infected with S. mansoni 3 weeks following the initial vaccination dose. CAP + CSNP and CAP groups showed significant reduction in adult worms count, hepatic egg count, hepatic granulomas number and size in comparison to the infected control group. Elevation of serum IgG and IgM levels, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell frequencies, IL-4, IL-10 and INF-γ levels was more significant in CAP + CSNP group than CAP group. CAP + CSNP is a promising new preparation of Schistosomal antigens that gave better results than immunization with CAP alone. CSNPs enhanced the immune and protective effect of CAP as validated by parasitological, histopathological and immunohistochemical studies.

Unlocking the Potential of Extracellular Vesicles as the Next Generation Therapy: Challenges and Opportunities

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have undergone extensive investigation for their potential therapeutic applications, primarily attributed to their paracrine activity. Recently, researchers have been exploring the therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by MSCs.

METHODS

MEDLINE/PubMed and Google scholar databases were used for the selection of literature. The keywords used were mesenchymal stem cells, extracellular vesicles, clinical application of EVs and challenges EVs production.

RESULTS

These EVs have demonstrated robust capabilities in transporting intracellular cargo, playing a critical role in facilitating cell-to-cell communication by carrying functional molecules, including proteins, RNA species, DNAs, and lipids. Utilizing EVs as an alternative to stem cells offers several benefits, such as improved safety, reduced immunogenicity, and the ability to traverse biological barriers. Consequently, EVs have emerged as an increasingly attractive option for clinical use.

CONCLUSION

From this perspective, this review delves into the advantages and challenges associated with employing MSC-EVs in clinical settings, with a specific focus on their potential in treating conditions like lung diseases, cancer, and autoimmune disorders.

Functionalized nanoparticles to deliver nucleic acids to the brain for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Brain-targeted gene delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a significant challenge in the 21st century for the healthcare sector, particularly in developing an effective treatment strategy against Alzheimer's disease (AD). The Internal architecture of the brain capillary endothelium restricts bio-actives entry into the brain. Additionally, therapy with nucleic acids faces challenges like vulnerability to degradation by nucleases and potential immune responses. Functionalized nanocarrier-based gene delivery approaches have resulted in safe and effective platforms. These nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated efficacy in protecting nucleic acids from degradation, enhancing transport across the BBB, increasing bioavailability, prolonging circulation time, and regulating gene expression of key proteins involved in AD pathology. We provided a detailed review of several nanocarriers and targeting ligands such as cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), endogenous proteins, and antibodies. The utilization of functionalized NPs extends beyond a singular system, serving as a versatile platform for customization in related neurodegenerative diseases. Only a few numbers of bioactive regimens can go through the BBB. Thus, exploring functionalized NPs for brain-targeted gene delivery is of utmost necessity. Currently, genes are considered high therapeutic potential molecules for altering any disease-causing gene. Through surface modification, nanoparticulate systems can be tailored to address various diseases by replacing the target-specific molecule on their surface. This review article presents several nanoparticulate delivery systems, such as lipid NPs, polymeric micelles, exosomes, and polymeric NPs, for nucleic acids delivery to the brain and the functionalization strategies explored in AD research.

Drug-Loaded Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Enhance Antitumor Immunotherapy by Regulating MDSCs

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are recognized as major immune suppressor cells in the tumor microenvironment that may inhibit immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. Here, we developed a Stattic-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticle (PEG-MSN-Stattic) delivery system to tumor sites to reduce the number of MDSCs in tumors. This approach is able to significantly deplete intratumoral MSDCs and thereby increase the infiltration of T lymphocytes in tumors to enhance ICB therapy. Our approach may provide a drug delivery strategy for regulating the tumor microenvironment and enhancing cancer immunotherapy efficacy.

Immunomodulatory and immune-toxicological role of nanoparticles: Potential therapeutic applications

Nowadays, Nanoparticle-based immunotherapeutic research has invoked global interest due to their unique properties. The immune system is a shielding structure that defends living things from external threats. Before the use of any materials in drug design, it is essential to study the immunological response to avoid triggering undesirable immune responses in the body. This review tries to summarize the properties, various applications, and immunotherapeutic aspects of NP-induced immunomodulation relating to therapeutic development and toxicity in human health. The role of NPs in the immune system and their modulatory functions, resulting in immunosuppression or immunostimulation, exerts benefits or dangers depending on their compositions, sizes, surface chemistry, and so forth. After NPs enter into the body, they can interact with body fluid exposing, them to different body proteins to form protein corona particles and other bio-molecules (DNA, RNA, sugars, etc.), which may alter their bioactivity. Phagocytes are the first immune cells that can interact with foreign materials including nanoparticles. Immunostimulation and immunosuppression operate in two distinct manners. Overall, functionalized nanocarriers optimized various therapeutic implications by stimulating the host immune system and regulating the tranquility of the host immune system. Among others, toxicity and bio-clearance of nanomaterials are always prime concerns at the preclinical and clinical stages before final approval. The interaction of nanoparticles with immune cells causes direct cell damage via apoptosis and necroses as well as immune signaling pathways also become influenced.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Synergistic Chemoimmunotherapy for Cancer Treatment

Until now, there has been a lack of effective strategies for cancer treatment. Immunotherapy has high potential in treating several cancers but its efficacy is limited as a monotherapy. Chemoimmunotherapy (CIT) holds promise to be widely used in cancer treatment. Therefore, identifying their involvement and potential synergy in CIT approaches is decisive. Nano-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) are ideal delivery systems because they can simultaneously target immune cells and cancer cells, promoting drug accumulation, and reducing the toxicity of the drug. In this review, we first introduce five current immunotherapies, including immune checkpoint blocking (ICB), adoptive cell transfer therapy (ACT), cancer vaccines, oncolytic virus therapy (OVT) and cytokine therapy. Subsequently, the immunomodulatory effects of chemotherapy by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD), promoting tumor killer cell infiltration, down-regulating immunosuppressive cells, and inhibiting immune checkpoints have been described. Finally, the NDDSs-mediated collaborative drug delivery systems have been introduced in detail, and the development of NDDSs-mediated CIT nanoparticles has been prospected.

The Therapeutic Potential of Harpagophytum procumbens and Turnera subulata and Advances in Nutraceutical Delivery Systems in Neurodegenerative Diseases

This review article covers the therapeutic potential of the plants Harpagophytum procumbens and Turnera subulata in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the recognition of their beneficial properties, there is notable shortage of specific clinical and in vitro studies on these species regarding neurodegenerative diseases. Compounds such as harpagosides and vite-xin-2-O-rhamnoside, found in Harpagophytum procumbens and Turnera subulata, respectively, as well as other antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents, are associated with mechanisms of action that involve reducing oxidative stress and modulating the inflammatory response, indicating their therapeutic potential in these pathologies. Additionally, the use of nutraceuticals derived from medicinal plants has emerged as a promising approach, offering natural therapeutic alternatives. However, the pressing need for studies focusing on the pharmacokinetics, safety, and pharmacological interactions of these extracts for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is emphasized. This review also evaluated advances in nutraceutical delivery systems, highlighting technological innovations that can optimize the precise delivery of these compounds to patients. Such findings highlight the gaps in the study of these plants for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and, at the same time, the potential for opening new perspectives in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, providing expectations for innovative solutions in this critical domain of medicine.

Biomaterial strategies for regulating the neuroinflammatory response

Injury and disease in the central nervous system (CNS) can result in a dysregulated inflammatory environment that inhibits the repair of functional tissue. Biomaterials present a promising approach to tackle this complex inhibitory environment and modulate the mechanisms involved in neuroinflammation to halt the progression of secondary injury and promote the repair of functional tissue. In this review, we will cover recent advances in biomaterial strategies, including nanoparticles, hydrogels, implantable scaffolds, and neural probe coatings, that have been used to modulate the innate immune response to injury and disease within the CNS. The stages of inflammation following CNS injury and the main inflammatory contributors involved in common neurodegenerative diseases will be discussed, as understanding the inflammatory response to injury and disease is critical for identifying therapeutic targets and designing effective biomaterial-based treatment strategies. Biomaterials and novel composites will then be discussed with an emphasis on strategies that deliver immunomodulatory agents or utilize cell-material interactions to modulate inflammation and promote functional tissue repair. We will explore the application of these biomaterial-based strategies in the context of nanoparticle- and hydrogel-mediated delivery of small molecule drugs and therapeutic proteins to inflamed nervous tissue, implantation of hydrogels and scaffolds to modulate immune cell behavior and guide axon elongation, and neural probe coatings to mitigate glial scarring and enhance signaling at the tissue-device interface. Finally, we will present a future outlook on the growing role of biomaterial-based strategies for immunomodulation in regenerative medicine and neuroengineering applications in the CNS.

On the uncertainty of the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and biodistribution

The specific delivery of a drug to its site of action also known as targeted drug delivery is a topic in the field of pharmaceutics studied for decades. One approach extensively investigated in this context is the use ligand functionalized nanoparticles. These particles are modified to carry receptor specific ligands, enabling them to accumulate at a desired target site. However, while this concept initially appears straightforward to implement, in-depth research has revealed several challenges hindering target site specific particle accumulation - some of which remain unresolved to this day. One of these challenges consists in the still incomplete understanding of how nanoparticles interact with biological systems. This knowledge gap significantly compromises the predictability of particle distribution in biological systems, which is critical for therapeutic efficacy. One of the most crucial steps in delivery is the attachment of nanoparticles to cells at the target site. This attachment occurs via the formation of multiple ligand receptor bonds. A process also referred to as multivalent interaction. While multivalency has been described extensively for individual molecules and macromolecules respectively, little is known on the multivalent binding of nanoparticles to cells. Here, we will specifically introduce the concept of avidity as a measure for favorable particle membrane interactions. Also, an overview about nanoparticle and membrane properties affecting avidity will be given. Thereafter, we provide a thorough review on literature investigating the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and success in targeted particle delivery. In particular, we want to analyze the currently uncertain data on the existence and nature of the correlation between particle avidity and biodistribution.

Vaccines as Immunotherapies for Substance Use Disorders

Substance use disorders (SUD) present a worldwide challenge with few effective therapies except for the relative efficacy of opioid pharmacotherapies, despite limited treatment access. However, the proliferation of illicit fentanyl use initiated a dramatic and cascading epidemic of lethal overdoses. This rise in fentanyl overdoses regenerated an interest in vaccine immunotherapy, which, despite an optimistic start in animal models over the past 50 years, yielded disappointing results in human clinical trials of vaccines against nicotine, stimulants (cocaine and methamphetamine), and opioids. After a brief review of clinical and selected preclinical vaccine studies, the "lessons learned" from the previous vaccine clinical trials are summarized, and then the newest challenge of a vaccine against fentanyl and its analogs is explored. Animal studies have made significant advances in vaccine technology for SUD treatment over the past 50 years, and the resulting anti-fentanyl vaccines show remarkable promise for ending this epidemic of fentanyl deaths.

Design of nanoparticle-based systems for the systemic delivery of chemotherapeutics: Alternative potential routes via sublingual and buccal administration for systemic drug delivery

Conventional therapeutic approaches for cancer generally involve chemo- and radiation therapies that often exhibit low efficacy and induce toxic side effects. Recent years have seen significant advancements in the use of protein biologics as a promising alternative treatment option. Nanotechnology-based systems have shown great potential in providing more specific and targeted cancer treatments, thus improving upon many of the limitations associated with current treatments. The unique properties of biomaterial carriers at the nanoscale have been proven to enhance both the performance of the incorporated therapeutic agent and tumor targeting; however, many of these systems are delivered intravenously, which can cause hazardous side effects. Buccal and sublingual delivery systems offer an alternative route for more efficient delivery of nanotechnologies and drug absorption into systemic circulation. This review concentrates on emerging buccal and sublingual nanoparticle delivery systems for chemo- and protein therapeutics, their development, efficacy, and potential areas of improvement in the field. Several factors contribute to the development of effective buccal or sublingual nanoparticle delivery systems, including targeting efficiency of the nanoparticulate carriers, drug release, and carrier biocompatibility. Furthermore, the potential utilization of buccal and sublingual multilayer films combined with nanoparticle chemotherapeutic systems is outlined as a future avenue for in vitro and in vivo research.

Applications and advancements of nanoparticle-based drug delivery in alleviating lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Lung cancer (LC) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are among the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Cigarette smoking is among the main aetiologic factors for both ailments. These diseases share common pathogenetic mechanisms including inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue remodelling. Current therapeutic approaches are limited by low efficacy and adverse effects. Consequentially, LC has a 5-year survival of < 20%, while COPD is incurable, underlining the necessity for innovative treatment strategies. Two promising emerging classes of therapy against these diseases include plant-derived molecules (phytoceuticals) and nucleic acid-based therapies. The clinical application of both is limited by issues including poor solubility, poor permeability, and, in the case of nucleic acids, susceptibility to enzymatic degradation, large size, and electrostatic charge density. Nanoparticle-based advanced drug delivery systems are currently being explored as flexible systems allowing to overcome these limitations. In this review, an updated summary of the most recent studies using nanoparticle-based advanced drug delivery systems to improve the delivery of nucleic acids and phytoceuticals for the treatment of LC and COPD is provided. This review highlights the enormous relevance of these delivery systems as tools that are set to facilitate the clinical application of novel categories of therapeutics with poor pharmacokinetic properties.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Inhibit Tumor Progression and Suppress Lung Metastases in Mouse Models of Breast Cancer

Systemic exposure to starch-coated iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) can stimulate antitumor T cell responses, even when little IONP is retained within the tumor. Here, we demonstrate in mouse models of metastatic breast cancer that IONPs can alter the host immune landscape, leading to systemic immune-mediated disease suppression. We report that a single intravenous injection of IONPs can inhibit primary tumor growth, suppress metastases, and extend survival. Gene expression analysis revealed the activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways involving signaling via Toll/Interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-β (TRIF), a TLR pathway adaptor protein. Requisite participation of TRIF in suppressing tumor progression was demonstrated with histopathologic evidence of upregulated IFN-regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), a downstream protein, and confirmed in a TRIF knockout syngeneic mouse model of metastatic breast cancer. Neither starch-coated polystyrene nanoparticles lacking iron, nor iron-containing dextran-coated parenteral iron replacement agent, induced significant antitumor effects, suggesting a dependence on the type of IONP formulation. Analysis of multiple independent clinical databases supports a hypothesis that upregulation of TLR3 and IRF3 correlates with increased overall survival among breast cancer patients. Taken together, these data support a compelling rationale to re-examine IONP formulations as harboring anticancer immune (nano)adjuvant properties to generate a therapeutic benefit without requiring uptake by cancer cells.

Surface engineered nanodiamonds: mechanistic intervention in biomedical applications for diagnosis and treatment of cancer

In terms of biomedical tools, nanodiamonds (ND) are a more recent innovation. Their size typically ranges between 4 to 100 nm. ND are produced via a variety of methods and are known for their physical toughness, durability, and chemical stability. Studies have revealed that surface modifications and functionalization have a significant influence on the optical and electrical properties of the nanomaterial. Consequently, surface functional groups of NDs have applications in a variety of domains, including drug administration, gene delivery, immunotherapy for cancer treatment, and bio-imaging to diagnose cancer. Additionally, their biocompatibility is a critical requisite for theirin vivoandin vitrointerventions. This review delves into these aspects and focuses on the recent advances in surface modification strategies of NDs for various biomedical applications surrounding cancer diagnosis and treatment. Furthermore, the prognosis of its clinical translation has also been discussed.

Nanoparticles in tumor microenvironment remodeling and cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy and vaccine development have significantly improved the fight against cancers. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in the clinical delivery of immunomodulatory compounds. The tumor microenvironment (TME), comprising macrophages, fibroblasts, and immune cells, plays a crucial role in immune response modulation. Nanoparticles, engineered to reshape the TME, have shown promising results in enhancing immunotherapy by facilitating targeted delivery and immune modulation. These nanoparticles can suppress fibroblast activation, promote M1 macrophage polarization, aid dendritic cell maturation, and encourage T cell infiltration. Biomimetic nanoparticles further enhance immunotherapy by increasing the internalization of immunomodulatory agents in immune cells such as dendritic cells. Moreover, exosomes, whether naturally secreted by cells in the body or bioengineered, have been explored to regulate the TME and immune-related cells to affect cancer immunotherapy. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, activated by pH, redox, and light conditions, exhibit the potential to accelerate immunotherapy. The co-application of nanoparticles with immune checkpoint inhibitors is an emerging strategy to boost anti-tumor immunity. With their ability to induce long-term immunity, nanoarchitectures are promising structures in vaccine development. This review underscores the critical role of nanoparticles in overcoming current challenges and driving the advancement of cancer immunotherapy and TME modification.

Using particle dimensionality-based modeling to estimate lung carcinogenicity of 3D printer emissions

The use of 3D printing technologies by industry and consumers is expanding. However, the approaches to assess the risk of lung carcinogenesis from the emissions of 3D printers have not yet been developed. The objective of the study was to demonstrate a methodology for modeling lung cancer risk related to specific exposure levels as derived from an experimental study of 3D printer emissions for various types of filaments (ABS, PLA, and PETG). The emissions of 15 filaments were assessed at varying extrusion temperatures for a total of 23 conditions in a Class 1,000 cleanroom following procedures described by ANSI/CAN/UL 2904. Three approaches were utilized for cancer risk estimation: (a) calculation based on PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations, (b) a proximity assessment based on the pulmonary deposition fraction, and (c) modeling based on the mass-weighted aerodynamic diameter of particles. The combined distribution of emitted particles had the mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 0.35 μm, GSD 2.25. The average concentration of PM2.5 was 25.21 μg/m3 . The spline-based function of aerodynamic diameter allowed us to reconstruct the carcinogenic potential of seven types of fine and ultrafine particles (crystalline silica, fine TiO2 , ultrafine TiO2 , ambient PM2.5 and PM10, diesel particulates, and carbon nanotubes) with a correlation of 0.999, P < 0.00001. The central tendency estimation of lung cancer risk for 3D printer emissions was found at the level of 14.74 cases per 10,000 workers in a typical exposure scenario (average cumulative exposure of 0.3 mg/m3 - years), with the lowest risks for PLA filaments, and the highest for PETG type.

Chia nanoemulsion: anti-inflammatory mechanism, biological behavior and cellular interactions

Aim: This study explores chia oil, rich in ω-3 fatty acids and nutraceutical components, as a potential remedy for diseases, especially those linked to inflammation and cancer. Methods/materials: A chia oil-based nanoemulsion, developed through single emulsification, underwent comprehensive analysis using various techniques. In vitro and in vivo assays, including macrophage polarization, nitrite and cytokine production, cellular uptake and biodistribution, were conducted to assess the anti-inflammatory efficacy. Results & conclusion: Results reveal that the chia nanoemulsion significantly inhibits inflammation, outperforming pure oil with twice the efficacy. Enhanced uptake by macrophage-like cells and substantial accumulation in key organs indicate its potential as an economical and effective anti-inflammatory nanodrug, addressing global economic and health impacts of inflammation-related diseases.

Synthetic Particulate Subunit Vaccines for the Prevention of Q Fever

Coxiella burnetti is an intracellular bacterium that causes Q fever, a disease of worldwide importance. Q-VAX® , the approved human Q fever vaccine, is a whole cell vaccine associated with safety concerns. Here a safe particulate subunit vaccine candidate is developed that is ambient-temperature stable and can be cost-effectively manufactured. Endotoxin-free Escherichia coli is bioengineered to efficiently self-assemble biopolymer particles (BPs) that are densely coated with either strings of 18 T-cell epitopes (COX-BP) or two full-length immunodominant antigens (YbgF-BP-Com1) all derived from C. burnetii. BP vaccine candidates are ambient-temperature stable. Safety and immunogenicity are confirmed in mice and guinea pig (GP) models. YbgF-BP-Com1 elicits specific and strong humoral immune responses in GPs with IgG titers that are at least 1 000 times higher than those induced by Q-VAX® . BP vaccine candidates are not reactogenic. After challenge with C. burnetii, YbgF-BP-Com1 vaccine leads to reduced fever responses and pathogen burden in the liver and the induction of proinflammatory cytokines IL-12 and IFN-γ inducible protein (IP-10) when compared to negative control groups. These data suggest that YbgF-BP-Com1 induces functional immune responses reducing infection by C. burnetii. Collectively, these findings illustrate the potential of BPs as effective antigen carrier for Q fever vaccine development.

The in vitro gastrointestinal digestion-associated protein corona of polystyrene nano- and microplastics increases their uptake by human THP-1-derived macrophages

BACKGROUND

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) represent one of the most widespread environmental pollutants of the twenty-first century to which all humans are orally exposed. Upon ingestion, MNPs pass harsh biochemical conditions within the gastrointestinal tract, causing a unique protein corona on the MNP surface. Little is known about the digestion-associated protein corona and its impact on the cellular uptake of MNPs. Here, we systematically studied the influence of gastrointestinal digestion on the cellular uptake of neutral and charged polystyrene MNPs using THP-1-derived macrophages.

RESULTS

The protein corona composition was quantified using LC‒MS-MS-based proteomics, and the cellular uptake of MNPs was determined using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Gastrointestinal digestion resulted in a distinct protein corona on MNPs that was retained in serum-containing cell culture medium. Digestion increased the uptake of uncharged MNPs below 500 nm by 4.0-6.1-fold but did not affect the uptake of larger sized or charged MNPs. Forty proteins showed a good correlation between protein abundance and MNP uptake, including coagulation factors, apolipoproteins and vitronectin.

CONCLUSION

This study provides quantitative data on the presence of gastrointestinal proteins on MNPs and relates this to cellular uptake, underpinning the need to include the protein corona in hazard assessment of MNPs.

Engineered extracellular vesicles: A new approach for targeted therapy of tumors and overcoming drug resistance

Targeted delivery of anti-tumor drugs and overcoming drug resistance in malignant tumor cells remain significant clinical challenges. However, there are only few effective methods to address these issues. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), actively secreted by cells, play a crucial role in intercellular information transmission and cargo transportation. Recent studies have demonstrated that engineered EVs can serve as drug delivery carriers and showed promising application prospects. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need for further improvements in the isolation and purification of EVs, surface modification techniques, drug assembly processes, and precise recognition of tumor cells for targeted drug delivery purposes. In this review, we summarize the applications of engineered EVs in cancer treatment and overcoming drug resistance, and current challenges associated with engineered EVs are also discussed. This review aims to provide new insights and potential directions for utilizing engineered EVs as targeted delivery systems for anti-tumor drugs and overcoming drug resistance in the near future.

Targeted Nanoparticles: the Smart Way for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a widespread cancer that starts in the digestive tract. It is the third most common cause of cancer deaths around the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates an expected death toll of over 1 million cases annually. The limited therapeutic options as well as the drawbacks of the existing therapies necessitate the development of non-classic treatment approaches. Nanotechnology has led the evolution of valuable drug delivery systems thanks to their ability to control drug release and precisely target a wide variety of cancers. This has also been extended to the treatment of CRC. Herein, we shed light on the pertinent research that has been performed on the potential applications of nanoparticles in the treatment of CRC. The various types of nanoparticles in addition to their properties, applications, targeting approaches, merits, and demerits are discussed. Furthermore, innovative therapies for CRC, including gene therapies and immunotherapies, are also highlighted. Eventually, the research gaps, the clinical potential of such delivery systems, and a future outlook on their development are inspired.

Mannose Ligands for Mannose Receptor Targeting

The mannose receptor (MR, CD 206) is an endocytic receptor primarily expressed by macrophages and dendritic cells, which plays a critical role in both endocytosis and antigen processing and presentation. MR carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs) exhibit a high binding affinity for branched and linear oligosaccharides. Furthermore, multivalent mannose presentation on the various templates like peptides, proteins, polymers, micelles, and dendrimers was proven to be a valuable approach for the selective and efficient delivery of various therapeutically active agents to MR. This review provides a detailed account of the most relevant and recent aspects of the synthesis and application of mannosylated bioactive formulations for MR-mediated delivery in treatments of cancer and other infectious diseases. It further highlights recent findings related to the necessary structural features of the mannose-containing ligands for successful binding to the MR.

The Advancement and Obstacles in Improving the Stability of Nanocarriers for Precision Drug Delivery in the Field of Nanomedicine

Nanocarriers have emerged as a promising class of nanoscale materials in the fields of drug delivery and biomedical applications. Their unique properties, such as high surface area- tovolume ratios and enhanced permeability and retention effects, enable targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to specific tissues or cells. However, the inherent instability of nanocarriers poses significant challenges to their successful application. This review highlights the importance of nanocarrier stability in biomedical applications and its impact on biocompatibility, targeted drug delivery, long shelf life, drug delivery performance, therapeutic efficacy, reduced side effects, prolonged circulation time, and targeted delivery. Enhancing nanocarrier stability requires careful design, engineering, and optimization of physical and chemical parameters. Various strategies and cutting-edge techniques employed to improve nanocarrier stability are explored, with a focus on their applications in drug delivery. By understanding the advances and challenges in nanocarrier stability, this review aims to contribute to the development and implementation of nanocarrier- based therapies in clinical settings, advancing the field of nanomedicine.

Promising applications of phyto-fabricated silver nanoparticles: Recent trends in biomedicine

The prospective contribution of phyto-nanotechnology to the synthesis of silver nanomaterials for biomedical purposes is attracting increasing interest across the world. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) through plants has been extensively examined recently, and it is now seen to be a green and efficient path for future exploitation and development of practical nano-factories. Fabrication of Ag-NPs is the process involves use of plant extracts/phyto-compounds (e.g.alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds) to synthesise nanoparticles in more economical and feasible. Several findings concluded that in the field of medicine, Ag-NPs play a major role in pharmacotherapy (infection and cancer). Indeed, they exhibits novel properties but the reason is unclear (except some theoretical interpretation e.g. size, shape and morphology). But recent technological advancements help to address these questions by predicting the unique properties (composition and origin) by characterizing physical, chemical and biological properties. Due to increased list of publications and their application in the field of agriculture, industries and pharmaceuticals, issues relating to toxicity are unavoidable and question of debate. The present reviews aim to find out the role of plant extracts to synthesise Ag-NPs. It provides an overview of various phytocompounds and their role in the field of biomedicine (antibacterial, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory etc.). In addition, this review also especially focused on various applications such as role in infection, oxidative stress, application in medical engineering, diagnosis and therapy, medical devices, orthopedics, wound healing and dressings. Additionally, the toxic effects of Ag-NPs in cell culture, tissue of different model organism, type of toxic reactions and regulation implemented to reduce associated risk are discussed critically. Addressing all above explanations, this review focus on the detailed properties of plant mediated Ag-NPs, its impact on biology, medicine and their commercial properties as well as toxicity.

One-pot, degradable, silica nanocarriers with encapsulated oligonucleotides for mitochondrial specific targeting

Mutations in nuclear and mitochondrial genes are responsible for severe chronic disorders such as mitochondrial myopathies. Gene therapy using antisense oligonucleotides is a promising strategy to treat mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diseases by blocking the replication of the mutated mtDNA. However, transport vehicles are needed for intracellular, mitochondria-specific transport of oligonucleotides. Nanoparticle (NP) based vectors such as large pore mesoporous silica nanoparticles (LP) often rely on surface complexation of oligonucleotides exposing them to nucleases and limiting mitochondria targeting and controlled release ability. In this work, stable, fluorescent, hollow silica nanoparticles (HSN) that encapsulate and protect oligonucleotides in the hollow core were synthesized by a facile one-pot procedure. Both rhodamine B isothiocyanate and bis[3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl]tetrasulfide were incorporated in the HSN matrix by co-condensation to enable cell tracing, intracellular-specific degradation and controlled oligonucleotide release. We also synthesized LP as a benchmark to compare the oligonucleotide loading and release efficacy of our HSN. Mitochondria targeting was enabled by NP functionalization with cationic, lipophilic Triphenylphosphine (TPP) and, for the first time a fusogenic liposome based carrier, previously reported under the name MITO-Porter. HSN exhibited high oligonucleotide incorporation ratios and release dependent on intracellular degradation. Further, MITO-Porter capping of our NP enabled delayed, glutathione (GSH) responsive oligonucleotide release and mitochondria targeting at the same efficiency as TPP functionalized NP. Overall, our NP are promising vectors for anti-gene therapy of mtDNA disease as well as many other monogenic disorders worldwide.

Drug delivery methods based on nanotechnology for the treatment of eye diseases

One of the most difficult tasks among the numerous medication delivery methods is ocular drug delivery. Despite having effective medications for treating ocular illness, we have not yet managed to develop an appropriate drug delivery strategy with the fewest side effects. Nanotechnology has the potential to significantly address the drawbacks of current ocular delivery systems, such as their insufficient therapeutic effectiveness and unfavourable side effects from invasive surgery or systemic exposure. The objective of the current research is to highlight and update the most recent developments in nano-based technologies for the detection and treatment of ocular diseases. Even if more work has to be done, the advancements shown here might lead to brand-new, very practical ocular nanomedicines.

Evaluation of mucosal immune profile associated with Zileuton nanocrystal-formulated BCS-II drug upon oral administration in Sprague Dawley rats

Nanocrystal drug formulation involves several critical manufacturing procedures that result in complex structures to improve drug solubility, dissolution, bioavailability, and consequently the efficacy of poorly soluble Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) II and IV drugs. Nanocrystal formulation of an already approved oral drug may need additional immunotoxic assessment due to changes in the physical properties of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). In this study, we selected Zileuton, an FDA-approved drug that belongs to BCS-II for nanocrystal formulation. To evaluate the efficacy and mucosal immune profile of the nanocrystal drug, 10-week-old rats were dosed using capsules containing either API alone or nanocrystal formulated Zileuton (NDZ), or with a physical mixture (PM) using flexible oral gavage syringes. Control groups consisted of untreated, or placebo treated animals. Test formulations were administrated to rats at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight (bw) once a day for 15 days. The rats treated with NDZ or PM had approximately 4.0 times lower (7.5 mg/kg bw) API when compared to the micron sized API treated rats. At the end of treatment, mucosal (intestinal tissue) and circulating cytokines were measured. The immunological response revealed that NDZ decreased several proinflammatory cytokines in the ileal mucosa (Interleukin-18, Tumor necrosis Factor-α and RANTES [regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted]). A similar pattern in the cytokine profile was also observed for the micron sized API and PM treated rats. The cytokine production revealed that there was a significant increase in the production of IL-1β and IL-10 in the females in all experimental groups. Additionally, NDZ showed an immunosuppressive effect on proinflammatory cytokines both locally and systemically, which was similar to the response in micron sized API treated rats. These findings indicate that NDZ significantly decreased several proinflammatory cytokines and it displays less immunotoxicity, probably due to the nanocrystal formulation. Thus, the nanocrystal formulation is more suitable for oral drug delivery, as it exhibited better efficacy, safety, and reduced toxicity.

Multifunctional cell membranes-based nano-carriers for targeted therapies: a review of recent trends and future perspective

Nanotechnology has ignited a transformative revolution in disease detection, prevention, management, and treatment. Central to this paradigm shift is the innovative realm of cell membrane-based nanocarriers, a burgeoning class of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) that redefine the boundaries of biomedical applications. These remarkable nanocarriers, designed through a top-down approach, harness the intrinsic properties of cell-derived materials as their fundamental building blocks. Through shrouding themselves in natural cell membranes, these nanocarriers extend their circulation longevity and empower themselves to intricately navigate and modulate the multifaceted microenvironments associated with various diseases. This comprehensive review provides a panoramic view of recent breakthroughs in biomimetic nanomaterials, emphasizing their diverse applications in cancer treatment, cardiovascular therapy, viral infections, COVID-19 management, and autoimmune diseases. In this exposition, we deliver a concise yet illuminating overview of the distinctive properties underpinning biomimetic nanomaterials, elucidating their pivotal role in biomedical innovation. We subsequently delve into the exceptional advantages these nanomaterials offer, shedding light on the unique attributes that position them at the forefront of cutting-edge research. Moreover, we briefly explore the intricate synthesis processes employed in creating these biomimetic nanocarriers, shedding light on the methodologies that drive their development.

Design and fabrication of a vaccine candidate based on rOmpA from Klebsiella pneumoniae encapsulated in silk fibroin-sodium alginate nanoparticles against pneumonia infection

The present study describes the design and fabrication of a novel vaccine candidate based on the outer membrane protein A (rOmpA) from Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) encapsulated in silk fibroin-sodium alginate nanoparticles (SF-SANPs) against K. pneumoniae-mediated pneumonia. The physicochemical properties, toxicity, release profile, and in vivo potency of SF-SANPs encapsulated with rOmpA were evaluated. The spherical nano vaccine was created with an average particle size of 160 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 80 %. Antigen release from SF-SANPs was 40 % after 22 days release assay. The SF-SANPs showed a zeta potential of -24.8 mV and had no toxic effect on the L929 cells in vitro. It was found that SF-SANPs in the vaccine formulation promoted systemic and mucosal antibodies and also stimulated cytokine responses, inducing both humoral (Th2) and cellular (Th1) immune responses, with a Th1-polarized response. The vaccine candidate was effective in protecting the mice lung against experimental pneumonia and reducing inflammation. These findings suggest that the rOmpA-based vaccine encapsulated in SF-SANPs could be a promising strategy for preventing pneumonia caused by K. pneumoniae.

Recent Advances in Micro- and Nano-Drug Delivery Systems Based on Natural and Synthetic Biomaterials

Polymeric drug delivery technology, which allows for medicinal ingredients to enter a cell more easily, has advanced considerably in recent decades. Innovative medication delivery strategies use biodegradable and bio-reducible polymers, and progress in the field has been accelerated by future possible research applications. Natural polymers utilized in polymeric drug delivery systems include arginine, chitosan, dextrin, polysaccharides, poly(glycolic acid), poly(lactic acid), and hyaluronic acid. Additionally, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide), poly(ethylenimine), dendritic polymers, biodegradable polymers, and bioabsorbable polymers as well as biomimetic and bio-related polymeric systems and drug-free macromolecular therapies have been employed in polymeric drug delivery. Different synthetic and natural biomaterials are in the clinical phase to mitigate different diseases. Drug delivery methods using natural and synthetic polymers are becoming increasingly common in the pharmaceutical industry, with biocompatible and bio-related copolymers and dendrimers having helped cure cancer as drug delivery systems. This review discusses all the above components and how, by combining synthetic and biological approaches, micro- and nano-drug delivery systems can result in revolutionary polymeric drug and gene delivery devices.

Nanovaccines: A game changing approach in the fight against infectious diseases

The field of nanotechnology has revolutionised global attempts to prevent, treat, and eradicate infectious diseases in the foreseen future. Nanovaccines have proven to be a valuable pawn in this novel technology. Nanovaccines are made up of nanoparticles that are associated with or prepared with components that can stimulate the host's immune system. In addition to their delivery capabilities, the nanocarriers have been demonstrated to possess intrinsic adjuvant properties, working as immune cell stimulators. Thus, nanovaccines have the potential to promote rapid as well as long-lasting humoral and cellular immunity. The nanovaccines have several possible benefits, including site-specific antigen delivery, increased antigen bioavailability, and a diminished adverse effect profile. To avail these benefits, several nanoparticle-based vaccines are being developed, including virus-like particles, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanogels, lipid nanoparticles, emulsion vaccines, exomes, and inorganic nanoparticles. Inspired by their distinctive properties, researchers are working on the development of nanovaccines for a variety of applications, such as cancer immunotherapy and infectious diseases. Although a few challenges still need to be overcome, such as modulation of the nanoparticle pharmacokinetics to avoid rapid elimination from the bloodstream by the reticuloendothelial system, The future prospects of this technology are also assuring, with multiple options such as personalised vaccines, needle-free formulations, and combination nanovaccines with several promising candidates.

Liposomes - Human phagocytes interplay in whole blood: effect of liposome design

Nanomedicine holds immense potential for therapeutic manipulation of phagocytic immune cells. However, in vitro studies often fail to accurately translate to the complex in vivo environment. To address this gap, we employed an ex vivo human whole-blood assay to evaluate liposome interactions with immune cells. We systematically varied liposome size, PEG-surface densities and sphingomyelin and ganglioside content. We observed differential uptake patterns of the assessed liposomes by neutrophils and monocytes, emphasizing the importance of liposome design. Interestingly, our results aligned closely with published in vivo observations in mice and patients. Moreover, liposome exposure induced changes in cytokine release and cellular responses, highlighting the potential modulation of immune system. Our study highlights the utility of human whole-blood models in assessing nanoparticle-immune cell interactions and provides insights into liposome design for modulating immune responses.

Benefits of using polymeric nanoparticles in breast cancer treatment: a systematic review

Breast cancer comprises approximately 20% of all malignant neoplasm cases globally. Due to the limitations associated with conventional therapeutic approaches, extensive investigations have been undertaken to develop novel treatments that exhibit enhanced specificity and minimized adverse effects. Consequently, the application of polymeric nanoformulations for targeted drug delivery has gained significant attention within the biomedical field. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to explore the inherent advantages and efficacy of employing polymeric nanoformulations for drug delivery in breast cancer treatment, as compared to traditional therapies. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across prominent databases including PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Scopus, utilizing specific search strings. This meticulous approach yielded a total of 12 relevant articles for in-depth analysis and discussion. The findings from the selected studies underscore the effectiveness of employing polymeric nanoparticles as a drug delivery strategy, showcasing noteworthy improvements in cellular uptake and sustained intracellular retention of encapsulated therapeutic agents. Additionally, these nanoformulations exhibited superior efficacy, safety, and drug delivery capabilities. The utilization of polymeric nanoparticles in drug delivery has demonstrated a substantial enhancement in treatment efficacy, with the ability to achieve higher concentrations of active ingredients within tumor tissues, augment cellular uptake and drug concentrations, and sustain intracellular retention. Consequently, this innovative approach prolongs drug release in lower quantities, ultimately contributing to improved treatment outcomes.

A Comprehensive review on Pharmacokinetic Studies of Vaccines: Impact of delivery route, carrier-and its modulation on immune response

The lack of knowledge about the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of vaccines makes former biopharmaceutical optimization difficult. This was shown during the COVID-19 immunization campaign, where gradual booster doses were introduced.. Thus, understanding vaccine ADME and its effects on immunization effectiveness could result in a more logical vaccine design in terms of formulation, method of administration, and dosing regimens. Herein, we will cover the information available on vaccine pharmacokinetics, impacts of delivery routes and carriers on ADME, utilization and efficiency of nanoparticulate delivery vehicles, impact of dose level and dosing schedule on the therapeutic efficacy of vaccines, intracellular and endosomal trafficking and in vivo fate, perspective on DNA and mRNA vaccines, new generation sequencing and mathematical models to improve cancer vaccination and pharmacology, and the reported toxicological study of COVID-19 vaccines. Altogether, this review will enhance the reader's understanding of the pharmacokinetics of vaccines and methods that can be implied in delivery vehicle design to improve the absorption and distribution of immunizing agents and estimate the appropriate dose to achieve better immunogenic responses and prevent toxicities.

Nano-drug delivery system targeting tumor microenvironment: A prospective strategy for melanoma treatment

Melanoma, the most aggressive form of cutaneous malignancy arising from melanocytes, is frequently characterized by metastasis. Despite considerable progress in melanoma therapies, patients with advanced-stage disease often have a poor prognosis due to the limited efficacy, off-target effects, and toxicity associated with conventional drugs. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges with nanoparticles capable of delivering therapeutic agents specifically to the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the clinical approval of nanomedicines for melanoma treatment remains limited, necessitating further research to develop nanoparticles with improved biocompatibility and precise targeting capabilities. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the current research on nano-drug delivery systems for melanoma treatment, focusing on liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. It discusses the potential of these nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, as well as their ability to enhance the efficacy of conventional drugs while minimizing toxicity. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the significance of interdisciplinary collaboration between researchers from various fields to advance the development of nanomedicines. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians interested in the potential of nano-drug delivery systems for melanoma treatment and offers insights into future directions for research in this field.

Epigenetic Modulators as Therapeutic Agents in Cancer

Epigenetics play a crucial role in gene regulation and cellular processes. Most importantly, its dysregulation can contribute to the development of tumors. Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and histone acetylation, are reversible processes that can be utilized as targets for therapeutic intervention. DNA methylation inhibitors disrupt DNA methylation patterns by inhibiting DNA methyltransferases. Such inhibitors can restore normal gene expression patterns, and they can be effective against various forms of cancer. Histone deacetylase inhibitors increase histone acetylation levels, leading to altered gene expressions. Like DNA methylation inhibitors, histone methyltransferase inhibitors target molecules involved in histone methylation. Bromodomain and extra-terminal domain inhibitors target proteins involved in gene expression. They can be effective by inhibiting oncogene expression and inducing anti-proliferative effects seen in cancer. Understanding epigenetic modifications and utilizing epigenetic inhibitors will offer new possibilities for cancer research.

Biosafety of mesoporous silica nanoparticles; towards clinical translation

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have attracted the attention of chemists, who have developed numerous systems for the encapsulation of a plethora of molecules, allowing the use of mesoporous silica nanoparticles for biomedical applications. MSNs have been extensively studied for their use in nanomedicine, in applications such as drug delivery, diagnosis, and bioimaging, demonstrating significant in vivo efficacy in different preclinical models. Nevertheless, for the transition of MSNs into clinical trials, it is imperative to understand the characteristics that make MSNs effective and safe. The biosafety properties of MSNs in vivo are greatly influenced by their physicochemical characteristics such as particle shape, size, surface modification, and silica framework. In this review, we compile the most relevant and recent progress in the literature up to the present by analyzing the contributions on biodistribution, biodegradability, and clearance of MSNs. Furthermore, the ongoing clinical trials and the potential challenges related to the administration of silica materials for advanced therapeutics are discussed. This approach aims to provide a solid overview of the state-of-the-art in this field and to encourage the translation of MSNs to the clinic.

Polyoxazoline-Based Nanovaccine Synergizes with Tumor-Associated Macrophage Targeting and Anti-PD-1 Immunotherapy against Solid Tumors

Immune checkpoint blockade reaches remarkable clinical responses. However, even in the most favorable cases, half of these patients do not benefit from these therapies in the long term. It is hypothesized that the activation of host immunity by co-delivering peptide antigens, adjuvants, and regulators of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β expression using a polyoxazoline (POx)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanovaccine, while modulating the tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) function within the tumor microenvironment (TME) and blocking the anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) can constitute an alternative approach for cancer immunotherapy. POx-Mannose (Man) nanovaccines generate antigen-specific T-cell responses that control tumor growth to a higher extent than poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-Man nanovaccines. This anti-tumor effect induced by the POx-Man nanovaccines is mediated by a CD8+ -T cell-dependent mechanism, in contrast to the PEG-Man nanovaccines. POx-Man nanovaccine combines with pexidartinib, a modulator of the TAM function, restricts the MC38 tumor growth, and synergizes with PD-1 blockade, controlling MC38 and CT26 tumor growth and survival. This data is further validated in the highly aggressive and poorly immunogenic B16F10 melanoma mouse model. Therefore, the synergistic anti-tumor effect induced by the combination of nanovaccines with the inhibition of both TAM- and PD-1-inducing immunosuppression, holds great potential for improving immunotherapy outcomes in solid cancer patients.

Nanoparticles and cytokine response

Synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) are non-viral equivalents of viral gene delivery systems that are actively explored to deliver a spectrum of nucleic acids for diverse range of therapies. The success of the nanoparticulate delivery systems, in the form of efficacy and safety, depends on various factors related to the physicochemical features of the NPs, as well as their ability to remain "stealth" in the host environment. The initial cytokine response upon exposure to nucleic acid bearing NPs is a critical component of the host response and, unless desired, should be minimized to prevent the unintended consequences of NP administration. In this review article, we will summarize the most recent literature on cytokine responses to nanoparticulate delivery systems and identify the main factors affecting this response. The NP features responsible for eliciting the cytokine response are articulated along with other factors related to the mode of therapeutic administration. For diseases arising from altered cytokine pathophysiology, attempts to silence the individual components of cytokine response are summarized in the context of different diseases, and the roles of NP features on this respect are presented. We finish with the authors' perspective on the possibility of engineering NP systems with controlled cytokine responses. This review is intended to sensitize the reader with important issues related to cytokine elicitation of non-viral NPs and the means of controlling them to design improved interventions in the clinical setting.

Green Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles Loaded in Polysaccharide Hydrogel Applied to Chronic Wound Healing in Mice Models

The prevalence of chronic wounds is increasing owing to the expanding population and the growing number of individuals suffering from diabetes. Such a chronic wound continues to be a significant healthcare burden for diabetic patients because it frequently carries a high chance of limb loss due to amputation and reduces survival as a result. Development of innovative wound dressing materials with the potential to stop bacterial infections and accelerate the process of tissue regeneration is needed to increase the effectiveness of diabetic wound healing. In the current study, a co-polymerization process based on a free radical reaction was used to create a hydrogel of polysaccharides blend graft acrylamide (PsB-g-Am). Starch, chitosan, and alginate make up the polysaccharides blend (PsB). The produced hydrogel's structure was characterized using FTIR spectroscopy. The antibacterial activities of silver nanoparticles synthesized through the green method using garlic bulb (Allium sativum) is reported. The silver nanoparticles' physical characteristics were examined using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy analysis, and UV-visible spectroscopy and they were found to range in size from 50 to 100 nm. The agar well diffusion technique is used to investigate the antibacterial characteristics. Inclusion of silver nanoparticles in the hydrogels demonstrated concentration-dependent antibacterial behavior against Gram-negative Klebsiella pneumoniae and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus during antimicrobial testing of the hydrogels. When hydrogels were applied to diabetic mice, the system was examined for its healing abilities, and positive therapeutic results were obtained in as little as 14 days. Thus, it can be inferred that graft copolymer of chitosan-AgNPs hydrogels can promote healing in chronic wounds over time and can be utilized as an alternative to conventional therapies for chronic wounds (such as those brought on by diabetes) in mouse models.

Lipid-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown remarkable success in cancer treatment. However, in cancer patients without sufficient antitumor immunity, numerous data indicate that blocking the negative signals elicited by immune checkpoints is ineffective. Drugs that stimulate immune activation-related pathways are emerging as another route for improving immunotherapy. In addition, the development of nanotechnology presents a promising platform for tissue and cell type-specific delivery and improved uptake of immunomodulatory agents, ultimately leading to enhanced cancer immunotherapy and reduced side effects. In this review, we summarize and discuss the latest developments in nanoparticles (NPs) for cancer immuno-oncology therapy with a focus on lipid-based NPs (lipid-NPs), including the characteristics and advantages of various types. Using the agonists targeting stimulation of the interferon genes (STING) transmembrane protein as an exemplar, we review the potential of various lipid-NPs to augment STING agonist therapy. Furthermore, we present recent findings and underlying mechanisms on how STING pathway activation fosters antitumor immunity and regulates the tumor microenvironment and provide a summary of the distinct STING agonists in preclinical studies and clinical trials. Ultimately, we conduct a critical assessment of the obstacles and future directions in the utilization of lipid-NPs to enhance cancer immunotherapy.

The immune-stealth polymeric coating on drug delivery nanocarriers: In vitro engineering and in vivo fate

Although essential nanosystems such as nanoparticles and nanocarriers are desirable options for transporting various drug molecules into the biological environment, they rapidly remove from the circulatory system due to their interaction with multiple in vivo barriers, especially the immune barrier, which will result in their short-term effects. In order to improve their effectiveness and durability in the circulatory system, the polymer coatings can use to cover the surface of nanoparticles and nanocarriers to conceal them from the immune system. Due to their different properties (like charge, elasticity, and hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity), these coatings can improve drug delivery nanosystem durability and therapeutic applications. The mentioned coatings have different types and are divided into various categories, such as synthetic polymers, polysaccharides, and zwitterionic polymers. Each of these polymers has unique properties based on its category, origin, and chemical structure that make them suitable for producing stealth drug delivery nanocarriers. In this review article, we have tried to explain the importance of these diverse polymer coatings in determining the fate of drug nanocarriers and then introduced the different types of these coatings and, finally, described various methods that directly and indirectly analyze the nanocoatings to determine the stability of nanoparticles in the body.

Non disseminative nano-strategy against in vivo Staphylococcus aureus biofilms

Staphylococcus aureus is considered a high priority pathogen by the World Health Organization due to its high prevalence and the potential to form biofilms. Currently, the available treatments for S. aureus biofilm-associated infections do not target the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) matrix. This matrix is a physical barrier to bactericidal agents, contributing to the increase of antimicrobial tolerance. The present work proposes the development of lipid nanoparticles encapsulating caspofungin (CAS) as a matrix-disruptive nanosystem. The nanoparticles were functionalized with D-amino acids to target the matrix. In a multi-target nano-strategy against S. aureus biofilms, CAS-loaded nanoparticles were combined with a moxifloxacin-loaded nanosystem, as an adjuvant to promote the EPS matrix disruption. In vitro and in vivo studies showed biofilm reduction after combining the two nanosystems. Besides, the combinatory therapy showed no signs of bacterial dissemination into vital organs of mice, while dissemination was observed for the treatment with the free compounds. Additionally, the in vivo biodistribution of the two nanosystems revealed their potential to reach and accumulate in the biofilm region, after intraperitoneal administration. Thus, this nano-strategy based on the encapsulation of matrix-disruptive and antibacterial agents is a promising approach to fight S. aureus biofilms.

An Overview of the Use of Nanoparticles in Vaccine Development

Vaccines represent one of the most significant advancements in public health since they prevented morbidity and mortality in millions of people every year. Conventionally, vaccine technology focused on either live attenuated or inactivated vaccines. However, the application of nanotechnology to vaccine development revolutionized the field. Nanoparticles emerged in both academia and the pharmaceutical industry as promising vectors to develop future vaccines. Regardless of the striking development of nanoparticles vaccines research and the variety of conceptually and structurally different formulations proposed, only a few of them advanced to clinical investigation and usage in the clinic so far. This review covered some of the most important developments of nanotechnology applied to vaccine technologies in the last few years, focusing on the successful race for the preparation of lipid nanoparticles employed in the successful anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.

Modeling study for predicting altered cellular activity induced by nanomaterials based on Dlk1-Dio3 gene expression and structural relationships

Nanomaterials have been widely applied and developed due to its unique physicochemical characteristics, such as their small size. The environmental and biological effects caused by nanomaterials have raised concerns. In particular, some nanometal oxides have obvious biological toxicity and pose a major safety problem. The prediction model established by combining the expression levels of key genes with quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) studies can predict the biotoxicity of nanomaterials by relying on both structural information and gene regulation information. This model can fill the gap of missing mechanisms in QSAR studies. In this study, we exposed A549 cells and BEAS-2B cells to 21 nanometal oxides for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed by measuring absorbance values using the CCK8 assay, and the expression levels of the Dlk1-Dio3 gene cluster were measured. By using the theoretical basis of the nano-QSAR model and the improved principles of the SMILES-based descriptors to combine specific gene expression and structural factors, new models were constructed using Monte Carlo partial least squares (MC-PLS) for the biotoxicity of the nanometal oxides on two different lung cells. The overall quality of the nano-QSAR models constructed by combining specific gene expression and structural parameters for A549 and BEAS-2B cells was better than that of the models constructed based on structural parameters only. The coefficient of determination (R²) of the A549 cell model increased from 0.9044 to 0.9969, and the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) decreased from 0.1922 to 0.0348. The R² of the BEAS-2B cell model increased from 0.9355 to 0.9705, and the RMSE decreased from 0.1206 to 0.0874. The model validation proved the proposed models have a good prediction, generalization ability and model stability. This study offers a new research perspective for the toxicity assessment of nanometal oxides, contributing to a more systematic safety evaluation of nanomaterials.

An exploratory study on the effect of mechanical stress on particle formation in monoclonal antibody infusions

Monoclonal antibody infusions (mAb-i) are administered for the treatment of various diseases. They are often transported over long distances from the compounding site to the site of administration. However, transport studies are typically carried out with the original drug product but not with compounded mAb-i. To address this gap, the impact of mechanical stress on the formation of subvisible/nanoparticles in mAb-i was investigated by dynamic light scattering and flow imaging microscopy. Different mAb-i concentrations were subjected to vibrational orbital shaking and stored at 2-8°C up to 35 days. The screening revealed that pembrolizumab and bevacizumab infusions show the highest propensity for particle formation. Especially bevacizumab at low concentrations exhibited an increase in particle formation. Because of the unknown health risks associated with the long-term application of subvisible particles (SVPs)/nanoparticles in infusion bags, stability studies carried out in the frame of licensing application procedures should also focus on SVP formation in mAb-i. In general, pharmacists should minimize the time of storage and mechanical stress during transport, especially in the case of low-concentrated mAb-i. Moreover, if siliconized syringes are used, they should be washed once with saline solution to minimize particle entry.

Nanoparticle-based immunotherapeutics: from the properties of nanocores to the differential effects of administration routes

The engagement with the immune system is one of the main cornerstones in the development of nanotechnologies for therapy and diagnostics. Recent advances have made possible the tuning of features like size, shape and biomolecular modifications that influence such interactions, however, the capabilities for immune modulation of nanoparticles are still not well defined and exploited. This review focuses on recent advances made in preclinical research for the application of nanoparticles to modulate immune responses, and the main features making them relevant for such applications. We review and discuss newest evidence in the field, which include in vivo experiments with an extensive physicochemical characterization as well as detailed study of the induced immune response. We emphasize the need of incorporating knowledge about immune response development and regulation in the design and application of nanoparticles, including the effect by parameters such as the administration route and the differential interactions with immune subsets.

The role of exosomes in pathogenesis and the therapeutic efficacy of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes against Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive, neurodegenerative disease. The predominant pathology of PD is the loss of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra. Cell transplantation is a strategy with significant potential for treating PD; mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a tremendous therapeutic cell source because they are easily accessible. MSC-derived exosomes with potential protective action in lesioned sites serve as an essential promoter of neuroprotection, and neurodifferentiation, by modulating neural stem cells, neurons, glial cells, and axonal growth in vitro and in vivo environments. The biological properties of MSC-derived exosomes have been proposed as a beneficial tool in different pathological conditions, including PD. Therefore, in this review, we assort the current understanding of MSC-derived exosomes as a new possible therapeutic strategy for PD by providing an overview of the potential role of miRNAs as a component of exosomes in the cellular and molecular basis of PD.

The Delivery and Activation of Growth Factors Using Nanomaterials for Bone Repair

Bone regeneration is a comprehensive process that involves different stages, and various growth factors (GFs) play crucial roles in the entire process. GFs are currently widely used in clinical settings to promote bone repair; however, the direct application of GFs is often limited by their fast degradation and short local residual time. Additionally, GFs are expensive, and their use may carry risks of ectopic osteogenesis and potential tumor formation. Nanomaterials have recently shown great promise in delivering GFs for bone regeneration, as they can protect fragile GFs and control their release. Moreover, functional nanomaterials can directly activate endogenous GFs, modulating the regeneration process. This review provides a summary of the latest advances in using nanomaterials to deliver exogenous GFs and activate endogenous GFs to promote bone regeneration. We also discuss the potential for synergistic applications of nanomaterials and GFs in bone regeneration, along with the challenges and future directions that need to be addressed.

Virus Management Using Metal-Organic Framework-Based Technologies

The eradication and isolation of viruses are two concurrent approaches to protect ourselves from viral infections and diseases. The quite versatile porous materials called metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), have recently emerged as efficient nanosized tools to manage viruses, and several strategies to accomplish these tasks have been developed. This review describes these strategies employing nanoscale MOFs against SARS-CoV-2, HIV-1, tobacco mosaic virus, etc., which include the sequestration by host-guest penetration inside pores, mineralization, design of a physical barrier, controlled delivery of organic and inorganic antiviral drugs or bioinhibitors, photosensitization of singlet oxygen, and direct contact with inherently cytotoxic MOFs.