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Dahms P, Lyons TR. Toward Characterizing Lymphatic Vasculature in the Mammary Gland During Normal Development and Tumor-Associated Remodeling. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2024; 29:1. [PMID: 38218743 PMCID: PMC10787674 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-023-09554-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vasculature has been shown to promote metastatic spread of breast cancer. Lymphatic vasculature, which is made up of larger collecting vessels and smaller capillaries, has specialized cell junctions that facilitate cell intravasation. Normally, these junctions are designed to collect immune cells and other cellular components for immune surveillance by lymph nodes, but they are also utilized by cancer cells to facilitate metastasis. Although lymphatic development overall in the body has been well-characterized, there has been little focus on how the lymphatic network changes in the mammary gland during stages of remodeling such as pregnancy, lactation, and postpartum involution. In this review, we aim to define the currently known lymphangiogenic factors and lymphatic remodeling events during mammary gland morphogenesis. Furthermore, we juxtapose mammary gland pubertal development and postpartum involution to show similarities of pro-lymphangiogenic signaling as well as other molecular signals for epithelial cell survival that are critical in these morphogenic stages. The similar mechanisms include involvement of M2-polarized macrophages that contribute to matrix remodeling and vasculogenesis; signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) survival and proliferation signaling; and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2)/Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) signaling to promote ductal and lymphatic expansion. Investigation and characterization of lymphangiogenesis in the normal mammary gland can provide insight to targetable mechanisms for lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic spread of tumor cells in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Dahms
- Division of Medical Oncology Senior Scientist, Young Women's Breast Cancer Translational Program, University of Colorado Cancer Center, 12801 E 17th Ave, RC1 South, Mailstop 8117, 80045, Aurora, CO, USA
- Division of Medical Oncology, Anschutz Medical Center, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
- Anschutz Medical Campus Graduate Program in Cancer Biology, University of Colorado, Aurora, USA
| | - Traci R Lyons
- Division of Medical Oncology Senior Scientist, Young Women's Breast Cancer Translational Program, University of Colorado Cancer Center, 12801 E 17th Ave, RC1 South, Mailstop 8117, 80045, Aurora, CO, USA.
- Division of Medical Oncology, Anschutz Medical Center, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA.
- Anschutz Medical Campus Graduate Program in Cancer Biology, University of Colorado, Aurora, USA.
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2
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Singh P, Ali SA, Kumar S, Mohanty AK. CRISPR-Cas9 based knockout of S100A8 in mammary epithelial cells enhances cell proliferation and triggers oncogenic transformation via the PI3K-Akt pathway: Insights from a deep proteomic analysis. J Proteomics 2023; 288:104981. [PMID: 37544501 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2023.104981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
S100A8 is a calcium-binding protein with multiple functions, including being a chemoattractant for phagocytes and playing a key role in the inflammatory response. Its expression has been shown to influence epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis in colorectal cancer. However, the role of S100A8 in cell proliferation and differentiation remains unknown. In this study, we used the CRISPR-Cas9 system to knock out S100A8 in healthy mammary epithelial cells and investigated the resulting changes in proteome profiling and signaling pathways. Our results showed that S100A8 knockout led to an increase in cell proliferation and migration, reduced cell-cell adhesion, and increased apoptosis compared to wildtype cells. Proteomics data indicated that S100A8 significantly affects cell cycle progression, cell proliferation, and cell survival through the PI3K-Akt pathway. Furthermore, our findings suggest that S100A8 function is associated with Pten expression, a negative regulator of the PI3K-Akt pathway. These results indicate that S100A8 dysregulation in healthy cells can lead to altered cellular physiology and higher proliferation, similar to cancerous growth. Therefore, maintaining S100A8 expression is critical for preserving healthy cell physiology. This study provides novel insights into the role of S100A8 in cell proliferation and differentiation and its potential relevance to cancer biology. SIGNIFICANCE: The study suggests that maintaining S100A8 expression is critical for preserving healthy cell physiology, and dysregulation of S100A8 in healthy cells can lead to altered cellular physiology and higher proliferation, similar to cancerous growth. Therefore, targeting the PI3K-Akt pathway or regulating Pten expression, a negative regulator of the PI3K-Akt pathway, may be potential strategies for cancer treatment by controlling S100A8 dysregulation. Additionally, S100A8 and S100A9 have been shown to promote metastasis of breast carcinoma by forming a metastatic milieu. However, the differential expression of S100A8 in tumors and its dual effects of antitumor and protumor make the relationship between S100A8 and tumors complicated. Currently, most research focuses on the function of S100A8 as a secretory protein in the microenvironment of tumors, and its function inside healthy cells without forming dimers remains unclear. Furthermore, the study provides insight into the role of S100A8 in cell proliferation and differentiation, which may have implications for other diseases beyond cancer. The functional role of S100A8 in normal mammary epithelial cells remains completely uncertain. Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate the function of S100A8 on proliferation in mammary epithelial cells after its deletion and to elucidate the underlying proteins involved in downstream signaling. Our findings indicate that the deletion of S100A8 leads to excessive proliferation in normal mammary epithelial cells, reduces apoptosis, and affects cell-cell adhesion molecules required for cellular communication, resulting in a cancer-like phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Singh
- Proteomics and Cell Biology Lab, Animal Biotechnology Center, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India
| | - Syed Azmal Ali
- Proteomics and Cell Biology Lab, Animal Biotechnology Center, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India; Proteomics of Stem Cells and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Sudarshan Kumar
- Proteomics and Cell Biology Lab, Animal Biotechnology Center, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India
| | - Ashok Kumar Mohanty
- Proteomics and Cell Biology Lab, Animal Biotechnology Center, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India; Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteshwar, 263138 Nainital, Uttarakhand, India.
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3
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Githaka JM, Pirayeshfard L, Goping IS. Cancer invasion and metastasis: Insights from murine pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2023; 1867:130375. [PMID: 37150225 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2023.130375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Cancer invasion and metastasis accounts for the majority of cancer related mortality. A better understanding of the players that drive the aberrant invasion and migration of tumors cells will provide critical targets to inhibit metastasis. Postnatal pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis is characterized by highly proliferative, invasive, and migratory normal epithelial cells. Identifying the molecular regulators of pubertal gland development is a promising strategy since tumorigenesis and metastasis is postulated to be a consequence of aberrant reactivation of developmental stages. In this review, we summarize the pubertal morphogenesis regulators that are involved in cancer metastasis and revisit pubertal mammary gland transcriptome profiling to uncover both known and unknown metastasis genes. Our updated list of pubertal morphogenesis regulators shows that most are implicated in invasion and metastasis. This review highlights molecular linkages between development and metastasis and provides a guide for exploring novel metastatic drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Maringa Githaka
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
| | - Leila Pirayeshfard
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Ing Swie Goping
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
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4
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Mulchandani V, Banerjee A, Vadlamannati AV, Kumar S, Das Sarma J. Connexin 43 trafficking and regulation of gap junctional intercellular communication alters ovarian cancer cell migration and tumorigenesis. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 159:114296. [PMID: 36701988 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer persists to be the most lethal gynecological malignancy, demanding rigorous treatments involving radio-chemotherapy that trigger toxicity and consequently mortality among patients. An improved understanding of the disease progression may pioneer curative therapies. Mouse epithelial ovarian cancer cell lines, ID8 and ID8-VEGF (overexpressing VEGF) were intraperitoneally injected in C57BL/6 female mice to develop a Syngeneic Ovarian cancer mouse model. It was observed that ID8-VEGF cells were able to induce aggressive tumor growth in mice compared to ID8 cells. Furthermore, results of the current in vitro study comparing ID8 and ID8-VEGF demonstrated that highly tumorigenic ID8-VEGF had reduced gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) due to intracellular Connexin 43 (Cx43) expression. Additionally, ID8 cells with reduced tumorigenic capability expressed significant GJIC. Furthermore, loss of GJIC in ID8-VEGF cells induced shorter tunneling nanotube formations, while ID8 cells develops longer tunneling nanotube to maintain cellular crosstalk. The administration of a pharmacological drug 4-phenylbutyrate (4PBA) ensured the restoration of GJIC in both the ovarian cancer cell lines. Additionally, 4PBA treatment significantly inhibited the migration of ovarian cancer cell lines and tumor formation in ovarian cancer mice models. In summary, the 4PBA-mediated restoration of GJIC suppressed migration (in vitro) and tumorigenesis (in vivo) of ovarian cancer cells. The present study suggests that Cx43 assembled GJIC and its supportive signaling pathways are a prospective target for restricting ovarian cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Mulchandani
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur 741246, India
| | - Anurag Banerjee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur 741246, India
| | - Arunima Vijaya Vadlamannati
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur 741246, India
| | - Saurav Kumar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur 741246, India
| | - Jayasri Das Sarma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur 741246, India; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA.
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5
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Gagniac L, Rusidzé M, Boudou F, Cagnet S, Adlanmerini M, Jeannot P, Gaide N, Giton F, Besson A, Weyl A, Gourdy P, Raymond-Letron I, Arnal JF, Brisken C, Lenfant F. Membrane expression of the estrogen receptor ERα is required for intercellular communications in the mammary epithelium. Development 2020; 147:dev.182303. [PMID: 32098763 PMCID: PMC7075076 DOI: 10.1242/dev.182303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
17β-Estradiol induces the postnatal development of mammary gland and influences breast carcinogenesis by binding to the estrogen receptor ERα. ERα acts as a transcription factor but also elicits rapid signaling through a fraction of ERα expressed at the membrane. Here, we have used the C451A-ERα mouse model mutated for the palmitoylation site to understand how ERα membrane signaling affects mammary gland development. Although the overall structure of physiological mammary gland development is slightly affected, both epithelial fragments and basal cells isolated from C451A-ERα mammary glands failed to grow when engrafted into cleared wild-type fat pads, even in pregnant hosts. Similarly, basal cells purified from hormone-stimulated ovariectomized C451A-ERα mice did not produce normal outgrowths. Ex vivo, C451A-ERα basal cells displayed reduced matrix degradation capacities, suggesting altered migration properties. More importantly, C451A-ERα basal cells recovered in vivo repopulating ability when co-transplanted with wild-type luminal cells and specifically with ERα-positive luminal cells. Transcriptional profiling identified crucial paracrine luminal-to-basal signals. Altogether, our findings uncover an important role for membrane ERα expression in promoting intercellular communications that are essential for mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurine Gagniac
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Mariam Rusidzé
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Frederic Boudou
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Stephanie Cagnet
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Pauline Jeannot
- LBCMCP, Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse 31062, France
| | - Nicolas Gaide
- LabHPEC Laboratoire d'HistoPathologie Expérimentale et Comparée STROMALab, Université de Toulouse, CNRS ERL5311, EFS, ENVT, Inserm U1031, UPS, Toulouse 31300, France
| | - Frank Giton
- APHP H.Mondor- IMRB - INSERM U955, Créteil 94010, France
| | - Arnaud Besson
- LBCMCP, Centre de Biologie Intégrative, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse 31062, France
| | - Ariane Weyl
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Pierre Gourdy
- INSERM U1048, I2MC, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Isabelle Raymond-Letron
- LabHPEC Laboratoire d'HistoPathologie Expérimentale et Comparée STROMALab, Université de Toulouse, CNRS ERL5311, EFS, ENVT, Inserm U1031, UPS, Toulouse 31300, France
| | | | - Cathrin Brisken
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Seong J, Kim NS, Kim JA, Lee W, Seo JY, Yum MK, Kim JH, Park I, Kang JS, Bae SH, Yun CH, Kong YY. Side branching and luminal lineage commitment by ID2 in developing mammary glands. Development 2018; 145:dev.165258. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.165258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mammary glands develop through primary ductal elongation and side branching to maximize the spatial area. Although primary ducts are generated by bifurcation of terminal end buds, the mechanism through which side branching occurs is still largely unclear. Here, we show that inhibitor of DNA-binding 2 (ID2) drives side branch formation through differentiation of K6+ bipotent progenitor cells into CD61+ luminal progenitor cells. Id2-null mice had side branching defects, along with developmental blockage of K6+ bipotent progenitor cells into CD61+ luminal progenitor cells. Notably, CD61+ luminal progenitor cells were found in budding and side branches, but not in terminal end buds. Hormone reconstitution studies using ovariectomized MMTV-NLS-Id2 transgenic mice revealed that ID2 is a key mediator of progesterone, which drives luminal lineage differentiation and side branching. Our results suggest that CD61 is a marker for side branches and that ID2 regulates side branch formation by inducing luminal lineage commitment from K6+ bipotent progenitor cells to CD61+ luminal progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinwoo Seong
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam-Shik Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee-Ah Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Wonbin Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Yun Seo
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Kyu Yum
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Hoon Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Inkuk Park
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Seol Kang
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hwan Bae
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheol-Heui Yun
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Yun Kong
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
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7
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STAT5 deletion in macrophages alters ductal elongation and branching during mammary gland development. Dev Biol 2017; 428:232-244. [PMID: 28606561 PMCID: PMC5621646 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are required for proper mammary gland development and maintaining tissue homeostasis. However, the mechanisms by which macrophages regulate this process remain unclear. Here, we identify STAT5 as an important regulator of macrophage function in the developing mammary gland. Analysis of mammary glands from mice with STAT5-deficient macrophages demonstrates delayed ductal elongation, enhanced ductal branching and increased epithelial proliferation. Further analysis reveals that STAT5 deletion in macrophages leads to enhanced expression of proliferative factors such as Cyp19a1/aromatase and IL-6. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that STAT5 binds directly to the Cyp19a1 promoter in macrophages to suppress gene expression and that loss of STAT5 results in enhanced stromal expression of aromatase. Finally, we demonstrate that STAT5 deletion in macrophages cooperates with oncogenic initiation in mammary epithelium to accelerate the formation of estrogen receptor (ER)-positive hyperplasias. These studies establish the importance of STAT5 in macrophages during ductal morphogenesis in the mammary gland and demonstrate that altering STAT5 function in macrophages can affect the development of tissue-specific disease.
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8
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Mapes J, Li Q, Kannan A, Anandan L, Laws M, Lydon JP, Bagchi IC, Bagchi MK. CUZD1 is a critical mediator of the JAK/STAT5 signaling pathway that controls mammary gland development during pregnancy. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006654. [PMID: 28278176 PMCID: PMC5363987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In the mammary gland, genetic circuits controlled by estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, act in concert with pathways regulated by members of the epidermal growth factor family to orchestrate growth and morphogenesis during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between the hormonal and growth factor pathways remain poorly understood. We have identified the CUB and zona pellucida-like domain-containing protein 1 (CUZD1), expressed in mammary ductal and alveolar epithelium, as a novel mediator of mammary gland proliferation and differentiation during pregnancy and lactation. Cuzd1-null mice exhibited a striking impairment in mammary ductal branching and alveolar development during pregnancy, resulting in a subsequent defect in lactation. Gene expression profiling of mammary epithelium revealed that CUZD1 regulates the expression of a subset of the EGF family growth factors, epiregulin, neuregulin-1, and epigen, which act in an autocrine fashion to activate ErbB1 and ErbB4 receptors. Proteomic studies further revealed that CUZD1 interacts with a complex containing JAK1/JAK2 and STAT5, downstream transducers of prolactin signaling in the mammary gland. In the absence of CUZD1, STAT5 phosphorylation in the mammary epithelium during alveologenesis was abolished. Conversely, elevated expression of Cuzd1 in mammary epithelial cells stimulated prolactin-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT5. Chromatin immunoprecipitation confirmed co-occupancy of phosphorylated STAT5 and CUZD1 in the regulatory regions of epiregulin, a potential regulator of epithelial proliferation, and whey acidic protein, a marker of epithelial differentiation. Collectively, these findings suggest that CUZD1 plays a critical role in prolactin-induced JAK/STAT5 signaling that controls the expression of key STAT5 target genes involved in mammary epithelial proliferation and differentiation during alveolar development. In the mammary gland, genetic circuits controlled by the hormones, estrogen, progesterone and prolactin, act in concert with pathways regulated by members of the epidermal growth factor family to orchestrate growth and morphogenesis during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. We have identified CUZD1 as a novel mediator of prolactin signaling in the steroid hormone-primed mouse mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation. Cuzd1-null mice exhibited a striking impairment in ductal branching and alveolar development during pregnancy, resulting in a subsequent defect in lactation. Administration of prolactin failed to induce proliferation of the mammary epithelium in Cuzd1-null mice. Protein binding studies revealed that CUZD1 interacts with downstream transducers of prolactin signaling, JAK1/JAK2 and STAT5. Additionally, elevated expression of Cuzd1 in mammary epithelial cells stimulated phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT5. CUZD1, therefore, is a critical mediator of prolactin that controls mammary alveolar development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle Mapes
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Quanxi Li
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Athilakshmi Kannan
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Lavanya Anandan
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Mary Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - John P. Lydon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Indrani C. Bagchi
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ICB); (MKB)
| | - Milan K. Bagchi
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ICB); (MKB)
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McBryan J, Howlin J. Pubertal Mammary Gland Development: Elucidation of In Vivo Morphogenesis Using Murine Models. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1501:77-114. [PMID: 27796948 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6475-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
During the past 25 years, the combination of increasingly sophisticated gene targeting technology with transplantation techniques has allowed researchers to address a wide array of questions about postnatal mammary gland development. These in turn have significantly contributed to our knowledge of other branched epithelial structures. This review chapter highlights a selection of the mouse models exhibiting a pubertal mammary gland phenotype with a focus on how they have contributed to our overall understanding of in vivo mammary morphogenesis. We discuss mouse models that have enabled us to assign functions to particular genes and proteins and, more importantly, have determined when and where these factors are required for completion of ductal outgrowth and branch patterning. The reason for the success of the mouse mammary gland model is undoubtedly the suitability of the postnatal mammary gland to experimental manipulation. The gland itself is very amenable to investigation and the combination of genetic modification with accessibility to the tissue has allowed an impressive number of studies to inform biology. Excision of the rudimentary epithelial structure postnatally allows genetically modified tissue to be readily transplanted into wild type stroma or vice versa, and has thus defined the contribution of each compartment to particular phenotypes. Similarly, whole gland transplantation has been used to definitively discern local effects from indirect systemic effects of various growth factors and hormones. While appreciative of the power of these tools and techniques, we are also cognizant of some of their limitations, and we discuss some shortcomings and future strategies that can overcome them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean McBryan
- Department of Molecular Medicine Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, 9, Ireland
| | - Jillian Howlin
- Division of Oncology-Pathology, Lund University Cancer Center/Medicon Village, Building 404:B2, Scheelevägen 2, 223 81, Lund, Sweden.
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10
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Gross K, Wronski A, Skibinski A, Phillips S, Kuperwasser C, Dettman RW, Wessels A. Cell Fate Decisions During Breast Cancer Development. J Dev Biol 2016; 4:4. [PMID: 27110512 PMCID: PMC4840277 DOI: 10.3390/jdb4010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
During the formation of breast cancer, many genes become altered as cells evolve progressively from normal to a pre-malignant to a malignant state of growth. How mutations in genes lead to specific subtypes of human breast cancer is only partially understood. Here we review how initial genetic or epigenetic alterations within mammary epithelial cells (MECs) can alter cell fate decisions and put pre-malignant cells on a path towards cancer development with specific phenotypes. Understanding the early stages of breast cancer initiation and progression and how normal developmental processes are hijacked during transformation has significant implications for improving early detection and prevention of breast cancer. In addition, insights gleaned from this understanding may also be important for developing subtype-specific treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla Gross
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Convergence Laboratory, Tufts University School of Medicine, 145 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St., Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Ania Wronski
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Convergence Laboratory, Tufts University School of Medicine, 145 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St., Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Adam Skibinski
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St., Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Sarah Phillips
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St., Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Charlotte Kuperwasser
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Convergence Laboratory, Tufts University School of Medicine, 145 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St., Boston, MA 02111, USA
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11
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Tarulli GA, Laven-Law G, Shakya R, Tilley WD, Hickey TE. Hormone-sensing mammary epithelial progenitors: emerging identity and hormonal regulation. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2015; 20:75-91. [PMID: 26390871 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-015-9344-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The hormone-sensing mammary epithelial cell (HS-MEC-expressing oestrogen receptor-alpha (ERα) and progesterone receptor (PGR)) is often represented as being terminally differentiated and lacking significant progenitor activity after puberty. Therefore while able to profoundly influence the proliferation and function of other MEC populations, HS-MECs are purported not to respond to sex hormone signals by engaging in significant cell proliferation during adulthood. This is a convenient and practical simplification that overshadows the sublime, and potentially critical, phenotypic plasticity found within the adult HS-MEC population. This concept is exemplified by the large proportion (~80 %) of human breast cancers expressing PGR and/or ERα, demonstrating that HS-MECs clearly proliferate in the context of breast cancer. Understanding how HS-MEC proliferation and differentiation is driven could be key to unraveling the mechanisms behind uncontrolled HS-MEC proliferation associated with ERα- and/or PGR-positive breast cancers. Herein we review evidence for the existence of a HS-MEC progenitor and the emerging plasticity of the HS-MEC population in general. This is followed by an analysis of hormones other than oestrogen and progesterone that are able to influence HS-MEC proliferation and differentiation: androgens, prolactin and transforming growth factor-beta1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard A Tarulli
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL), School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
| | - Geraldine Laven-Law
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL), School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Reshma Shakya
- Breast Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Centre for Personalised Cancer Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Wayne D Tilley
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL), School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Theresa E Hickey
- Dame Roma Mitchell Cancer Research Laboratories (DRMCRL), School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
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Arendt LM, Kuperwasser C. Form and function: how estrogen and progesterone regulate the mammary epithelial hierarchy. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2015; 20:9-25. [PMID: 26188694 PMCID: PMC4596764 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-015-9337-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes dramatic post-natal growth beginning at puberty, followed by full development occurring during pregnancy and lactation. Following lactation, the alveoli undergo apoptosis, and the mammary gland reverses back to resemble the nonparous gland. This process of growth and regression occurs for multiple pregnancies, suggesting the presence of a hierarchy of stem and progenitor cells that are able to regenerate specialized populations of mammary epithelial cells. Expansion of epithelial cell populations in the mammary gland is regulated by ovarian steroids, in particular estrogen acting through its receptor estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and progesterone signaling through progesterone receptor (PR). A diverse number of stem and progenitor cells have been identified based on expression of cell surface markers and functional assays. Here we review the current understanding of how estrogen and progesterone act together and separately to regulate stem and progenitor cells within the human and mouse mammary tissues. Better understanding of the hierarchal organization of epithelial cell populations in the mammary gland and how the hormonal milieu affects its regulation may provide important insights into the origins of different subtypes of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Arendt
- Developmental, Molecular, and Chemical Biology Department, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Laboratory for the Convergence of Biomedical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2015 Linden Dr, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Charlotte Kuperwasser
- Developmental, Molecular, and Chemical Biology Department, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Ave, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
- Molecular Oncology Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler Laboratory for the Convergence of Biomedical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
- Developmental, Molecular, and Chemical Biology Department, Tufts University School of Medicine, 800 Washington St, Box 5609, Boston, MA, 02111, USA.
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Wood CE, Branstetter D, Jacob AP, Cline JM, Register TC, Rohrbach K, Huang LY, Borgerink H, Dougall WC. Progestin effects on cell proliferation pathways in the postmenopausal mammary gland. Breast Cancer Res 2014; 15:R62. [PMID: 23938070 PMCID: PMC3978455 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Menopausal hormone therapies vary widely in their effects on breast cancer risk, and the mechanisms underlying these differences are unclear. The primary goals of this study were to characterize the mammary gland transcriptional profile of estrogen + progestin therapy in comparison with estrogen-alone or tibolone and investigate pathways of cell proliferation in a postmenopausal primate model. Methods Ovariectomized female cynomolgus macaque monkeys were randomized into the following groups: placebo (Con), oral conjugated equine estrogens (CEE), CEE with medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) (CEE + MPA), and tibolone given at a low or high dose (Lo or Hi Tib). All study treatment doses represented human clinical dose equivalents and were administered in the diet over a period of 2 years. Results Treatment with CEE + MPA had the greatest effect on global mRNA profiles and markers of mammary gland proliferation compared to CEE or tibolone treatment. Changes in the transcriptional patterns resulting from the addition of MPA to CEE were related to increased growth factors and decreased estrogen receptor (ER) signaling. Specific genes induced by CEE + MPA treatment included key members of prolactin receptor (PRLR)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B (RANK)/receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) pathways that were highly associated with breast tissue proliferation. In contrast, tibolone did not affect breast tissue proliferation but did elicit a mixed pattern of ER agonist activity. Conclusion Our findings indicate that estrogen + progestin therapy results in a distinct molecular profile compared to estrogen-alone or tibolone therapy, including upregulation of key growth factor targets associated with mammary carcinogenesis in mouse models. These changes may contribute to the promotional effects of estrogen + progestin therapy on breast cancer risk.
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Haricharan S, Li Y. STAT signaling in mammary gland differentiation, cell survival and tumorigenesis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 382:560-569. [PMID: 23541951 PMCID: PMC3748257 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The mammary gland is a unique organ that undergoes extensive and profound changes during puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, lactation and involution. The changes that take place during puberty involve large-scale proliferation and invasion of the fat-pad. During pregnancy and lactation, the mammary cells are exposed to signaling pathways that inhibit apoptosis, induce proliferation and invoke terminal differentiation. Finally, during involution the mammary gland is exposed to milk stasis, programmed cell death and stromal reorganization to clear the differentiated milk-producing cells. Not surprisingly, the signaling pathways responsible for bringing about these changes in breast cells are often subverted during the process of tumorigenesis. The STAT family of proteins is involved in every stage of mammary gland development, and is also frequently implicated in breast tumorigenesis. While the roles of STAT3 and STAT5 during mammary gland development and tumorigenesis are well studied, others members, e.g. STAT1 and STAT6, have only recently been observed to play a role in mammary gland biology. Continued investigation into the STAT protein network in the mammary gland will likely yield new biomarkers and risk factors for breast cancer, and may also lead to novel prophylactic or therapeutic strategies against breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Haricharan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Y Li
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
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Obr AE, Grimm SL, Bishop KA, Pike JW, Lydon JP, Edwards DP. Progesterone receptor and Stat5 signaling cross talk through RANKL in mammary epithelial cells. Mol Endocrinol 2013; 27:1808-24. [PMID: 24014651 PMCID: PMC3805851 DOI: 10.1210/me.2013-1077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Progesterone (P4) stimulates proliferation of the mammary epithelium by a mechanism that involves paracrine signaling mediated from progesterone receptor (PR)-positive to neighboring PR-negative cells. Here we used a primary mouse mammary epithelial cell (MEC) culture system to define the molecular mechanism by which P4 regulates the expression of target gene effectors of proliferation including the paracrine factor receptor and activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL). MECs from adult virgin mice grown and embedded in three-dimensional basement-membrane medium resemble mammary ducts in vivo structurally and with respect to other properties including a heterogeneous pattern of PR expression, P4 induction of RANKL and other target genes in a PR-dependent manner, and a proliferative response to progestin. RANKL was demonstrated to have multiple functional P4-responsive enhancers that bind PR in a hormone-dependent manner as detected by chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. P4 also stimulated recruitment of signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)5a to RANKL enhancers through an apparent tethering with PR. Analysis of primary MECs from Stat5a knockout mice revealed that P4 induction of RANKL and a broad range of other PR target genes required Stat5a, as did P4-stimulated cell proliferation. In the absence of Stat5a, PR binding was lost at selective RANKL enhancers but was retained with others, suggesting that Stat5a acts to facilitate PR DNA binding at selective sites and to function as a coactivator with DNA-bound PR at others. These results show that RANKL is a direct PR target gene and that Stat5a has a novel role as a cofactor in PR-mediated transcriptional signaling in the mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison E Obr
- PhD, Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, BCM Box 130, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030.
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Hagan CR, Knutson TP, Lange CA. A Common Docking Domain in Progesterone Receptor-B links DUSP6 and CK2 signaling to proliferative transcriptional programs in breast cancer cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2013; 41:8926-42. [PMID: 23921636 PMCID: PMC3799453 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkt706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Progesterone receptors (PR) are transcription factors relevant to breast cancer biology. Herein, we describe an N-terminal common docking (CD) domain in PR-B, a motif first described in mitogen-activated protein kinases. Binding studies revealed PR-B interacts with dual-specificity phosphatase 6 (DUSP6) via the CD domain. Mutation of the PR-B CD domain (mCD) attenuated cell cycle progression and expression of PR-B target genes (including STAT5A and Wnt1); mCD PR-B failed to undergo phosphorylation on Ser81, a ck2-dependent site required for expression of these genes. PR-B Ser81 phosphorylation was dependent on binding with DUSP6 and required for recruitment of a transcriptional complex consisting of PR-B, DUSP6 and ck2 to an enhancer region upstream of the Wnt1 promoter. STAT5 was present at this site in the absence or presence of progestin. Furthermore, phospho-Ser81 PR-B was recruited to the STAT5A gene upon progestin treatment, suggestive of a feed-forward mechanism. Inhibition of JAK/STAT-signaling blocked progestin-induced STAT5A and Wnt1 expression. Our studies show that DUSP6 serves as a scaffold for ck2-dependent PR-B Ser81 phosphorylation and subsequent PR-B-specific gene selection in coordination with STAT5. Coregulation of select target genes by PR-B and STAT5 is likely a global mechanism required for growth promoting programs relevant to mammary stem cell biology and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy R Hagan
- Departments of Medicine and Pharmacology, Cell Signaling Program; Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Cancer Cardiology Research Building, 2231 6th Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Tarulli GA, De Silva D, Ho V, Kunasegaran K, Ghosh K, Tan BC, Bulavin DV, Pietersen AM. Hormone-sensing cells require Wip1 for paracrine stimulation in normal and premalignant mammary epithelium. Breast Cancer Res 2013; 15:R10. [PMID: 23369183 PMCID: PMC3672744 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The molecular circuitry of different cell types dictates their normal function as well as their response to oncogene activation. For instance, mice lacking the Wip1 phosphatase (also known as PPM1D; protein phosphatase magnesium-dependent 1D) have a delay in HER2/neu (human epidermal growth factor 2), but not Wnt1-induced mammary tumor formation. This suggests a cell type-specific reliance on Wip1 for tumorigenesis, because alveolar progenitor cells are the likely target for transformation in the MMTV(mouse mammary tumor virus)-neu but not MMTV-wnt1 breast cancer model. METHODS In this study, we used the Wip1-knockout mouse to identify the cell types that are dependent on Wip1 expression and therefore may be involved in the early stages of HER2/neu-induced tumorigenesis. RESULTS We found that alveolar development during pregnancy was reduced in Wip1-knockout mice; however, this was not attributable to changes in alveolar cells themselves. Unexpectedly, Wip1 allows steroid hormone-receptor-positive cells but not alveolar progenitors to activate STAT5 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 5) in the virgin state. In the absence of Wip1, hormone-receptor-positive cells have significantly reduced transcription of RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) and IGF2 (insulin-like growth factor 2), paracrine stimulators of alveolar development. In the MMTV-neu model, HER2/neu activates STAT5 in alveolar progenitor cells independent of Wip1, but HER2/neu does not override the defect in STAT5 activation in Wip1-deficient hormone-sensing cells, and paracrine stimulation remains attenuated. Moreover, ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) activation by HER2/neu in hormone-sensing cells is also Wip1 dependent. CONCLUSIONS We identified Wip1 as a potentiator of prolactin and HER2/neu signaling strictly in the molecular context of hormone-sensing cells. Furthermore, our findings highlight that hormone-sensing cells convert not only estrogen and progesterone but also prolactin signals into paracrine instructions for mammary gland development. The instructive role of hormone-sensing cells in premalignant development suggests targeting Wip1 or prolactin signaling as an orthogonal strategy for inhibiting breast cancer development or relapse.
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Barash I. Stat5 in breast cancer: potential oncogenic activity coincides with positive prognosis for the disease. Carcinogenesis 2012; 33:2320-5. [DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgs362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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Oliver CH, Khaled WT, Frend H, Nichols J, Watson CJ. The Stat6-regulated KRAB domain zinc finger protein Zfp157 regulates the balance of lineages in mammary glands and compensates for loss of Gata-3. Genes Dev 2012; 26:1086-97. [PMID: 22588720 DOI: 10.1101/gad.184051.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Lineage commitment studies in mammary glands have focused on identifying cell populations that display stem or progenitor properties. However, the mechanisms that control cell fate have been incompletely explored. Herein we show that zinc finger protein 157 (Zfp157) is required to establish the balance between luminal alveolar pStat5- and Gata-3-expressing cells in the murine mammary gland. Using mice in which the zfp157 gene was disrupted, we found that alveologenesis was accelerated concomitantly with a dramatic skewing of the proportion of pStat5-expressing cells relative to Gata-3⁺ cells. This suppression of the Gata-3⁺ lineage was associated with increased expression of the inhibitor of helix-loop-helix protein Id2. Surprisingly, Gata-3 becomes dispensable in the absence of Zfp157, as mice deficient for both Zfp157 and Gata-3 lactate normally, although the glands display a mild epithelial dysplasia. These data suggest that the luminal alveolar compartment of the mammary gland is comprised of a number of distinct cell populations that, although interdependant, exhibit considerable cell fate plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie H Oliver
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom
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Lee HJ, Ormandy CJ. Interplay between progesterone and prolactin in mammary development and implications for breast cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 357:101-7. [PMID: 21945475 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone and prolactin remodel mammary morphology during pregnancy by acting on the mammary epithelial cell hierarchy. The roles of each hormone in mammary development have been well studied, but evidence of signalling cross-talk between progesterone and prolactin is still emerging. Factors such as receptor activator of NFkB ligand (RANKL) may integrate signals from both hormones to orchestrate their joint actions on the epithelial cell hierarchy. Common targets of progesterone and prolactin signalling are also likely to integrate their pro-proliferative actions in breast cancer. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the interplay between progesterone and prolactin in mammary development may reveal therapeutic targets for breast cancer. This review summarises our understanding of Pg and PRL action in mammary gland development before focusing on molecular mechanisms of signalling cross-talk and the implications for breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather J Lee
- Cancer Research Program, Garvan Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Obr A, Edwards DP. The biology of progesterone receptor in the normal mammary gland and in breast cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 357:4-17. [PMID: 22193050 PMCID: PMC3318965 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2011] [Revised: 09/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews work on progesterone and the progesterone receptor (PR) in the mouse mammary gland that has been used extensively as an experimental model. Studies have led to the concept that progesterone controls proliferation and morphogenesis of the luminal epithelium in a tightly orchestrated manner at distinct stages of development by paracrine signaling pathways, including receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) as a major paracrine factor. Progesterone also drives expansion of stem cells by paracrine signals to generate progenitors required for alveologenesis. During mid-to-late pregnancy, progesterone has another role to suppress secretory activation until parturition mediated in part by crosstalk between PR and prolactin/Stat5 signaling to inhibit induction of milk protein gene expression, and by inhibiting tight junction closure. In models of hormone-dependent mouse mammary tumors, the progesterone/PR signaling axis enhances pre-neoplastic progression by a switch from a paracrine to an autocrine mode of proliferation and dysregulation of the RANKL signaling pathway. Limited experiments with normal human breast show that progesterone/PR signaling also stimulates epithelial cell proliferation by a paracrine mechanism; however, the signaling pathways and whether RANKL is a major mediator remains unknown. Work with human breast cancer cell lines, patient tumor samples and clinical studies indicates that progesterone is a risk factor for breast cancer and that alteration in progesterone/PR signaling pathways contributes to early stage human breast cancer progression. However, loss of PR expression in primary tumors is associated with a less differentiated more invasive phenotype and worse prognosis, suggesting that PR may limit later stages of tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Obr
- Departments of Molecular & Cellular Biology and Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Dean P. Edwards
- Departments of Molecular & Cellular Biology and Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
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Hagan CR, Daniel AR, Dressing GE, Lange CA. Role of phosphorylation in progesterone receptor signaling and specificity. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 357:43-9. [PMID: 21945472 PMCID: PMC3265648 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone receptors (PR), in concert with peptide growth factor-initiated signaling pathways, initiate massive expansion of the epithelial cell compartment associated with the process of alveologenesis in the developing mammary gland. PR-dependent signaling events also contribute to inappropriate proliferation observed in breast cancer. Notably, PR-B isoform-specific cross talk with growth factor-driven pathways is required for the proliferative actions of progesterone. Indeed, PRs act as heavily phosphorylated transcription factor "sensors" for mitogenic protein kinases that are often elevated and/or constitutively activated in invasive breast cancers. In addition, phospho-PR-target genes frequently include the components of mitogenic signaling pathways, revealing a mechanism for feed-forward signaling that confers increased responsiveness of, PR +mammary epithelial cells to these same mitogenic stimuli. Understanding the mechanisms and isoform selectivity of PR/kinase interactions may yield further insight into targeting altered signaling networks in breast and other hormonally responsive cancers (i.e. lung, uterine and ovarian) in the clinic. This review focuses on PR phosphorylation by mitogenic protein kinases and mechanisms of PR-target gene selection that lead to increased cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy R Hagan
- University of Minnesota, Departments of Medicine and Pharmacology, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation, Women's Cancer Program, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
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Zhao H, Pearson EK, Brooks DC, Coon JS, Chen D, Demura M, Zhang M, Clevenger CV, Xu X, Veenstra TD, Chatterton RT, DeMayo FJ, Bulun SE. A humanized pattern of aromatase expression is associated with mammary hyperplasia in mice. Endocrinology 2012; 153:2701-13. [PMID: 22508516 PMCID: PMC3359608 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase is essential for estrogen production and is the target of aromatase inhibitors, the most effective endocrine treatment for postmenopausal breast cancer. Peripheral tissues in women, including the breast, express aromatase via alternative promoters. Female mice lack the promoters that drive aromatase expression in peripheral tissues; thus, we generated a transgenic humanized aromatase (Arom(hum)) mouse line containing a single copy of the human aromatase gene to study the link between aromatase expression in mammary adipose tissue and breast pathology. Arom(hum) mice expressed human aromatase, driven by the proximal human promoters II and I.3 and the distal promoter I.4, in breast adipose fibroblasts and myoepithelial cells. Estrogen levels in the breast tissue of Arom(hum) mice were higher than in wild-type mice, whereas circulating levels were similar. Arom(hum) mice exhibited accelerated mammary duct elongation at puberty and an increased incidence of lobuloalveolar breast hyperplasia associated with increased signal transducer and activator of transcription-5 phosphorylation at 24 and 64 wk. Hyperplastic epithelial cells showed remarkably increased proliferative activity. Thus, we demonstrated that the human aromatase gene can be expressed via its native promoters in a wide variety of mouse tissues and in a distribution pattern nearly identical to that of humans. Locally increased tissue levels, but not circulating levels, of estrogen appeared to exert hyperplastic effects on the mammary gland. This novel mouse model will be valuable for developing tissue-specific aromatase inhibition strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhao
- Division of Reproductive Biology Research, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA.
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Trott JF, Schennink A, Petrie WK, Manjarin R, VanKlompenberg MK, Hovey RC. TRIENNIAL LACTATION SYMPOSIUM: Prolactin: The multifaceted potentiator of mammary growth and function1,2. J Anim Sci 2012; 90:1674-86. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2011-4682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J. F. Trott
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - A. Schennink
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - W. K. Petrie
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - R. Manjarin
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616
| | | | - R. C. Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616
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Furth PA, Nakles RE, Millman S, Diaz-Cruz ES, Cabrera MC. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 as a key signaling pathway in normal mammary gland developmental biology and breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2011; 13:220. [PMID: 22018398 PMCID: PMC3262193 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
STAT5 consists of two proteins, STAT5A/B, that impact mammary cell differentiation, proliferation, and survival. In normal development, STAT5 expression and activity are regulated by prolactin signaling with JAK2/ELF5, EGF signaling networks that include c-Src, and growth hormone, insulin growth factor, estrogen, and progesterone signaling pathways. In cancer, erythropoietin signaling can also regulate STAT5. Activation levels are influenced by AKT, caveolin, PIKE-A, Pak1, c-Myb, Brk, beta-integrin, dystroglycan, other STATs, and STAT pathway molecules JAK1, Shp2, and SOCS. TGF-β and PTPN9 can downregulate prolactin- and EGF-mediated STAT5 activation, respectively. IGF, AKT, RANKL, cyclin D1, BCL6, and HSP90A lie downstream of STAT5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla A Furth
- Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, 3970 Reservoir Rd NW, Research Building, Room 520A, Washington DC 20057, USA.
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Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes a spectacular series of changes as it develops, and maintains a remarkable capacity to remodel and regenerate for several decades. Mammary morphogenesis has been investigated for over 100 years, motivated by the dairy industry and cancer biologists. Over the past decade, the gland has emerged as a major model system in its own right for understanding the cell biology of tissue morphogenesis. Multiple signalling pathways from several cell types are orchestrated together with mechanical cues and cell rearrangements to establish the pattern of the mammary gland. The integrated mechanical and molecular pathways that control mammary morphogenesis have implications for the developmental regulation of other epithelial organs.
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Reichenstein M, Rauner G, Barash I. Conditional repression of STAT5 expression during lactation reveals its exclusive roles in mammary gland morphology, milk-protein gene expression, and neonate growth. Mol Reprod Dev 2011; 78:585-96. [PMID: 21688337 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.21345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The role of Stat5 in maintaining adequate lactation was studied in Stat5a(-/-) mice expressing a conditionally suppressed transgenic STAT5 in their mammary glands. This system enables distinguishing STAT5's effects on lactation from its contribution to mammary development during gestation. Females were allowed to express STAT5 during their first pregnancy. After delivery, STAT5 levels were manipulated by doxycycline administration and withdrawal. In two lines of genetically modified mice, the absence of STAT5 expression during the first 10 days of lactation resulted in a decrease of 29% or 41% in newborn weight gain. The STAT5-dependent decrease in growth was recoverable, but not completely reversible, particularly when STAT5 expression was omitted for the first 4 days of lactation. Within the first 10 days of STAT5-omitted lactation, alveolar occupancy regressed by 50% compared to that measured at delivery. By Day 10, only 18% of the fat-pad area was involved in milk production. The alveolar regression caused by 4 days of STAT5 deficiency was reversible, but neonate growth remained delayed. STAT5 deficiency resulted in reduced estrogen receptor α and connexin 32 gene expression, accompanied by delayed induction of both anti- and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members. An increase in Gata-3 expression may reflect an attempt to maintain alveolar progenitors. A decrease of 39% and 23% in WAP and α-lactalbumin expression, respectively, with no associated effects on β-casein, also resulted from lack of STAT5 expression in the first 10 days of lactation. This deficiency enhances the major effect of alveolar regression on delayed weight gain in newborns.
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Abstract
The pubertal mammary gland is an ideal model for experimental morphogenesis. The primary glandular branching morphogenesis occurs at this time, integrating epithelial cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Between birth and puberty, the mammary gland exists in a relatively quiescent state. At the onset of puberty, rapid expansion of a pre-existing rudimentary mammary epithelium generates an extensive ductal network by a process of branch initiation, elongation, and invasion of the mammary mesenchyme. It is this branching morphogenesis that characterizes pubertal mammary gland growth. Tissue-specific molecular networks interpret signals from local cytokines/growth factors in both the epithelial and stromal microenvironments. This is largely orchestrated by secreted ovarian and pituitary hormones. Here, we review the major molecular regulators of pubertal mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara McNally
- UCD School of Bimolecular and Biomedical Science, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Ireland
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Cerliani JP, Guillardoy T, Giulianelli S, Vaque JP, Gutkind JS, Vanzulli SI, Martins R, Zeitlin E, Lamb CA, Lanari C. Interaction between FGFR-2, STAT5, and progesterone receptors in breast cancer. Cancer Res 2011; 71:3720-31. [PMID: 21464042 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-3074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor 2 (FGFR-2) polymorphisms have been associated with an increase in estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor (PR)-positive breast cancer risk; however, a clear mechanistic association between FGFR-2 and steroid hormone receptors remains elusive. In previous works, we have shown a cross talk between FGF2 and progestins in mouse mammary carcinomas. To investigate the mechanisms underlying these interactions and to validate our findings in a human setting, we have used T47D human breast cancer cells and human cancer tissue samples. We showed that medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) and FGF2 induced cell proliferation and activation of ERK, AKT, and STAT5 in T47D and in murine C4-HI cells. Nuclear interaction between PR, FGFR-2, and STAT5 after MPA and FGF2 treatment was also showed by confocal microscopy and immunoprecipitation. This effect was associated with increased transcription of PRE and/or GAS reporter genes, and of PR/STAT5-regulated genes and proteins. Two antiprogestins and the FGFR inhibitor PD173074, specifically blocked the effects induced by FGF2 or MPA respectively. The presence of PR/FGFR-2/STAT5 complexes bound to the PRE probe was corroborated by using NoShift transcription and chromatin immunoprecipitation of the MYC promoter. Additionally, we showed that T47D cells stably transfected with constitutively active FGFR-2 gave rise to invasive carcinomas when transplanted into NOD/SCID mice. Nuclear colocalization between PR and FGFR-2/STAT5 was also observed in human breast cancer tissues. This study represents the first demonstration of a nuclear interaction between FGFR-2 and STAT5, as PR coactivators at the DNA progesterone responsive elements, suggesting that FGFRs are valid therapeutic targets for human breast cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan P Cerliani
- Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IBYME), National Research Council of Argentina (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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