Identification of Betamethasone-Regulated Target Genes and Cell Pathways in Fetal Rat Lung Mesenchymal Fibroblasts

Adipocyte Glucocorticoid Receptor Inhibits Immune Regulatory Genes to Maintain Immune Cell Homeostasis in Adipose Tissue

Glucocorticoids acting via the glucocorticoid receptors (GR) are key regulators of metabolism and the stress response. However, uncontrolled or excessive GR signaling adversely affects adipose tissue, including endocrine, immune, and metabolic functions. Inflammation of the adipose tissue promotes systemic metabolic dysfunction; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of adipocyte GR in regulating genes associated with adipose tissue inflammation are poorly understood. We performed in vivo studies using adipocyte-specific GR knockout mice in conjunction with in vitro studies to understand the contribution of adipocyte GR in regulating adipose tissue immune homeostasis. Our findings show that adipocyte-specific GR signaling regulates adipokines at both mRNA and plasma levels and immune regulatory (Coch, Pdcd1, Cemip, and Cxcr2) mRNA gene expression, which affects myeloid immune cell presence in white adipose tissue. We found that, in adipocytes, GR directly influences Cxcr2. This chemokine receptor promotes immune cell migration, indirectly affecting Pdcd1 and Cemip gene expression in nonadipocyte or stromal cells. Our findings suggest that GR adipocyte signaling suppresses inflammatory signals, maintaining immune homeostasis. We also found that GR signaling in adipose tissue in response to stress is sexually dimorphic. Understanding the molecular relationship between GR signaling and adipose tissue inflammation could help develop potential targets to improve local and systemic inflammation, insulin sensitivity, and metabolic health.

Inducible factors and interaction of pulmonary fibrosis induced by prenatal dexamethasone exposure in offspring rats

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between prenatal dexamethasone exposure (PDE) and susceptibility to pulmonary fibrosis in offspring. Healthy female Wistar rats were given dexamethasone (0.2 mg/kg.d) or an equal volume of normal saline subcutaneously from 9 to 20 days after conception. Some of their female offspring underwent ovariectomy (OV) at 22 weeks after birth. All animals were euthanized at 28 weeks after birth. The morphological changes related to pulmonary fibrosis and extracellular matrix-related gene expression were detected, and Two-way ANOVA analyzed the interaction between PDE and OV. The results showed that adult offspring rats in FD group (female rats with PDE treatment) had early pulmonary fibrosis changes, such as pulmonary interstitial thickening, and increased expression of type IV collagen (COL4), α -smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and fibronectin (FN) in lung tissues compared with those in FC group (female rats with saline treatment). In addition, adult offspring rats in FDO group (female rats with PDE and OV treatment) showed signs of pulmonary fibrosis, including apparent extracellular matrix deposition, increased lung injury scores (P＜0.01, P＜0.05), and extracellular matrix related gene expression (P＜0.01, P＜0.05), compared with rats in FDS (female rats with PDE treatment alone) or rats in FCO group (female rats with OV treatment alone). Moreover, PDE and OV had an interactive effect on the development of pulmonary fibrosis in female adult offspring. This study first reported the correlation between PDE and susceptibility to pulmonary fibrosis in female offspring rats, as well as the synergistic effect of PDE and OV in this pathological event, which provided a basis for further understanding of the pathogenesis of fetal originated pulmonary fibrosis.

An Unusual "OR" Gate for Allosteric Regulation of Mammalian Transglutaminase 2 in the Extracellular Matrix

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a highly expressed mammalian enzyme whose biological function is unclear, although its catalytic activity in the small intestine appears necessary for celiac disease (CeD) pathogenesis. While TG2 activity is reversibly regulated by multiple allosteric mechanisms, their roles under fluctuating physiological conditions are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that extracellular TG2 activity is competitively controlled by the mutually exclusive binding of a high-affinity Ca²⁺ ion or the formation of a strained disulfide bond. Binding of Ca²⁺ at the high-affinity site does not activate TG2 per se, but it protects against oxidative enzyme deactivation while preserving the ability of Ca²⁺ ions to occupy weaker binding sites capable of allosteric TG2 activation. In contrast, disulfide bond formation competitively occludes the high-affinity Ca²⁺ site while resulting in complete TG2 inactivation. Because both outcomes are comparably favorable under typical extracellular conditions, subtle changes in the availability of redox catalysts or promoters in the extracellular matrix can dramatically alter steady-state TG2 activity. Thus, TG2 harbors a molecular "OR" gate that determines its catalytic fate upon export from cells.

The science of steroids

Steroids are complex lipophilic molecules that have many actions in the body to regulate cellular, tissue and organ functions across the life-span. Steroid hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, estradiol and testosterone are synthesised from cholesterol in specialised endocrine cells in the adrenal gland, ovary and testis, and released into the circulation when required. Steroid hormones move freely into cells to activate intracellular nuclear receptors that function as multi-domain ligand-dependent transcriptional regulators in the cell nucleus. Activated nuclear receptors modify expression of hundreds to thousands of specific target genes in the genome. Steroid hormone actions in the fetus include developmental roles in the respiratory system, brain, and cardiovascular system. The synthetic glucocorticoid steroid betamethasone is used antenatally to reduce the complications of preterm birth. Development of novel selective partial glucocorticoid receptor agonists may provide improved therapies to treat the respiratory complications of preterm birth and spare the deleterious effects of postnatal glucocorticoids in other organs.