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Younes S. The relationship between gender and pharmacology. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PHARMACOLOGY AND DRUG DISCOVERY 2024; 7:100192. [PMID: 39101002 PMCID: PMC11295939 DOI: 10.1016/j.crphar.2024.100192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The part of sexuality in pharmacology research was not acknowledged, and it was not thought-out to be a determinant that could impact strength and disease. For decades research has mainly contained male, women and animals, leading to a lack of news about syndromes in females. Still, it is critical to guarantee equal likeness so that determine the security, influence, and resistance of healing agents for all individuals. The underrepresentation of female models in preclinical studies over various decades has surpassed to disparities in the understanding, disease, and treatment of ailments 'tween genders. The closeness of sexuality bias has happened recognized as a contributing determinant to the restricted interpretation and replicability of preclinical research. Many demands operation have stressed the significance of including sexuality as a organic changeable, and this view is acquire growing support. Regardless of important progress in incorporating more female models into preclinical studies, differences prevail contemporary. The current review focuses on the part of sexuality and common in biomedical research and, therefore, their potential function in pharmacology and analyze the potential risks guide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samer Younes
- Department of Pharmacy, Tartous University, Syria
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2
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Toews JNC, Philippe TJ, Dordevic M, Hill LA, Hammond GL, Viau V. Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin (SERPINA6) Consolidates Sexual Dimorphism of Adult Rat Liver. Endocrinology 2023; 165:bqad179. [PMID: 38015819 PMCID: PMC10699879 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqad179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Produced by the liver, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) regulates the plasma distribution and actions of glucocorticoids. A sex difference in pituitary growth hormone secretion patterns established during puberty in rats results in increased hepatic CBG production and 2-fold higher plasma corticosterone levels in females. Glucocorticoids control hepatic development and metabolic activities, and we have therefore examined how disrupting the SerpinA6 gene encoding CBG influences plasma corticosterone dynamics, as well as liver gene expression in male and female rats before and after puberty. Comparisons of corticosterone plasma clearance and hepatic uptake in adult rats, with or without CBG, indicated that CBG limits corticosterone clearance by reducing its hepatic uptake. Hepatic transcriptomic profiling revealed minor sex differences (207 differentially expressed genes) and minimal effect of CBG deficiency in 30-day-old rats before puberty. While liver transcriptomes in 60-day-old males lacking CBG remained essentially unchanged, 2710 genes were differentially expressed in wild-type female vs male livers at this age. Importantly, ∼10% of these genes lost their sexually dimorphic expression in adult females lacking CBG, including those related to cholesterol biosynthesis, inflammation, and lipid and amino acid catabolism. Another 203 genes were altered by the loss of CBG specifically in adult females, including those related to xenobiotic metabolism, circadian rhythm, and gluconeogenesis. Our findings reveal that CBG consolidates the sexual dimorphism of the rat liver initiated by sex differences in growth hormone secretion patterns and provide insight into how CBG deficiencies are linked to glucocorticoid-dependent diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia N C Toews
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Tristan J Philippe
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Matthew Dordevic
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Lesley A Hill
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Geoffrey L Hammond
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Victor Viau
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, The Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
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3
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Duran-Ortiz S, Young JA, List EO, Basu R, Krejsa J, Kearns JK, Berryman DE, Kopchick JJ. GHR disruption in mature adult mice alters xenobiotic metabolism gene expression in the liver. Pituitary 2023; 26:437-450. [PMID: 37353704 DOI: 10.1007/s11102-023-01331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lifelong reduction of growth hormone (GH) action extends lifespan and improves healthspan in mice. Moreover, congenital inactivating mutations of GH receptor (GHR) in mice and humans impart resistance to age-associated cancer, diabetes, and cognitive decline. To investigate the consequences of GHR disruption at an adult age, we recently ablated the GHR at 6-months of age in mature adult (6mGHRKO) mice. We found that both, male and female 6mGHRKO mice have reduced oxidative damage, with males 6mGHRKO showing improved insulin sensitivity and cancer resistance. Importantly, 6mGHRKO females have an extended lifespan compared to controls. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS To investigate the possible mechanisms leading to health improvements, we performed RNA sequencing using livers from male and female 6mGHRKO mice and controls. RESULTS We found that disrupting GH action at an adult age reduced the gap in liver gene expression between males and females, making gene expression between sexes more similar. However, there was still a 6-fold increase in the number of differentially expressed genes when comparing male 6mGHRKO mice vs controls than in 6mGHRKO female vs controls, suggesting that GHR ablation affects liver gene expression more in males than in females. Finally, we found that lipid metabolism and xenobiotic metabolism pathways are activated in the liver of 6mGHRKO mice. CONCLUSION The present study shows for the first time the specific hepatic gene expression profile, cellular pathways, biological processes and molecular mechanisms that are driven by ablating GH action at a mature adult age in males and females. Importantly, these results and future studies on xenobiotic metabolism may help explain the lifespan extension seen in 6mGHRKO mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana Duran-Ortiz
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Jonathan A Young
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Edward O List
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Reetobrata Basu
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Jackson Krejsa
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - John K Kearns
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Darlene E Berryman
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - John J Kopchick
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA.
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA.
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Allegra S, Chiara F, Di Grazia D, Gaspari M, De Francia S. Evaluation of Sex Differences in Preclinical Pharmacology Research: How Far Is Left to Go? Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:786. [PMID: 37375734 DOI: 10.3390/ph16060786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Until the last quarter of the 20th century, sex was not recognized as a variable in health research, nor was it believed to be a factor that could affect health and illness. Researchers preferred studying male models for a variety of reasons, such as simplicity, lower costs, hormone confounding effects, and fear of liability from perinatal exposure in case of pregnancy. Equitable representation is imperative for determining the safety, effectiveness, and tolerance of therapeutic agents for all consumers. Decades of female models' underrepresentation in preclinical studies has resulted in inequality in the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of disease between the sexes. Sex bias has been highlighted as one of the contributing factors to the poor translation and replicability of preclinical research. There have been multiple calls for action, and the inclusion of sex as a biological variable is increasingly supported. However, although there has been substantial progress in the efforts to include more female models in preclinical studies, disparities today remain. In the present review, we consider the current standard practice of the preclinical research setting, why the sex bias exists, why there is the need to include female models, and what risks may arise from continuing this exclusion from experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Allegra
- Department of Biological and Clinical Sciences, University of Turin, S. Luigi Gonzaga Hospital, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
| | - Francesco Chiara
- Department of Biological and Clinical Sciences, University of Turin, S. Luigi Gonzaga Hospital, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
| | - Daniela Di Grazia
- Department of Biological and Clinical Sciences, University of Turin, S. Luigi Gonzaga Hospital, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
| | - Marco Gaspari
- Department of Biological and Clinical Sciences, University of Turin, S. Luigi Gonzaga Hospital, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
| | - Silvia De Francia
- Department of Biological and Clinical Sciences, University of Turin, S. Luigi Gonzaga Hospital, 10043 Orbassano, Italy
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Affiliation(s)
- Damasia Becu-Villalobos
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental CONICET, Buenos Aires,Argentina
- Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Meadows JD, Breuer JA, Lavalle SN, Hirschenberger MR, Patel MM, Nguyen D, Kim A, Cassin J, Gorman MR, Welsh DK, Mellon PL, Hoffmann HM. Deletion of Six3 in post-proliferative neurons produces weakened SCN circadian output, improved metabolic function, and dwarfism in male mice. Mol Metab 2021; 57:101431. [PMID: 34974160 PMCID: PMC8810556 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The increasing prevalence of obesity makes it important to increase the understanding of the maturation and function of the neuronal integrators and regulators of metabolic function. METHODS Behavioral, molecular, and physiological analyses of transgenic mice with Sine oculis 3 (Six3) deleted in mature neurons using the Synapsincreallele. RESULTS Conditional deletion of the homeodomain transcription factor Six3 in mature neurons causes dwarfism and weakens circadian wheel-running activity rhythms but increases general activity at night, and improves metabolic function, without impacting pubertal onset or fertility in males. The reduced growth in 6-week-old Six3fl/fl:Synapsincre (Six3syn) males correlates with increased somatostatin (SS) expression in the hypothalamus and reduced growth hormone (GH) in the pituitary. In contrast, 12-week-old Six3syn males have increased GH release, despite an increased number of the inhibitory SS neurons in the periventricular nucleus. GH is important in glucose metabolism, muscle function, and bone health. Interestingly, Six3syn males have improved glucose tolerance at 7, 12, and 18 weeks of age, which, in adulthood, is associated with increased % lean mass and increased metabolic rates. Further, 12-week-old Six3syn males have reduced bone mineralization and a lower bone mineral density, indicating that reduced GH levels during early life cause a long-term reduction in bone mineralization. CONCLUSION Our study points to the novel role of Six3 in post-proliferative neurons to regulate metabolic function through SS neuron control of GH release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason D. Meadows
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Joseph A. Breuer
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Shanna N. Lavalle
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Michael R. Hirschenberger
- Department of Animal Science and the Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, 766 Service Road, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Meera M. Patel
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Duong Nguyen
- Department of Animal Science and the Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, 766 Service Road, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Alyssa Kim
- Department of Plant Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, and CANR Statistical Consulting Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Jessica Cassin
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Michael R. Gorman
- Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - David K. Welsh
- Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, 92161, USA
| | - Pamela L. Mellon
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Hanne M. Hoffmann
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences and Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Center for Circadian Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,Department of Animal Science and the Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, 766 Service Road, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA,Corresponding author. Michigan State University Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building #3010 766 Service Road, East Lansing, MI 48224, USA.
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7
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Matthews BJ, Melia T, Waxman DJ. Harnessing natural variation to identify cis regulators of sex-biased gene expression in a multi-strain mouse liver model. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009588. [PMID: 34752452 PMCID: PMC8664386 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in gene expression are widespread in the liver, where many autosomal factors act in tandem with growth hormone signaling to regulate individual variability of sex differences in liver metabolism and disease. Here, we compare hepatic transcriptomic and epigenetic profiles of mouse strains C57BL/6J and CAST/EiJ, representing two subspecies separated by 0.5-1 million years of evolution, to elucidate the actions of genetic factors regulating liver sex differences. We identify 144 protein coding genes and 78 lncRNAs showing strain-conserved sex bias; many have gene ontologies relevant to liver function, are more highly liver-specific and show greater sex bias, and are more proximally regulated than genes whose sex bias is strain-dependent. The strain-conserved genes include key growth hormone-dependent transcriptional regulators of liver sex bias; however, three other transcription factors, Trim24, Tox, and Zfp809, lose their sex-biased expression in CAST/EiJ mouse liver. To elucidate the observed strain specificities in expression, we characterized the strain-dependence of sex-biased chromatin opening and enhancer marks at cis regulatory elements (CREs) within expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) regulating liver sex-biased genes. Strikingly, 208 of 286 eQTLs with strain-specific, sex-differential effects on expression were associated with a complete gain, loss, or reversal of the sex differences in expression between strains. Moreover, 166 of the 286 eQTLs were linked to the strain-dependent gain or loss of localized sex-biased CREs. Remarkably, a subset of these CREs apparently lacked strain-specific genetic variants yet showed coordinated, strain-dependent sex-biased epigenetic regulation. Thus, we directly link hundreds of strain-specific genetic variants to the high variability in CRE activity and expression of sex-biased genes and uncover underlying genetically-determined epigenetic states controlling liver sex bias in genetically diverse mouse populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan J. Matthews
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tisha Melia
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - David J. Waxman
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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8
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Schoeller EL, Tonsfeldt KJ, Sinkovich M, Shi R, Mellon PL. Growth Hormone Pulses and Liver Gene Expression Are Differentially Regulated by the Circadian Clock Gene Bmal1. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6128829. [PMID: 33539533 PMCID: PMC7901660 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we found that loss of the circadian clock gene Bmal1 causes disruptions throughout the growth hormone (GH) axis, from hepatic gene expression to production of urinary pheromones and pheromone-dependent behavior. First, we show that Bmal1 knockout (KO) males elicit reduced aggressive responses from wild-type (WT) males and secrete lower levels of major urinary proteins (MUPs); however, we also found that a liver-specific KO of Bmal1 (liver-Bmal1-KO) produces a similar reduction in MUP secretion without a defect in aggressive behavior, indicating that the decrease in elicited aggression arises from another factor. We then shifted our investigation to determine the cause of MUP dysregulation in Bmal1 KO animals. Because the pulse pattern of GH drives sexually dimorphic expression of hepatic genes including MUPs, we examined GH pulsatility. We found that Bmal1 KO males have a female-like pattern of GH release, whereas liver-Bmal1-KO mice are not significantly different from either WT or Bmal1 KO. Since differential patterns of GH release regulate the transcription of many sexually dimorphic genes in the liver, we then examined hepatic gene transcription in Bmal1 KO and liver-Bmal1-KO mice. We found that while some female-predominant genes increase in the Bmal1 KO, there was no decrease in male-predominant genes, and little change in the liver-Bmal1-KO. We also found disrupted serum insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and liver Igf1 messenger RNA in the Bmal1 KO mice, which may underlie the disrupted GH release. Overall, our findings differentiate between GH-pulse-driven and circadian-driven effects on hepatic genes, and the functional consequences of altered GH pulsatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica L Schoeller
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Karen J Tonsfeldt
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - McKenna Sinkovich
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Rujing Shi
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Pamela L Mellon
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Correspondence: Pamela L. Mellon, PhD, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Science and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093-0674, USA. )
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Growth Hormone Upregulates Mediators of Melanoma Drug Efflux and Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition In Vitro and In Vivo. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12123640. [PMID: 33291663 PMCID: PMC7761932 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Growth hormone (GH) action is strongly implicated in the progression and therapy resistance in several types of solid tumors which overexpress the GH receptor (GHR). The aim of our study was to characterize the effects of GH and its downstream effector insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) on melanoma using in vitro and in vivo models. We confirmed an IGF-1-independent role of elevated circulating GH in upregulating key mechanisms of therapy resistance and malignancy with analyses conducted at the molecular and cellular level. We identified that GH upregulates key mechanisms of therapy resistance and metastases in melanoma tumors in an IGF-1 dependent and independent manner by upregulating multidrug efflux pumps and EMT transcription factors. Our study reveals that GH action renders an intrinsic drug resistance phenotype to the melanoma tumors—a clinically crucial property of GH verifiable in other human cancers with GHR expression. Abstract Growth hormone (GH) and the GH receptor (GHR) are expressed in a wide range of malignant tumors including melanoma. However, the effect of GH/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) on melanoma in vivo has not yet been elucidated. Here we assessed the physical and molecular effects of GH on mouse melanoma B16-F10 and human melanoma SK-MEL-30 cells in vitro. We then corroborated these observations with syngeneic B16-F10 tumors in two mouse lines with different levels of GH/IGF: bovine GH transgenic mice (bGH; high GH, high IGF-1) and GHR gene-disrupted or knockout mice (GHRKO; high GH, low IGF-1). In vitro, GH treatment enhanced mouse and human melanoma cell growth, drug retention and cell invasion. While the in vivo tumor size was unaffected in both bGH and GHRKO mouse lines, multiple drug-efflux pumps were up regulated. This intrinsic capacity of therapy resistance appears to be GH dependent. Additionally, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) gene transcription markers were significantly upregulated in vivo supporting our current and recent in vitro observations. These syngeneic mouse melanoma models of differential GH/IGF action can be valuable tools in screening for therapeutic options where lowering GH/IGF-1 action is important.
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Melia T, Waxman DJ. Genetic factors contributing to extensive variability of sex-specific hepatic gene expression in Diversity Outbred mice. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242665. [PMID: 33264334 PMCID: PMC7710091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-specific transcription characterizes hundreds of genes in mouse liver, many implicated in sex-differential drug and lipid metabolism and disease susceptibility. While the regulation of liver sex differences by growth hormone-activated STAT5 is well established, little is known about autosomal genetic factors regulating the sex-specific liver transcriptome. Here we show, using genotyping and expression data from a large population of Diversity Outbred mice, that genetic factors work in tandem with growth hormone to control the individual variability of hundreds of sex-biased genes, including many long non-coding RNA genes. Significant associations between single nucleotide polymorphisms and sex-specific gene expression were identified as expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs), many of which showed strong sex-dependent associations. Remarkably, autosomal genetic modifiers of sex-specific genes were found to account for more than 200 instances of gain or loss of sex-specificity across eight Diversity Outbred mouse founder strains. Sex-biased STAT5 binding sites and open chromatin regions with strain-specific variants were significantly enriched at eQTL regions regulating correspondingly sex-specific genes, supporting the proposed functional regulatory nature of the eQTL regions identified. Binding of the male-biased, growth hormone-regulated repressor BCL6 was most highly enriched at trans-eQTL regions controlling female-specific genes. Co-regulated gene clusters defined by overlapping eQTLs included sets of highly correlated genes from different chromosomes, further supporting trans-eQTL action. These findings elucidate how an unexpectedly large number of autosomal factors work in tandem with growth hormone signaling pathways to regulate the individual variability associated with sex differences in liver metabolism and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tisha Melia
- Department of Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - David J. Waxman
- Department of Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Growth hormone increases regulator of calcineurin 1-4 (Rcan1-4) mRNA through c-JUN in rat liver. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0235270. [PMID: 32589657 PMCID: PMC7319343 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) activates multiple signal transduction pathways. To investigate these pathways, we identified novel genes whose transcription was induced by GH in the liver of hypophysectomized (HPX) rats using the suppression subtractive hybridization technique. We found that regulator of calcineurin 1 (Rcan1) mRNA was upregulated by GH administration. RCAN1 regulates the activity of calcineurin, a Ca/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase. Rcan1 encodes two major transcripts, Rcan1-1 and Rcan1-4, resulting from differential promoter use and first exon choice. We found that a single injection of GH increased the levels of Rcan1-4 mRNA and RCAN1-4 protein transiently, but did not increase Rcan1-1 mRNA in HPX rat liver. Then the molecular mechanism of GH to induce Rcan1-4 transcription was examined in rat hepatoma H4IIE cells. Experiments using inhibitors suggested that c-JUN N-terminal kinase was required for the induction of Rcan1-4 mRNA by GH. GH increased the levels of phosphorylated c-JUN protein and c-Jun mRNA in HPX rat liver. The luciferase and electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that c-JUN upregulated Rcan1-4 mRNA by binding to the cAMP-responsive element in the upstream of Rcan1 exon 4. These results indicate that GH activates c-JUN to affect the activity of calcineurin by the induction of Rcan1-4 in rat liver.
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Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) plays a pivotal role in many physiological processes in humans, and in other mammalian and non-mammalian vertebrate species, through actions on somatic growth, tissue development and repair, and intermediary metabolism. This review will focus on mechanisms of GH actions on gene expression, primarily from the perspective of the genes that encode proteins stimulated by GH to regulate somatic growth, especially insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I), but also others that are induced or repressed by GH. Topics to be discussed will include a brief overview of GH-mediated signal transduction pathways and how these cascades alter the functions of responsive transcription factors, with a specific focus on STAT5B, a key member of the signal transducers and activators of transcription family, characterization of essential GH-regulated genes, and elucidation of mechanisms of their regulation from biochemical, genetic, and genomic perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Rotwein
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech Health University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, TX, 79905, USA.
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13
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Functional changes of the liver in the absence of growth hormone (GH) action - Proteomic and metabolomic insights from a GH receptor deficient pig model. Mol Metab 2020; 36:100978. [PMID: 32277923 PMCID: PMC7184181 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2020.100978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The liver is a central target organ of growth hormone (GH), which stimulates the synthesis of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and affects multiple biochemical pathways. A systematic multi-omics analysis of GH effects in the liver has not been performed. GH receptor (GHR) deficiency is a unique model for studying the consequences of lacking GH action. In this study, we used molecular profiling techniques to capture a broad spectrum of these effects in the liver of a clinically relevant large animal model for Laron syndrome. METHODS We performed holistic proteome and targeted metabolome analyses of liver samples from 6-month-old GHR-deficient (GHR-KO) pigs and GHR-expressing controls (four males, four females per group). RESULTS GHR deficiency resulted in an increased abundance of enzymes involved in amino acid degradation, in the urea cycle, and in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. A decreased ratio of long-chain acylcarnitines to free carnitine suggested reduced activity of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A and thus reduced mitochondrial import of fatty acids for beta-oxidation. Increased levels of short-chain acylcarnitines in the liver and in the circulation of GHR-KO pigs may result from impaired beta-oxidation of short-chain fatty acids or from increased degradation of specific amino acids. The concentration of mono-unsaturated glycerophosphocholines was significantly increased in the liver of GHR-KO pigs without morphological signs of steatosis, although the abundances of several proteins functionally linked to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (fetuin B, retinol binding protein 4, several mitochondrial proteins) were increased. Moreover, GHR-deficient liver samples revealed distinct changes in the methionine and glutathione metabolic pathways, in particular, a significantly increased level of glycine N-methyltransferase and increased levels of total and free glutathione. Several proteins revealed a sex-related abundance difference in the control group but not in the GHR-KO group. CONCLUSIONS Our integrated proteomics/targeted metabolomics study of GHR-deficient and control liver samples from a clinically relevant large animal model identified a spectrum of biological pathways that are significantly altered in the absence of GH action. Moreover, new insights into the role of GH in the sex-related specification of liver functions were provided.
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14
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Sukoff Rizzo SJ, McTighe S, McKinzie DL. Genetic Background and Sex: Impact on Generalizability of Research Findings in Pharmacology Studies. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2020; 257:147-162. [PMID: 31595415 DOI: 10.1007/164_2019_282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Animal models consisting of inbred laboratory rodent strains have been a powerful tool for decades, helping to unravel the underpinnings of biological problems and employed to evaluate potential therapeutic treatments in drug discovery. While inbred strains demonstrate relatively reliable and predictable responses, using a single inbred strain alone or as a background to a mutation is analogous to running a clinical trial in a single individual and their identical twins. Indeed, complex etiologies drive the most common human diseases, and a single inbred strain that is a surrogate of a single genome, or data generated from a single sex, is not representative of the genetically diverse patient populations. Further, pharmacological and toxicology data generated in otherwise healthy animals may not translate to disease states where physiology, metabolism, and general health are compromised. The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance for improving generalizability of preclinical studies by providing insight into necessary considerations for introducing systematic variation within the study design, such as genetic diversity, the use of both sexes, and selection of appropriate age and disease model. The outcome of implementing these considerations should be that reproducibility and generalizability of significant results are significantly enhanced leading to improved clinical translation.
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15
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Melia T, Waxman DJ. Sex-Biased lncRNAs Inversely Correlate With Sex-Opposite Gene Coexpression Networks in Diversity Outbred Mouse Liver. Endocrinology 2019; 160:989-1007. [PMID: 30840070 PMCID: PMC6449536 DOI: 10.1210/en.2018-00949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in liver gene expression are determined by pituitary growth hormone secretion patterns, which regulate sex-dependent liver transcription factors and establish sex-specific chromatin states. Hypophysectomy (hypox) identifies two major classes of liver sex-biased genes, defined by their sex-dependent positive or negative responses to pituitary hormone ablation. However, the mechanisms that underlie each hypox-response class are unknown. We sought to discover candidate, regulatory, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) controlling responsiveness to hypox. We characterized gene structures and expression patterns for 15,558 mouse liver-expressed lncRNAs, including many sex-specific lncRNAs regulated during postnatal development or subject to circadian regulation. Using the high natural allelic variance of Diversity Outbred (DO) mice, we discovered tightly coexpressed clusters of sex-specific protein-coding genes (gene modules) in male and female DO liver. Remarkably, many gene modules were strongly enriched for sex-specific genes within a single hypox-response class, indicating that the genetic heterogeneity of DO mice encompasses responsiveness to hypox. Moreover, several distant gene modules were enriched for gene subsets of the same hypox-response class, highlighting the complex regulation of hypox-responsiveness. Finally, we identified eight sex-specific lncRNAs with strong negative regulatory potential, as indicated by their strong negative correlation of expression across DO mouse livers with that of protein-coding gene modules enriched for genes of the opposite sex bias and inverse hypox-response class. These findings reveal an important role for genetic factors in regulating responsiveness to hypox, and present testable hypotheses for the roles of sex-biased liver lncRNAs in controlling the sex-bias of liver gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tisha Melia
- Department of Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - David J Waxman
- Department of Biology and Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Correspondence: David J. Waxman, PhD, Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, Massachusetts 02215. E-mail:
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16
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Brain Control of Sexually Dimorphic Liver Function and Disease: The Endocrine Connection. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 39:169-180. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00652-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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17
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Establishment and analysis of a mouse model that regulates sex-related differences in liver drug metabolism. J Transl Med 2018; 98:1500-1511. [PMID: 29968852 DOI: 10.1038/s41374-018-0088-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The adult liver performs many metabolic functions for maintaining homeostasis. There are several sex differences in liver function and disease pathogenesis. One important function of the liver is drug metabolism, where cytochrome p450s (CYPs) in hepatocytes are the main enzymes involved. The toxicity of various drugs and chemicals differs with sex due to differences in hepatocytic CYP expression. However, the molecular mechanism regulating sex-related differences in drug metabolism remains unknown. In this study, we identified transcriptional regulator B-cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6) as an important factor in sex-biased differential CYP expression. Microarray analysis of livers derived from liver-specific Bcl6-knockout mice showed that Bcl6 is required for sex-biased CYP expression patterns in the liver. Additionally, quantitative PCR analysis revealed that hepatocytic expression of male-biased genes, such as Cyp2d9, Cyp2u1, Cyp4a12a/12b, and Cyp7b1, in liver-specific Bcl6-knockout male mice significantly decreased to levels similar to those observed in wild-type female mice. Conversely, hepatocytic expression of female-biased genes, such as Cyp2a4/2a5, Cyp2b9, Cyp3a41, and Cyp17a1, significantly increased in liver-specific Bcl6-knockout male mice. Deletion of Bcl6 caused female-like expression of CYPs in male livers. These results suggest that Bcl6 is a key regulator of sex-related differential regulation of drug metabolism. Moreover, serum sex hormone levels and fertility did not change in liver-specific, Bcl6-knockout mice. Hepatocytic Bcl6 regulates sex-related differential CYP expression in the liver without changing the sex of the whole body. Thus, this mouse model is useful for analyzing liver-specific sex-dependent regulation of drug metabolism and pathogenesis.
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18
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Skubic C, Drakulić Ž, Rozman D. Personalized therapy when tackling nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a focus on sex, genes, and drugs. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2018; 14:831-841. [PMID: 29969922 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2018.1492552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most frequent liver disease in the world. It describes a term for a group of hepatic diseases including steatosis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis that can finally lead to hepatocellular carcinoma. There are many factors influencing NAFLD initiation and progression, such as obesity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, genetic factors, and hormonal changes. However, there is also lean-NAFLD which is not associated with obesity. NAFLD is considered to be a sexually dimorphic disease. In most cases, men have a higher prevalence for the disease compared to premenopausal women. Areas covered: In this review, we first summarize the NAFLD disease epidemiology, pathology, and diagnosis. We describe NAFLD progression with the focus on sexual and genetic differences for disease development and pharmacological treatment. Personalized treatment for multifactorial NAFLD is discussed in consideration of different factors, including genetics, gender and sex. Expert opinion: The livers of female and male NAFLD patients have different metabolic capacities which influence the metabolism of all drugs applied to such patients. This aspect is not yet sufficiently taken into account. The liver computational models might quicken the pace toward assessing personalized disease progression and treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cene Skubic
- a Centre for Functional Genomic and Biochips, Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine , University of Ljubljana , Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Živa Drakulić
- a Centre for Functional Genomic and Biochips, Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine , University of Ljubljana , Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Damjana Rozman
- a Centre for Functional Genomic and Biochips, Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine , University of Ljubljana , Ljubljana , Slovenia
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19
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Adebayo Michael AO, Ahsan N, Zabala V, Francois-Vaughan H, Post S, Brilliant KE, Salomon AR, Sanders JA, Gruppuso PA. Proteomic analysis of laser capture microdissected focal lesions in a rat model of progenitor marker-positive hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncotarget 2018; 8:26041-26056. [PMID: 28199961 PMCID: PMC5432236 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.15219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We have shown previously that rapamycin, the canonical inhibitor of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1, markedly inhibits the growth of focal lesions in the resistant hepatocyte (Solt-Farber) model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in the rat. In the present study, we characterized the proteome of persistent, pre-neoplastic focal lesions in this model. One group was administered rapamycin by subcutaneous pellet for 3 weeks following partial hepatectomy and euthanized 4 weeks after the cessation of rapamycin. A second group received placebo pellets. Results were compared to unmanipulated control animals and to animals that underwent an incomplete Solt-Farber protocol to activate hepatic progenitor cells. Regions of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue were obtained by laser capture microdissection (LCM). Proteomic analysis yielded 11,070 unique peptides representing 2,227 proteins. Quantitation of the peptides showed increased abundance of known HCC markers (e.g., glutathione S-transferase-P, epoxide hydrolase, 6 others) and potential markers (e.g., aflatoxin aldehyde reductase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 10 others) in foci from placebo-treated and rapamycin-treated rats. Peptides derived from cytochrome P450 enzymes were generally reduced. Comparisons of the rapamycin samples to normal liver and to the progenitor cell model indicated that rapamycin attenuated a loss of differentiation relative to placebo. We conclude that early administration of rapamycin in the Solt-Farber model not only inhibits the growth of pre-neoplastic foci but also attenuates the loss of differentiated function. In addition, we have demonstrated that the combination of LCM and mass spectrometry-based proteomics is an effective approach to characterize focal liver lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeola O Adebayo Michael
- Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital and Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.,Current address: Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nagib Ahsan
- Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.,Center for Cancer Research Development, Proteomics Core Facility, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Valerie Zabala
- Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital and Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | | | - Stephanie Post
- Department of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Kate E Brilliant
- Center for Cancer Research Development, Proteomics Core Facility, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Arthur R Salomon
- Center for Cancer Research Development, Proteomics Core Facility, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Jennifer A Sanders
- Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital and Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Philip A Gruppuso
- Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital and Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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20
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Feminization of Male Mouse Liver by Persistent Growth Hormone Stimulation: Activation of Sex-Biased Transcriptional Networks and Dynamic Changes in Chromatin States. Mol Cell Biol 2017; 37:MCB.00301-17. [PMID: 28694329 PMCID: PMC5599723 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00301-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-dependent pituitary growth hormone (GH) secretory profiles-pulsatile in males and persistent in females-regulate the sex-biased, STAT5-dependent expression of hundreds of genes in mouse liver, imparting sex differences in hepatic drug/lipid metabolism and disease risk. Here, we examine transcriptional and epigenetic changes induced by continuous GH infusion (cGH) in male mice, which rapidly feminizes the temporal profile of liver STAT5 activity. cGH repressed 86% of male-biased genes and induced 68% of female-biased genes within 4 days; however, several highly female-specific genes showed weak or no feminization, even after 14 days of cGH treatment. Female-biased genes already in an active chromatin state in male liver generally showed early cGH responses; genes in an inactive chromatin state often responded late. Early cGH-responsive genes included those encoding two GH/STAT5-regulated transcriptional repressors: male-biased BCL6, which was repressed, and female-specific CUX2, which was induced. Male-biased genes activated by STAT5 and/or repressed by CUX2 were enriched for early cGH repression. Female-biased BCL6 targets were enriched for early cGH derepression. Changes in sex-specific chromatin accessibility and histone modifications accompanied these cGH-induced sex-biased gene expression changes. Thus, the temporal, sex-biased gene responses to persistent GH stimulation are dictated by GH/STAT5-regulated transcription factors arranged in a hierarchical network and by the dynamics of changes in sex-biased epigenetic states.
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21
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En route to precision medicine through the integration of biological sex into pharmacogenomics. Clin Sci (Lond) 2017; 131:329-342. [PMID: 28159880 DOI: 10.1042/cs20160379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Frequently, pharmacomechanisms are not fully elucidated. Therefore, drug use is linked to an elevated interindividual diversity of effects, whether therapeutic or adverse, and the role of biological sex has as yet unrecognized and underestimated consequences. A pharmacogenomic approach could contribute towards the development of an adapted therapy for each male and female patient, considering also other fundamental features, such as age and ethnicity. This would represent a crucial step towards precision medicine and could be translated into clinical routine. In the present review, we consider recent results from pharmacogenomics and the role of sex in studies that are relevant to cardiovascular therapy. We focus on genome-wide analyses, because they have obvious advantages compared with targeted single-candidate gene studies. For instance, genome-wide approaches do not necessarily depend on prior knowledge of precise molecular mechanisms of drug action. Such studies can lead to findings that can be classified into three categories: first, effects occurring in the pharmacokinetic properties of the drug, e.g. through metabolic and transporter differences; second, a pharmacodynamic or drug target-related effect; and last diverse adverse effects. We conclude that the interaction of sex with genetic determinants of drug response has barely been tested in large, unbiased, pharmacogenomic studies. We put forward the theory that, to contribute towards the realization of precision medicine, it will be necessary to incorporate sex into pharmacogenomics.
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22
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Sato Y, Kaneko Y, Cho T, Goto K, Otsuka T, Yamamoto S, Goto S, Maruyama H, Narita I. Prolactin Upregulates Female-Predominant P450 Gene Expressions and Downregulates Male-Predominant Gene Expressions in Mouse Liver. Drug Metab Dispos 2017; 45:586-592. [PMID: 28330858 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.116.074658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone with over 300 separate biologic activities. Its serum level is increased during pregnancy and lactation, and it has been reported that pregnancy and lactation affect drug and steroid metabolism in mice and humans. Several studies reported that pregnancy or lactation influences liver cytochrome P450 (P450) expression and its activity, affecting the biosynthesis of steroids and xenobiotics through growth hormone or sex hormones; however, the role of prolactin as the regulator of liver P450 expression has not been elucidated so far. In the present study, we focused on prolactin as the regulator of expression of liver sex-predominant genes, including P450s. To investigate the role of prolactin in the hepatic gene expressions, pCAGGS expression vector containing mouse prolactin cDNA was transfected by hydrodynamic injection into both male and female mice. Hyperprolactinemia phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 in the liver and augmented female mouse liver mRNA expression of Cyp3a16, Cyp3a41, Cyp3a44, Cyp2b9, and prolactin receptor genes, whose expressions were female-predominant in hepatocytes. Moreover, liver expression of male-predominant genes such as Cyp2d9, Cyp7b1, Mup1, and Alas2 were reduced in male mice with hyperprolactinemia. The serum levels of conventional regulators of hepatic gene expressions, growth hormone, and testosterone were not affected by hyperprolactinemia. We demonstrated that prolactin upregulated female-predominant genes in female mice and downregulated male-predominant genes in male mice. We conjecture that higher concentration of prolactin would alter steroid and xenobiotic metabolisms by modulating hepatic P450 gene expressions during pregnancy and lactation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuya Sato
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yoshikatsu Kaneko
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Takamasa Cho
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Kei Goto
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tadashi Otsuka
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Suguru Yamamoto
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Shin Goto
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Hiroki Maruyama
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
| | - Ichiei Narita
- Division of Clinical Nephrology and Rheumatology (Y.S., Y.K., T.C., K.G., T.O., S.Y., S.G., I.N.) and Department of Clinical Nephroscience (H.M.), Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Asahimachi-dori, Niigata, Japan
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23
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2017, Sexual Dimorphism, Sexual Pluralism, and More. Clin Ther 2017; 39:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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24
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Seo M, Caetano-Anolles K, Rodriguez-Zas S, Ka S, Jeong JY, Park S, Kim MJ, Nho WG, Cho S, Kim H, Lee HJ. Comprehensive identification of sexually dimorphic genes in diverse cattle tissues using RNA-seq. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:81. [PMID: 26818975 PMCID: PMC4728830 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2400-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Molecular mechanisms associated with sexual dimorphism in cattle have not been well elucidated. Furthermore, as recent studies have implied that gene expression patterns are highly tissue specific, it is essential to investigate gene expression in a variety of tissues using RNA-seq. Here, we employed and compared two statistical methods, a simple two group test and Analysis of deviance (ANODEV), in order to investigate bovine sexually dimorphic genes in 40 RNA-seq samples distributed across two factors: sex and tissue. RESULTS As a result, we detected 752 sexually dimorphic genes across tissues from two statistical approaches and identified strong tissue-specific patterns of gene expression. Additionally, significantly detected sex-related genes shared between two mammal species (cattle and rat) were identified using qRT-PCR. CONCLUSIONS Results of our analyses reveal that sexual dimorphism of metabolic tissues and pituitary gland in cattle involves various biological processes. Several differentially expressed genes between sexes in cattle and rat species are shared, but show tissue-specific patterns. Finally, we concluded that two distinct statistical approaches have their advantages and disadvantages in RNA-seq studies investigating multiple tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minseok Seo
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Kwan-ak St. 599, Kwan-ak Gu, Seoul, South Korea, 151-741, Republic of Korea.
- CHO&KIM genomics, Main Bldg. #514, SNU Research Park, Seoul National University Mt.4-2, NakSeoungDae, Gwanakgu, Seoul, 151-919, Republic of Korea.
| | | | | | - Sojeong Ka
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Animal Biotechnology Major, and Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jin Young Jeong
- Division of Animal Products R&D, National Institute of Animal science, #1500 Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju-si, Jeollabuk-do, 565-851, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sungkwon Park
- Department of food science and technology, Sejong University, 98 Gun-Ja-Dong, Seoul, 143-747, Republic of Korea.
| | - Min Ji Kim
- Department of food science and technology, Sejong University, 98 Gun-Ja-Dong, Seoul, 143-747, Republic of Korea.
| | - Whan-Gook Nho
- Department of Swine & Poultry Science, National College of Agriculture and Fisheries, #1515 Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju-si, Jeollabuk-do, 560-500, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seoae Cho
- CHO&KIM genomics, Main Bldg. #514, SNU Research Park, Seoul National University Mt.4-2, NakSeoungDae, Gwanakgu, Seoul, 151-919, Republic of Korea.
| | - Heebal Kim
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Kwan-ak St. 599, Kwan-ak Gu, Seoul, South Korea, 151-741, Republic of Korea.
- CHO&KIM genomics, Main Bldg. #514, SNU Research Park, Seoul National University Mt.4-2, NakSeoungDae, Gwanakgu, Seoul, 151-919, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Animal Biotechnology Major, and Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyun-Jeong Lee
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Kwan-ak St. 599, Kwan-ak Gu, Seoul, South Korea, 151-741, Republic of Korea.
- Division of Animal Products R&D, National Institute of Animal science, #1500 Kongjwipatjwi-ro, Wansan-gu, Jeonju-si, Jeollabuk-do, 565-851, Republic of Korea.
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25
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Fernández-Pérez L, de Mirecki-Garrido M, Guerra B, Díaz M, Díaz-Chico JC. Sex steroids and growth hormone interactions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 63:171-80. [PMID: 26775014 DOI: 10.1016/j.endonu.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
GH and sex hormones are critical regulators of body growth and composition, somatic development, intermediate metabolism, and sexual dimorphism. Deficiencies in GH- or sex hormone-dependent signaling and the influence of sex hormones on GH biology may have a dramatic impact on liver physiology during somatic development and in adulthood. Effects of sex hormones on the liver may be direct, through hepatic receptors, or indirect by modulating endocrine, metabolic, and gender-differentiated functions of GH. Sex hormones can modulate GH actions by acting centrally, regulating pituitary GH secretion, and peripherally, by modulating GH signaling pathways. The endocrine and/or metabolic consequences of long-term exposure to sex hormone-related compounds and their influence on the GH-liver axis are largely unknown. A better understanding of these interactions in physiological and pathological states will contribute to preserve health and to improve clinical management of patients with growth, developmental, and metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro Fernández-Pérez
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine and Health (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Molecular and Translational Pharmacology - BioPharm Group, Las Palmas de G.C., Spain.
| | - Mercedes de Mirecki-Garrido
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine and Health (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Molecular and Translational Pharmacology - BioPharm Group, Las Palmas de G.C., Spain
| | - Borja Guerra
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine and Health (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Molecular and Translational Pharmacology - BioPharm Group, Las Palmas de G.C., Spain
| | - Mario Díaz
- Department of Animal Biology, University of La Laguna, Laboratory of Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, La Laguna, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Díaz-Chico
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine and Health (IUIBS), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Molecular and Translational Pharmacology - BioPharm Group, Las Palmas de G.C., Spain
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Hepatic Long Intergenic Noncoding RNAs: High Promoter Conservation and Dynamic, Sex-Dependent Transcriptional Regulation by Growth Hormone. Mol Cell Biol 2015; 36:50-69. [PMID: 26459762 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00861-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Long intergenic noncoding RNAs (lincRNAs) are increasingly recognized as key chromatin regulators, yet few studies have characterized lincRNAs in a single tissue under diverse conditions. Here, we analyzed 45 mouse liver RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) data sets collected under diverse conditions to systematically characterize 4,961 liver lincRNAs, 59% of them novel, with regard to gene structures, species conservation, chromatin accessibility, transcription factor binding, and epigenetic states. To investigate the potential for functionality, we focused on the responses of the liver lincRNAs to growth hormone stimulation, which imparts clinically relevant sex differences to hepatic metabolism and liver disease susceptibility. Sex-biased expression characterized 247 liver lincRNAs, with many being nuclear RNA enriched and regulated by growth hormone. The sex-biased lincRNA genes are enriched for nearby and correspondingly sex-biased accessible chromatin regions, as well as sex-biased binding sites for growth hormone-regulated transcriptional activators (STAT5, hepatocyte nuclear factor 6 [HNF6], FOXA1, and FOXA2) and transcriptional repressors (CUX2 and BCL6). Repression of female-specific lincRNAs in male liver, but not that of male-specific lincRNAs in female liver, was associated with enrichment of H3K27me3-associated inactive states and poised (bivalent) enhancer states. Strikingly, we found that liver-specific lincRNA gene promoters are more highly species conserved and have a significantly higher frequency of proximal binding by liver transcription factors than liver-specific protein-coding gene promoters. Orthologs for many liver lincRNAs were identified in one or more supraprimates, including two rat lincRNAs showing the same growth hormone-regulated, sex-biased expression as their mouse counterparts. This integrative analysis of liver lincRNA chromatin states, transcription factor occupancy, and growth hormone regulation provides novel insights into the expression of sex-specific lincRNAs and their potential for regulation of sex differences in liver physiology and disease.
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Reizel Y, Spiro A, Sabag O, Skversky Y, Hecht M, Keshet I, Berman BP, Cedar H. Gender-specific postnatal demethylation and establishment of epigenetic memory. Genes Dev 2015; 29:923-33. [PMID: 25934504 PMCID: PMC4421981 DOI: 10.1101/gad.259309.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
DNA methylation patterns are set up in a relatively fixed programmed manner during normal embryonic development and are then stably maintained. Using genome-wide analysis, we discovered a postnatal pathway involving gender-specific demethylation that occurs exclusively in the male liver. This demodification is programmed to take place at tissue-specific enhancer sequences, and our data show that the methylation state at these loci is associated with and appears to play a role in the transcriptional regulation of nearby genes. This process is mediated by the secretion of testosterone at the time of sexual maturity, but the resulting methylation profile is stable and therefore can serve as an epigenetic memory even in the absence of this inducer. These findings add a new dimension to our understanding of the role of DNA methylation in vivo and provide the foundations for deciphering how environment can impact on the epigenetic regulation of genes in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yitzhak Reizel
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Adam Spiro
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ofra Sabag
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Yael Skversky
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Merav Hecht
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Ilana Keshet
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Benjamin P Berman
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Research Center, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Howard Cedar
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Hebrew University Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel;
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Probert PME, Meyer SK, Alsaeedi F, Axon AA, Fairhall EA, Wallace K, Charles M, Oakley F, Jowsey PA, Blain PG, Wright MC. An expandable donor-free supply of functional hepatocytes for toxicology. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tx00214h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The B-13 cell is a readily expandable rat pancreatic acinar-like cell that differentiates on simple plastic culture substrata into replicatively-senescent hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells in response to glucocorticoid exposure. B-13/H cells express a variety of liver-enriched and liver-specific genes, many at levels similar to hepatocytes in vivo. Furthermore, the B-13/H phenotype is maintained for at least several weeks in vitro, in contrast to normal hepatocytes which rapidly de-differentiate under the same simple – or even under more complex – culture conditions. The origin of the B-13 cell line and the current state of knowledge regarding differentiation to B-13/H cells are presented, followed by a review of recent advances in the use of B-13/H cells in a variety of toxicity endpoints. B-13 cells therefore offer Toxicologists a cost-effective and easy to use system to study a range of toxicologically-related questions. Dissecting the mechanism(s) regulating the formation of B-13/H cell may also increase the likelihood of engineering a human equivalent, providing Toxicologists with an expandable donor-free supply of functional rat and human hepatocytes, invaluable additions to the tool kit of in vitro toxicity tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M. E. Probert
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Stephanie K. Meyer
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Fouzeyyah Alsaeedi
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Andrew A. Axon
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Emma A. Fairhall
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Karen Wallace
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Michelle Charles
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Fiona Oakley
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Paul A. Jowsey
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Peter G. Blain
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Matthew C. Wright
- Institute Cellular Medicine, Level 4 Leech Building; Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
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29
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The incidence of sexually dimorphic gene expression varies greatly between tissues in the rat. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115792. [PMID: 25548914 PMCID: PMC4280129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The sexually dimorphic expression of genes across 26 somatic rat tissues was using Affymetrix RAE-230 genechips. We considered probesets to be sexually dimorphically expressed (SDE) if they were measurably expressed above background in at least one sex, there was at least a two-fold difference in expression (dimorphism) between the sexes, and the differences were statistically significant after correcting for false discovery. 14.5% of expressed probesets were SDE in at least one tissue, with higher expression nearly twice as prevalent in males compared to females. Most were SDE in a single tissue. Surprisingly, nearly half of the probesets that were (SDE) in multiple tissues were oppositely sex biased in different tissues, and most SDE probesets were also expressed without sex bias in other tissues. Two genes were widely SDE: Xist (female-only) and Eif2s3y (male-only). The frequency of SDE probesets varied widely between tissues, and was highest in the duodenum (6.2%), whilst less than 0.05% in over half of the surveyed tissues. The occurrence of SDE probesets was not strongly correlated between tissues. Within individual tissues, however, relational networks of SDE genes were identified. In the liver, networks relating to differential metabolism between the sexes were seen. The estrogen receptor was implicated in differential gene expression in the duodenum. To conclude, sexually dimorphic gene expression is common, but highly tissue-dependent. Sexually dimorphic gene expression may provide insights into mechanisms underlying phenotypic sex differences. Online data are provided as a resource for further analyses (GEO reference GSE63362).
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Velenosi TJ, Feere DA, Sohi G, Hardy DB, Urquhart BL. Decreased nuclear receptor activity and epigenetic modulation associates with down-regulation of hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes in chronic kidney disease. FASEB J 2014; 28:5388-97. [PMID: 25208844 DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-258780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) require many medications. CYP2C and CYP3A drug-metabolizing enzymes play a critical role in determining the pharmacokinetics of the majority of prescribed medications. These enzymes are transcriptionally regulated by the nuclear receptors pregnane X receptor (PXR) and hepatic nuclear factor 4α (HNF-4α). Expression of CYP2C and CYP3A is decreased in CKD; however, the mechanisms by which this occurs is unknown. We induced CKD in rats by 5/6 nephrectomy and used chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to determine nuclear receptor- and epigenetic alteration-mediated differences in the promoter region of the CYP2C and CYP3A genes. RNA polymerase II and HNF-4α binding was decreased 76 and 57% in the CYP2C11 promotor and 71 and 77% in the CYP3A2 promoter, respectively (P<0.05). ChIP also revealed a 57% decrease in PXR binding to the CYP3A2 promoter in CKD rats (P<0.05). The decrease in PXR and HNF-4α binding was accompanied by diminished histone 4 acetylation in the CYP3A2 promoter (48%) and histone 3 acetylation in the CYP2C11 (77%) and CYP3A2 (77%) promoter loci for nuclear receptor activation (P<0.05). This study suggests that decreased nuclear receptor binding and histone acetylation may contribute to the mechanism of drug-metabolizing enzyme down-regulation and altered pharmacokinetics in CKD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Daniel B Hardy
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, and
| | - Bradley L Urquhart
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada Department of Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada; and
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Oberley CC, Bilger A, Drinkwater NR. Genetic background determines if Stat5b suppresses or enhances murine hepatocarcinogenesis. Mol Carcinog 2014; 54:959-70. [PMID: 24838184 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Murine hepatocarcinogenesis requires growth hormone (GH). To determine if the GH-responsive transcription factor STAT5b (signal transducer and activator of transcription 5b) is also required, we compared the hepatic gene expression profiles of global Stat5b null mice to cancer-resistant mice mutant in the GH pathway-GH-deficient little and androgen receptor-null Tfm males. We found a high degree of overlap among Tfm, little, and Stat5b null males. The liver cancer susceptibility of global Stat5b null mice was assessed on three distinct genetic backgrounds: BALB/cJ (BALB), C57BL/6J (B6), and C3H/HeJ (C3H). The effect of Stat5b on hepatocarcinogenesis depended on the genetic background. B6 Stat5b null congenic males and females developed 2.4 times as many tumors as wild-type (WT) controls (P < 0.002) and the tumors were larger (P < 0.003). In BALB/c congenics, loss of STAT5b had no effect on either sex. C3H Stat5b null congenic males and females were resistant to liver cancer, developing 2.7- and 6-fold fewer tumors, respectively (P < 0.02, 0.01). These results provide the first example of a single gene behaving as both oncogene and tumor suppressor in a given tissue, depending only on the endogenous modifier alleles carried by different genetic backgrounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Oberley
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Andrea Bilger
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Norman R Drinkwater
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
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32
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Castañeda-Gutiérrez E, Moser M, García-Ródenas C, Raymond F, Mansourian R, Rubio-Aliaga I, Viguet-Carrin S, Metairon S, Ammon-Zufferey C, Avanti-Nigro O, Macé K, Silva-Zolezzi I. Effect of a mixture of bovine milk oligosaccharides, Lactobacillus rhamnosus NCC4007 and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on catch-up growth of intra-uterine growth-restricted rats. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2014; 210:161-73. [PMID: 23834457 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIM To investigate the effect of a nutritional mixture (bovine milk oligosaccharides, Lactobacillus rhamnosus NCC4007, arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid) on growth of intrauterine growth-restricted (IUGR) rats. METHODS IUGR was induced by maternal food restriction. The offspring (males and females) were assigned to: REF (non-IUGR, no mixture), IUGRc (IUGR, no mixture), or IUGRmx (IUGR, mixture). The mixture was given from day 7 to day 58, when tissues and plasma from half of the animals were collected for hormones, metabolites and microarray analysis. The rest received a high-fat diet (HFD) until day 100. Glucose tolerance was measured at 56 and 98 days, and body fat content at 21, 52 and 97 days. RESULTS IUGRmx had the greatest growth during lactation, but from day 22 to day 54, both IUGR groups gained less body weight than the REF (P < 0.05). In the short-term (58 days), IUGRmx tended to be longer (P = 0.06) and had less body fat (P = 0.03) than IUGRc. These differences were not seen after HFD. Microarray analysis of hepatic mRNA expression at 58 and 100 days revealed a gender-dependent treatment effect, and expression of genes related to lipid metabolism was the most affected. Twelve of these genes were selected for studying differences in DNA methylation in the promoter region, for some, we observed age- and gender-related differences but none because of treatment. CONCLUSION The nutritional intervention promoted catch-up growth and normalized excessive adiposity in IUGR animals at short-term. The benefits did not extend after a period of HFD. IUGR and early diet had gender-dependent effects on hepatic gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M. Moser
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - C. García-Ródenas
- Department of Nutrition and Health; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - F. Raymond
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - R. Mansourian
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - I. Rubio-Aliaga
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - S. Viguet-Carrin
- Department of Nutrition and Health; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - S. Metairon
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - C. Ammon-Zufferey
- Department of Nutrition and Health; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - O. Avanti-Nigro
- Department of Nutrition and Health; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - K. Macé
- Department of Nutrition and Health; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - I. Silva-Zolezzi
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences; Nestlé Research Center; Lausanne Switzerland
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Kosters A, Sun D, Wu H, Tian F, Felix JC, Li W, Karpen SJ. Sexually dimorphic genome-wide binding of retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα) determines male-female differences in the expression of hepatic lipid processing genes in mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71538. [PMID: 23977068 PMCID: PMC3747242 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Many hepatic functions including lipid metabolism, drug metabolism, and inflammatory responses are regulated in a sex-specific manner due to distinct patterns of hepatic gene expression between males and females. Regulation for the majority of these genes is under control of Nuclear Receptors (NRs). Retinoid X Receptor alpha (RXRα) is an obligate partner for multiple NRs and considered a master regulator of hepatic gene expression, yet the full extent of RXRα chromatin binding in male and female livers is unclear. ChIP-Seq analysis of RXRα and RNA Polymerase2 (Pol2) binding was performed livers of both genders and combined with microarray analysis. Mice were gavage-fed with the RXR ligand LG268 for 5 days (30 mg/kg/day) and RXRα-binding and RNA levels were determined by ChIP-qPCR and qPCR, respectively. ChIP-Seq revealed 47,845 (male) and 46,877 (female) RXRα binding sites (BS), associated with ∼12,700 unique genes in livers of both genders, with 91% shared between sexes. RXRα-binding showed significant enrichment for 2227 and 1498 unique genes in male and female livers, respectively. Correlating RXRα binding strength with Pol2-binding revealed 44 genes being male-dominant and 43 female-dominant, many previously unknown to be sexually-dimorphic. Surprisingly, genes fundamental to lipid metabolism, including Scd1, Fasn, Elovl6, and Pnpla3-implicated in Fatty Liver Disease pathogenesis, were predominant in females. RXRα activation using LG268 confirmed RXRα-binding was 2-3 fold increased in female livers at multiple newly identified RXRα BS including for Pnpla3 and Elovl6, with corresponding ∼10-fold and ∼2-fold increases in Pnpla3 and Elovl6 RNA respectively in LG268-treated female livers, supporting a role for RXRα regulation of sexually-dimorphic responses for these genes. RXRα appears to be one of the most widely distributed transcriptional regulators in mouse liver and is engaged in determining sexually-dimorphic expression of key lipid-processing genes, suggesting novel gender- and gene-specific responses to NR-based treatments for lipid-related liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Kosters
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Deqiang Sun
- Division of Biostatistics, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Feng Tian
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Julio C. Felix
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Wei Li
- Division of Biostatistics, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Saul J. Karpen
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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Genome-wide analysis of chromatin states reveals distinct mechanisms of sex-dependent gene regulation in male and female mouse liver. Mol Cell Biol 2013; 33:3594-610. [PMID: 23836885 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00280-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chromatin state maps were developed to elucidate sex differences in chromatin structure and their impact on sex-differential chromatin accessibility and sex-biased gene expression in mouse liver. Genes in active, inactive, and poised chromatin states exhibited differential responsiveness to ligand-activated nuclear receptors and distinct enrichments for functional gene categories. Sex-biased genes were clustered by chromatin environments and mapped to DNase-hypersensitive sites (DHS) classified by sex bias in chromatin accessibility and enhancer modifications. Results were integrated with genome-wide binding data for five transcription factors implicated in growth hormone-regulated, sex-biased liver gene expression, leading to the following findings. (i) Sex-biased DHS, but not sex-biased genes, are frequently characterized by sex-differential chromatin states, indicating distal regulation. (ii) Trimethylation of histone H3 at K27 (H3K27me3) is a major sex-biased repressive mark at highly female-biased but not at highly male-biased genes. (iii) FOXA factors are associated with sex-dependent chromatin opening at male-biased but not female-biased regulatory sites. (iv) Sex-biased STAT5 binding is enriched at sex-biased DHS marked as active enhancers and preferentially targets sex-biased genes with sex-differences in local chromatin marks. (v) The male-biased repressor BCL6 preferentially targets female-biased genes and regulatory sites in a sex-independent chromatin state. (vi) CUX2, a female-specific repressor of male-biased genes, also activates strongly female-biased genes, in association with loss of H3K27me3 marks. Chromatin states are thus a major determinant of sex-biased chromatin accessibility and gene expression, with FOXA pioneer factors proposed to confer sex-dependent chromatin opening and STAT5, but not BCL6, regulating sex-biased genes by binding to sites in a sex-biased chromatin state.
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Saito K, Negishi M, James Squires E. Sexual dimorphisms in zonal gene expression in mouse liver. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 436:730-5. [PMID: 23791742 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Many of the metabolic functions of the liver are localized either in the pericentral region (zone 3) or in the periportal region (zone 1). However, a systematic analysis of the heterogeneity and sexual dimorphism of gene expression in the liver is lacking. Our objective was to obtain sections of intact tissue from zone 1 and zone 3 from both male and female mouse liver, and to measure the patterns of gene expression in these sections. Zone 1 and zone 3 areas were isolated by laser capture microdissection of liver sections, total RNA was isolated and microarray analysis was conducted using Agilent Whole Mouse Genome oligo arrays. To investigate functional characteristics as well as upstream regulators of specific gene lists, we used Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. We identified more than 925 genes in zone 1 and more than 450 genes in zone 3 of both male and female mice. Sexual dimorphism in metabolic functions was present in zone 1 but not zone 3. In zone 1, canonical pathways related to gluconeogenesis were male predominant, while canonical pathways related to hepatic progenitor cells were female predominant. In addition, we also analyzed the upstream regulators of zone-specific genes. SREBF1 was male-specific in zone 1, while TRIM24 was female-specific in zone 3. These results demonstrate the heterogeneity and sexually dimorphic differences in gene expression in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Saito
- Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Chang KA, Lin IC, Sheen JM, Chen YC, Chen CC, Tain YL, Hsieh CS, Huang LT. Sex differences of oxidative stress to cholestatic liver and kidney injury in young rats. Pediatr Neonatol 2013; 54:95-101. [PMID: 23590953 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedneo.2012.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sexual dimorphism plays a role in the liver and in renal injuries. However, whether sex is a risk factor in bile duct ligation (BDL) in young rats has never been examined. METHODS Six male and six female rats treated with BDL were sacrificed 2 weeks after surgery and were designated as BDL-M and BDL-F groups. The other six male and six female rats that received sham ligation were designated as sham-M and sham-F groups. Plasma biochemistry and liver and kidney asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA)-related molecules were examined. RESULTS Both BDL-M and BDL-F groups had elevated plasma aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), bilirubin, and transforming growth factor-β1 levels. The BDL-F group had lower plasma AST and ALT levels than the BDL-M group. The BDL-M and BDL-F groups had elevated plasma ADMA levels. The cationic amino acid transporter 1 (CAT1) level was increased in the BDL-F group as compared to the sham-F group, whereas the CAT2 level was reduced in the both BDL-M and BDL-F groups. CONCLUSION We found that young male rats were prone to higher degrees of biochemical liver and kidney injury to cholestasis. Sex differences in modulation of oxidative stress markers, such as ADMA, may play a role. Our results support careful monitoring and optimal treatment of cholestatic disease, especially in young male patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kow-Aung Chang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Túrmina JA, Carraro E, Alves da Cunha MA, Dekker RFH, Barbosa AM, Seidel dos Santos F, Silva LA, Malfatti CRM. Toxicological assessment of β-(1-->6)-glucan (lasiodiplodan) in mice during a 28-day feeding study by gavage. Molecules 2012; 17:14298-309. [PMID: 23208465 PMCID: PMC6268985 DOI: 10.3390/molecules171214298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies evaluating the toxicity caused by fungal exopolysaccharides of the β-(1-->6)-D-glucan type are rare. In this study, the toxicological effects of sub-chronic treatments with lasiodiplodan (β-(1-->6)-D-glucan from Lasiodiplodia theobromae MMPI) were evaluated in mice through the assessment of biochemical, hematological, and histopathological alterations. Thirty-two mice (16 male, 16 female) were used in this study divided in two groups; one group received lasiodiplodan (50 mg/kg body weight) daily for 28 days via gavage, and another (control group) received saline during the same period. Blood samples were collected via cardiac puncture for hematological and biochemical analyses. Liver, heart, kidney, and spleen were collected for histopathological analysis. Statistical analysis was performed through one-way analysis of variance and only p < 0.05 F-values were presented. Significant reduction in blood glucose in the male group (35%; p < 0.01), transaminases activity in both sexes (AST and ALT; ~35%; p < 0.05), and urea (20%; p < 0.01) in the female group was observed with the lasiodiplodan treatment. The results showed that sub-chronic treatments with lasiodiplodan did not generate hematological and histopathological alterations leading to signs of toxicity in healthy mice, independent of gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janaína A. Túrmina
- Pharmaceutical Science and Biodiversity Postgraduate Programs, Midwest State University, Campus CEDETEG, Guarapuava, PR, 85040-080, Brazil; E-Mails: (J.A.T.); (E.C.); (F.S.S.); (L.A.S.)
| | - Emerson Carraro
- Pharmaceutical Science and Biodiversity Postgraduate Programs, Midwest State University, Campus CEDETEG, Guarapuava, PR, 85040-080, Brazil; E-Mails: (J.A.T.); (E.C.); (F.S.S.); (L.A.S.)
| | - Mário A. Alves da Cunha
- Department of Chemistry, Federal Technological University of Parana, Pato Branco, PR, 85503-390, Brazil, E-Mail:
| | - Robert F. H. Dekker
- Biorefining Research Institute, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada; E-Mails: (R.F.H.D.); (A.M.B.)
| | - Aneli M. Barbosa
- Biorefining Research Institute, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON P7B 5E1, Canada; E-Mails: (R.F.H.D.); (A.M.B.)
| | - Fábio Seidel dos Santos
- Pharmaceutical Science and Biodiversity Postgraduate Programs, Midwest State University, Campus CEDETEG, Guarapuava, PR, 85040-080, Brazil; E-Mails: (J.A.T.); (E.C.); (F.S.S.); (L.A.S.)
| | - Luiz A. Silva
- Pharmaceutical Science and Biodiversity Postgraduate Programs, Midwest State University, Campus CEDETEG, Guarapuava, PR, 85040-080, Brazil; E-Mails: (J.A.T.); (E.C.); (F.S.S.); (L.A.S.)
| | - Carlos R. M. Malfatti
- Pharmaceutical Science and Biodiversity Postgraduate Programs, Midwest State University, Campus CEDETEG, Guarapuava, PR, 85040-080, Brazil; E-Mails: (J.A.T.); (E.C.); (F.S.S.); (L.A.S.)
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Conforto TL, Zhang Y, Sherman J, Waxman DJ. Impact of CUX2 on the female mouse liver transcriptome: activation of female-biased genes and repression of male-biased genes. Mol Cell Biol 2012; 32:4611-27. [PMID: 22966202 PMCID: PMC3486175 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00886-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The growth hormone-regulated transcription factors STAT5 and BCL6 coordinately regulate sex differences in mouse liver, primarily through effects in male liver, where male-biased genes are upregulated and many female-biased genes are actively repressed. Here we investigated whether CUX2, a highly female-specific liver transcription factor, contributes to an analogous regulatory network in female liver. Adenoviral overexpression of CUX2 in male liver induced 36% of female-biased genes and repressed 35% of male-biased genes. In female liver, CUX2 small interfering RNA (siRNA) preferentially induced genes repressed by adenovirus expressing CUX2 (adeno-CUX2) in male liver, and it preferentially repressed genes induced by adeno-CUX2 in male liver. CUX2 binding in female liver chromatin was enriched at sites of male-biased DNase hypersensitivity and at genomic regions showing male-enriched STAT5 binding. CUX2 binding was also enriched near genes repressed by adeno-CUX2 in male liver or induced by CUX2 siRNA in female liver but not at genes induced by adeno-CUX2, indicating that CUX2 binding is preferentially associated with gene repression. Nevertheless, direct CUX2 binding was seen at several highly female-specific genes that were positively regulated by CUX2, including A1bg, Cyp2b9, Cyp3a44, Tox, and Trim24. CUX2 expression and chromatin binding were high in immature male liver, where repression of adult male-biased genes and expression of adult female-biased genes are common, suggesting that the downregulation of CUX2 in male liver at puberty contributes to the developmental changes establishing adult patterns of sex-specific gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara L Conforto
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Neonatal xenoestrogen exposure alters growth hormone-dependent liver proteins and genes in adult female rats. Toxicol Lett 2012; 213:325-31. [PMID: 22842222 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-growth hormone (GH)-liver axis represents a new concept in endocrine regulation of drug toxicity. Preponderant sex differences are found in liver gene expression, mostly dependent on the sexually dimorphic pattern of GH secretion which is set during the neonatal period by gonadal steroids. We tested if GH-dependent sexually dimorphic liver enzymes and proteins was perturbed by neonatal Bisphenol A (BPA) treatment in female rats. Female rats were sc injected with BPA (50 or 500 μg/50 μl) or castor oil vehicle from postnatal day 1 to 10. At five months serum prolactin, pituitary GH, and serum and liver insulin growth factor-I (IGF-I) were measured by RIA. Major urinary proteins (MUPs) were determined by electrophoresis. Liver Cyp2c11, Cyp2c12, Adh1, Hnf6, and Prlr mRNA levels were determined by real time PCR. Pituitary GH content and liver IGF-I concentration were increased by neonatal BPA treatment, indicating partial masculinization of the GH axis in treated females. GH-dependent female predominant liver enzyme genes (Cyp2c12 and Adh1) and a transcription factor (Hnf6) were downregulated or defeminized, while there were no changes in a male predominant gene (Cyp2c11) or protein (MUP). Our findings indicate that perinatal exposure to BPA may compromise the sexually dimorphic capacity of the liver to metabolize drugs and steroids.
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Perry GML, Nehrke KW, Bushinsky DA, Reid R, Lewandowski KL, Hueber P, Scheinman SJ. Sex modifies genetic effects on residual variance in urinary calcium excretion in rat (Rattus norvegicus). Genetics 2012; 191:1003-13. [PMID: 22554889 PMCID: PMC3389963 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.112.138909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional genetics assumes common variance among alleles or genetic groups. However, evidence from vertebrate and invertebrate models suggests that residual genotypic variance may itself be under partial genetic control. Such a phenomenon would have great significance: high-variability alleles might confound the detection of "classically" acting genes or scatter predicted evolutionary outcomes among unpredicted trajectories. Of the few works on this phenomenon, many implicate sex in some aspect of its control. We found that female genetic hypercalciuric stone-forming (GHS) rats (Rattus norvegicus) had higher coefficients of variation (CVs) for urinary calcium (CV = 0.14) than GHS males (CV = 0.06), and the reverse in normocalciuric Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) (CV(♂) = 0.14; CV(♀) = 0.09), suggesting sex-by-genotype interaction on residual variance. We therefore investigated the effect of sex on absolute-transformed residuals in urinary calcium in an F(2) GHS × WKY mapping cohort. Absolute residuals were associated with genotype at two microsatellites, D3Rat46 (RNO3, 33.9 Mb) and D4Mgh1 (RNO4, 84.8 MB) at Bonferroni thresholds across the entire cohort, and with the microsatellites D3Rat46, D9Mgh2 (RNO9, 84.4 Mb), and D12Rat25 (RNO12, 40.4 Mb) in females (P < 0.05) but not males. In GHS chromosome 1 congenic lines bred onto a WKY genomic background, we found that congenic males had significantly (P < 0.0001) higher CVs for urinary calcium (CV = 0.25) than females (CV = 0.15), supporting the hypothesis of the inheritance of sex-by-genotype interaction on this effect. Our findings suggest that genetic effects on residual variance are sex linked; heritable, sex-specific residuals might have great potential implications for evolution, adaptation, and genetic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy M L Perry
- Department of Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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Dynamic, sex-differential STAT5 and BCL6 binding to sex-biased, growth hormone-regulated genes in adult mouse liver. Mol Cell Biol 2011; 32:880-96. [PMID: 22158971 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.06312-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-dependent pituitary growth hormone (GH) secretory patterns determine the sex-biased expression of >1,000 genes in mouse and rat liver, affecting lipid and drug metabolism, inflammation, and disease. A fundamental biological question is how robust differential expression can be achieved for hundreds of sex-biased genes simply based on the GH input signal pattern: pulsatile GH stimulation in males versus near-continuous GH exposure in females. STAT5 is an essential transcriptional mediator of the sex-dependent effects of GH in the liver, but the mechanisms that underlie its sex-dependent actions are obscure. Here we elucidate the dynamic, sex-dependent binding of STAT5 and the GH/STAT5-regulated repressor BCL6 to mouse liver chromatin genome wide, revealing a counteractive interplay between these two regulators of sex differences in liver gene expression. Our findings establish a close correlation between sex-dependent STAT5 binding and sex-biased target gene expression. Moreover, sex-dependent STAT5 binding correlated positively with sex-biased DNase hypersensitivity and H3-K4me1 and H3-K4me3 (activating) marks, correlated negatively with sex-biased H3-K27me3 (repressive) marks, and was associated with sex-differentially enriched motifs for HNF6/CDP factors. Importantly, BCL6 binding was preferentially associated with repression of female-biased STAT5 targets in male liver. Furthermore, BCL6 and STAT5 common targets but not BCL6 unique targets showed strong enrichment for lipid and drug metabolism. These findings provide a comprehensive, genome-wide view of the mechanisms whereby these two GH-regulated transcription factors establish and maintain sex differences affecting liver physiology and disease. The approaches used here to characterize sex-dependent STAT5 and BCL6 binding can be applied to other condition-specific regulatory factors and binding sites and their interplay with cooperative chromatin binding factors.
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Zhang Y, Klein K, Sugathan A, Nassery N, Dombkowski A, Zanger UM, Waxman DJ. Transcriptional profiling of human liver identifies sex-biased genes associated with polygenic dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23506. [PMID: 21858147 PMCID: PMC3155567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2010] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex-differences in human liver gene expression were characterized on a genome-wide scale using a large liver sample collection, allowing for detection of small expression differences with high statistical power. 1,249 sex-biased genes were identified, 70% showing higher expression in females. Chromosomal bias was apparent, with female-biased genes enriched on chrX and male-biased genes enriched on chrY and chr19, where 11 male-biased zinc-finger KRAB-repressor domain genes are distributed in six clusters. Top biological functions and diseases significantly enriched in sex-biased genes include transcription, chromatin organization and modification, sexual reproduction, lipid metabolism and cardiovascular disease. Notably, sex-biased genes are enriched at loci associated with polygenic dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease in genome-wide association studies. Moreover, of the 8 sex-biased genes at these loci, 4 have been directly linked to monogenic disorders of lipid metabolism and show an expression profile in females (elevated expression of ABCA1, APOA5 and LDLR; reduced expression of LIPC) that is consistent with the lower female risk of coronary artery disease. Female-biased expression was also observed for CYP7A1, which is activated by drugs used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Several sex-biased drug-metabolizing enzyme genes were identified, including members of the CYP, UGT, GPX and ALDH families. Half of 879 mouse orthologs, including many genes of lipid metabolism and homeostasis, show growth hormone-regulated sex-biased expression in mouse liver, suggesting growth hormone might play a similar regulatory role in human liver. Finally, the evolutionary rate of protein coding regions for human-mouse orthologs, revealed by dN/dS ratio, is significantly higher for genes showing the same sex-bias in both species than for non-sex-biased genes. These findings establish that human hepatic sex differences are widespread and affect diverse cell metabolic processes, and may help explain sex differences in lipid profiles associated with sex differential risk of coronary artery disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijing Zhang
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kathrin Klein
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Aarathi Sugathan
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Najlla Nassery
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alan Dombkowski
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Ulrich M. Zanger
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - David J. Waxman
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Baik M, Yu JH, Hennighausen L. Growth hormone-STAT5 regulation of growth, hepatocellular carcinoma, and liver metabolism. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2011; 1229:29-37. [PMID: 21793836 PMCID: PMC3427656 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06100.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The liver is a primary target of growth hormone (GH). GH signals are mediated by the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5). Here, we focus on recent discoveries about the role of GH-STAT5 signaling in hepatic physiology and pathophysiology. We discuss roles of the GH-STAT5 axis in body growth, lipid metabolism, and the cell cycle pertaining to hepatosteatosis, fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Finally, we discuss recent discoveries about the role of GH-STAT5 in sex-specific gene expression and bile acid, steroid, and drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myunggi Baik
- Deptartment of Molecular Biotechnology, WCU-RNNM, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Yu
- Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Lothar Hennighausen
- Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
- Deptartment of Molecular Biotechnology, WCU-RNNM, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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Bigsby RM, Caperell-Grant A. The role for estrogen receptor-alpha and prolactin receptor in sex-dependent DEN-induced liver tumorigenesis. Carcinogenesis 2011; 32:1162-6. [PMID: 21606321 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgr094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice treated neonatally with diethylnitrosamine (DEN) develop liver tumors in a male-dominant manner, reflecting the male bias in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Evidence suggests that estrogen, androgen, prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) modify liver tumorigenesis. We determined the roles of estrogen receptor-α (ERα) and prolactin receptor (PRLR) using receptor null mice, ERαKO (C57Bl/6J) and PRLR-KO (129Ola-X-C57BL/6), in the neonatal-DEN model of liver tumorigenesis. In both mouse strains, females had reduced tumorigenesis compared with males (P < 0.01), regardless of ERα or PRLR status. Tumorigenesis was not affected by ovariectomy in C57Bl/6J mice but it was increased by ovariectomy in the mixed strain, 129Ola-X-C57BL/6, regardless of PRLR status. ERαKO males had 47% fewer tumors than ERα wild-type males (P < 0.01). On the other hand, estradiol treatment protected against tumorigenesis in males only in the presence of ERα. As evidenced by liver gene expression, lack of ERα did not alter the pattern of GH secretion in males but resulted in the male GH pattern in females. These observations indicate that ERα is not required for lower tumorigenesis in females, but it is required for the protective effects of exogenously delivered estradiol. Unexpectedly, the results indicate that ERα plays a role in promotion of liver tumors in males. In addition, it can be concluded that sex differences in liver tumorigenesis cannot be explained by the sexually dimorphic pattern of GH secretion. The results also rule out PRL as the mediator of the protective effect of the ovaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Bigsby
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 975 West Walnut Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202-5121, USA.
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Hochberg Z, Feil R, Constancia M, Fraga M, Junien C, Carel JC, Boileau P, Le Bouc Y, Deal CL, Lillycrop K, Scharfmann R, Sheppard A, Skinner M, Szyf M, Waterland RA, Waxman DJ, Whitelaw E, Ong K, Albertsson-Wikland K. Child health, developmental plasticity, and epigenetic programming. Endocr Rev 2011; 32:159-224. [PMID: 20971919 PMCID: PMC3365792 DOI: 10.1210/er.2009-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 401] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Plasticity in developmental programming has evolved in order to provide the best chances of survival and reproductive success to the organism under changing environments. Environmental conditions that are experienced in early life can profoundly influence human biology and long-term health. Developmental origins of health and disease and life-history transitions are purported to use placental, nutritional, and endocrine cues for setting long-term biological, mental, and behavioral strategies in response to local ecological and/or social conditions. The window of developmental plasticity extends from preconception to early childhood and involves epigenetic responses to environmental changes, which exert their effects during life-history phase transitions. These epigenetic responses influence development, cell- and tissue-specific gene expression, and sexual dimorphism, and, in exceptional cases, could be transmitted transgenerationally. Translational epigenetic research in child health is a reiterative process that ranges from research in the basic sciences, preclinical research, and pediatric clinical research. Identifying the epigenetic consequences of fetal programming creates potential applications in clinical practice: the development of epigenetic biomarkers for early diagnosis of disease, the ability to identify susceptible individuals at risk for adult diseases, and the development of novel preventive and curative measures that are based on diet and/or novel epigenetic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Hochberg
- Rambam Medical Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.
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46
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Tateno C, Kataoka M, Utoh R, Tachibana A, Itamoto T, Asahara T, Miya F, Tsunoda T, Yoshizato K. Growth hormone-dependent pathogenesis of human hepatic steatosis in a novel mouse model bearing a human hepatocyte-repopulated liver. Endocrinology 2011; 152:1479-91. [PMID: 21303949 DOI: 10.1210/en.2010-0953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Clinical studies have shown a close association between nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and adult-onset GH deficiency, but the relevant molecular mechanisms are still unclear. No mouse model has been suitable to study the etiological relationship of human nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and human adult-onset GH deficiency under conditions similar to the human liver in vivo. We generated human (h-)hepatocyte chimeric mice with livers that were predominantly repopulated with h-hepatocytes in a h-GH-deficient state. The chimeric mouse liver was mostly repopulated with h-hepatocytes about 50 d after transplantation and spontaneously became fatty in the h-hepatocyte regions after about 70 d. Infusion of the chimeric mouse with h-GH drastically decreased steatosis, showing the direct cause of h-GH deficiency in the generation of hepatic steatosis. Using microarray profiles aided by real-time quantitative RT-PCR, comparison between h-hepatocytes from h-GH-untreated and -treated mice identified 14 GH-up-regulated and four GH-down-regulated genes, including IGF-I, SOCS2, NNMT, IGFLS, P4AH1, SLC16A1, SRD5A1, FADS1, and AKR1B10, respectively. These GH-up- and -down-regulated genes were expressed in the chimeric mouse liver at lower and higher levels than in human livers, respectively. Treatment of the chimeric mice with h-GH ameliorated their altered expression. h-Hepatocytes were separated from chimeric mouse livers for testing in vitro effects of h-GH or h-IGF-I on gene expression, and results showed that GH directly regulated the expression of IGF-I, SOCS2, NNMT, IGFALS, P4AH1, FADS1, and AKR1B10. In conclusion, the chimeric mouse is a novel h-GH-deficient animal model for studying in vivo h-GH-dependent human liver dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chise Tateno
- Yoshizato Project, Hiroshima Prefectural Institute of Industrial Science and Technology, Cooperative Link of Unique Science and Technology for Economy Revitalization, Higashihirosima, Hiroshima 739-0046, Japan
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Kwekel JC, Desai VG, Moland CL, Branham WS, Fuscoe JC. Age and sex dependent changes in liver gene expression during the life cycle of the rat. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:675. [PMID: 21118493 PMCID: PMC3012673 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2010] [Accepted: 11/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Age- and sex-related susceptibility to adverse drug reactions and disease is a key concern in understanding drug safety and disease progression. We hypothesize that the underlying suite of hepatic genes expressed at various life cycle stages will impact susceptibility to adverse drug reactions. Understanding the basal liver gene expression patterns is a necessary first step in addressing this hypothesis and will inform our assessments of adverse drug reactions as the liver plays a central role in drug metabolism and biotransformation. Untreated male and female F344 rats were sacrificed at 2, 5, 6, 8, 15, 21, 52, 78, and 104 weeks of age. Liver tissues were collected for histology and gene expression analysis. Whole-genome rat microarrays were used to query global expression profiles. Results An initial list of differentially expressed genes was selected using criteria based upon p-value (p < 0.05) and fold-change (+/- 1.5). Three dimensional principal component analyses revealed differences between males and females beginning at 2 weeks with more divergent profiles beginning at 5 weeks. The greatest sex-differences were observed between 8 and 52 weeks before converging again at 104 weeks. K-means clustering identified groups of genes that displayed age-related patterns of expression. Various adult aging-related clusters represented gene pathways related to xenobiotic metabolism, DNA damage repair, and oxidative stress. Conclusions These results suggest an underlying role for genes in specific clusters in potentiating age- and sex-related differences in susceptibility to adverse health effects. Furthermore, such a comprehensive picture of life cycle changes in gene expression deepens our understanding and informs the utility of liver gene expression biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua C Kwekel
- Center for Functional Genomics, Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, Arkansas 72079, USA.
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Duma D, Collins JB, Chou JW, Cidlowski JA. Sexually dimorphic actions of glucocorticoids provide a link to inflammatory diseases with gender differences in prevalence. Sci Signal 2010; 3:ra74. [PMID: 20940427 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.2001077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Males and females show differences in the prevalence of many major diseases that have important inflammatory components to their etiology. These gender-specific diseases, which include autoimmune diseases, hepatocellular carcinoma, diabetes, and osteoporosis, are largely considered to reflect the actions of sex hormones on the susceptibility to inflammatory stimuli. However, inflammation reflects a balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory signals, and investigation of gender-specific responses to the latter has been neglected. Glucocorticoids are the primary physiological anti-inflammatory hormones in mammals, and synthetic derivatives of these hormones are prescribed as anti-inflammatory agents, irrespective of patient gender. We explored the possibility that sexually dimorphic actions of glucocorticoid regulation of gene expression may contribute to the dimorphic basis of inflammatory disease by evaluating the rat liver, a classic glucocorticoid-responsive organ. Surprisingly, glucocorticoid administration expanded the set of hepatic sexually dimorphic genes. Eight distinct patterns of glucocorticoid-regulated gene expression were identified, which included sex-specific genes. Our experiments also defined specific genes with altered expression in response to glucocorticoid treatment in both sexes, but in opposite directions. Pathway analysis identified sex-specific glucocorticoid-regulated gene expression in several canonical pathways involved in susceptibility to and progression of diseases with gender differences in prevalence. Moreover, a comparison of the number of genes involved in inflammatory disorders between sexes revealed 84 additional glucocorticoid-responsive genes in the male, suggesting that the anti-inflammatory actions of glucocorticoids are more effective in males. These gender-specific actions of glucocorticoids in liver were substantiated in vivo with a sepsis model of systemic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Duma
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, MD F3-07, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Unbiased, genome-wide in vivo mapping of transcriptional regulatory elements reveals sex differences in chromatin structure associated with sex-specific liver gene expression. Mol Cell Biol 2010; 30:5531-44. [PMID: 20876297 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00601-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We have used a simple and efficient method to identify condition-specific transcriptional regulatory sites in vivo to help elucidate the molecular basis of sex-related differences in transcription, which are widespread in mammalian tissues and affect normal physiology, drug response, inflammation, and disease. To systematically uncover transcriptional regulators responsible for these differences, we used DNase hypersensitivity analysis coupled with high-throughput sequencing to produce condition-specific maps of regulatory sites in male and female mouse livers and in livers of male mice feminized by continuous infusion of growth hormone (GH). We identified 71,264 hypersensitive sites, with 1,284 showing robust sex-related differences. Continuous GH infusion suppressed the vast majority of male-specific sites and induced a subset of female-specific sites in male livers. We also identified broad genomic regions (up to ∼100 kb) showing sex-dependent hypersensitivity and similar patterns of GH responses. We found a strong association of sex-specific sites with sex-specific transcription; however, a majority of sex-specific sites were >100 kb from sex-specific genes. By analyzing sequence motifs within regulatory regions, we identified two known regulators of liver sexual dimorphism and several new candidates for further investigation. This approach can readily be applied to mapping condition-specific regulatory sites in mammalian tissues under a wide variety of physiological conditions.
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50
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Chia DJ, Rotwein P. Defining the epigenetic actions of growth hormone: acute chromatin changes accompany GH-activated gene transcription. Mol Endocrinol 2010; 24:2038-49. [PMID: 20702579 DOI: 10.1210/me.2010-0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Many of the long-term physiological effects of GH require hormone-mediated changes in gene expression. The transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 5b (Stat5b) plays a critical role in the actions of GH on growth and metabolism by regulating a large number of GH-dependent genes by incompletely understood mechanisms. Here we have assessed the impact of GH-initiated and Stat5b-mediated signaling on the chromatin landscape of hormone-regulated genes in the liver of pituitary-deficient young adult male rats. In the absence of GH there was minimal ongoing transcription at the Socs2, Cish, Igfals, and Spi 2.1 promoters, minimal occupancy of Stat5b at proximal promoter sites, and relatively closed chromatin, as evidenced by low levels of core histone acetylation. In contrast, transcriptionally silent Igf1 promoter 1 appeared poised to be activated, based on binding of coactivators p300 and Med1/Trap220, high levels of histone acetylation, and the presence of RNA polymerase II. GH treatment led to a 8- to 20-fold rise in transcriptional activity of all five genes within 30-60 min and was accompanied by binding of Stat5b to the proximal Socs2, Cish, Igfals, and Spi 2.1 promoters and to seven distal Igf1 Stat5b elements, by enhanced histone acetylation at all five promoters, by recruitment of RNA polymerase II to the Socs2, Cish, Igfals, and Spi 2.1 promoters, and by loss of the transcriptional repressor Bcl6 from Socs2, Cish, and Igfals Stat5b sites, but not from two Igf1 Stat5b domains. We conclude that GH actions induce rapid and dramatic changes in hepatic chromatin at target promoters and propose that the chromatin signature of Igf1 differs from other GH-and Stat5b-dependent genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J Chia
- Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland Oregon 97239-3098, USA
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