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Madhu SV, Aslam M, Mishra BK, Mehndiratta M. Rotational night shift work adversely affects expression of TCF7L2 and PPAR-γ genes among healthcare workers with normal glucose tolerance. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13410-022-01159-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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2
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Torres-Aguila NP, Salonna M, Hoppler S, Ferrier DEK. Evolutionary diversification of the canonical Wnt signaling effector TCF/LEF in chordates. Dev Growth Differ 2022; 64:120-137. [PMID: 35048372 PMCID: PMC9303524 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Wnt signaling is essential during animal development and regeneration, but also plays an important role in diseases such as cancer and diabetes. The canonical Wnt signaling pathway is one of the most conserved signaling cascades in the animal kingdom, with the T‐cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor (TCF/LEF) proteins being the major mediators of Wnt/β‐catenin‐regulated gene expression. In comparison with invertebrates, vertebrates possess a high diversity of TCF/LEF family genes, implicating this as a possible key change to Wnt signaling at the evolutionary origin of vertebrates. However, the precise nature of this diversification is only poorly understood. The aim of this study is to clarify orthology, paralogy, and isoform relationships within the TCF/LEF gene family within chordates via in silico comparative study of TCF/LEF gene structure, molecular phylogeny, and gene synteny. Our results support the notion that the four TCF/LEF paralog subfamilies in jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) evolved via the two rounds of whole‐genome duplications that occurred during early vertebrate evolution. Importantly, gene structure comparisons and synteny analysis of jawless vertebrate (cyclostome) TCFs suggest that a TCF7L2‐like form of gene structure is a close proxy for the ancestral vertebrate structure. In conclusion, we propose a detailed evolutionary path based on a new pre‐whole‐genome duplication vertebrate TCF gene model. This ancestor gene model highlights the chordate and vertebrate innovations of TCF/LEF gene structure, providing the foundation for understanding the role of Wnt/β‐catenin signaling in vertebrate evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria P Torres-Aguila
- Gatty Marine Laboratory, The Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Marika Salonna
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Stefan Hoppler
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - David E K Ferrier
- Gatty Marine Laboratory, The Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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Limardi PC, Oktavianthi S, Priliani L, Lestari R, Saraswati MR, Suastika K, Malik SG. Transcription factor 7-like 2 single nucleotide polymorphisms rs290487 and rs290481 are associated with dyslipidemia in the Balinese population. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13149. [PMID: 35341056 PMCID: PMC8953500 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Dyslipidemia is one of the major risks for the development of cardiovascular diseases which has been the leading cause of death in developing countries. Previously, common polymorphisms of the transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) gene have been associated with altered lipid profiles. In this study, we investigated the associations of TCF7L2 SNPs, rs290487 and rs290481, with dyslipidemia and altered lipid profile in the Balinese. Methods A total of 565 subjects from four locations in the Bali Province, Indonesia, were recruited. Serum lipid concentrations (triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol (TC)) were measured using standard protocol. SNP genotyping was done using the amplification refractory system mutation polymerase chain reaction (ARMS-PCR) method. Results We found the shifted major/minor allele frequencies of both SNPs (0.56 for rs290487 T allele, 0.53 for rs290481 T allele) in the Balinese, as compared to dbSNP. The rs290487 and rs290481 C alleles were significantly associated with dyslipidemia, particularly high TC and high LDL-C. These associations were independent of age, sex, population, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and high TyG index as a proxy for insulin resistance. The haplotype CC also showed similar association with these traits. Our findings indicate that TCF7L2 polymorphisms are associated with dyslipidemia and altered lipid profile in the Balinese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prisca C. Limardi
- Genome Diversity and Diseases Laboratory, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta, DKI Jakarta, Indonesia,Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Sukma Oktavianthi
- Genome Diversity and Diseases Laboratory, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta, DKI Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Lidwina Priliani
- Genome Diversity and Diseases Laboratory, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta, DKI Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Retno Lestari
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia
| | - Made Ratna Saraswati
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia
| | - Ketut Suastika
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia
| | - Safarina G. Malik
- Genome Diversity and Diseases Laboratory, Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta, DKI Jakarta, Indonesia
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4
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Li J, Zhou L, Ouyang X, He P. Transcription Factor-7-Like-2 (TCF7L2) in Atherosclerosis: A Potential Biomarker and Therapeutic Target. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8:701279. [PMID: 34568447 PMCID: PMC8459927 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2021.701279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcription factor-7-like-2 (TCF7L2), a vital member of the T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor (TCF/LEF) family, plays an important role in normal human physiological and pathological processes. TCF7L2 exhibits multiple anti-atherosclerotic effects through the activation of specific molecular mechanisms, including regulation of metabolic homeostasis, macrophage polarization, and neointimal hyperplasia. A single-nucleotide substitution of TCF7L2, rs7903146, is a genetic high-risk factor for type 2 diabetes and indicates susceptibility to cardiovascular disease as a link between metabolic disorders and atherosclerosis. In this review, we summarize the anti-atherosclerosis effect and novel mechanisms underlying the function of TCF7L2 to elucidate its potential as an anti-atherosclerosis biomarker and provide a novel therapeutic target for cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Li
- School of Nursing, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Li Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Public Health Medical Center, Southwest University Public Health Hospital, Chongqing, China
| | - Xinping Ouyang
- Hengyang Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration and Cognitive Impairment, Department of Physiology, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, The Neuroscience Institute, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Pingping He
- School of Nursing, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, China
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5
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Macedo CES, da Conti G, Catena AS, Bruneska D, Rosa M, Noronha CG, Santa Cruz F, Ferraz ÁAB. Assessment of TCF7L2 expression after bariatric surgery. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0216627. [PMID: 31083695 PMCID: PMC6513086 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To assess the influence of bariatric surgery on transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) expression and its association with body mass index (BMI) and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods Prospective study performed between 2016 and 2018, where 26 obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery were divided into two subgroups: diabetics and non-diabetics. The RNAs were extracted from peripheral blood samples that were obtained from each patient in two different moments: before surgery and after 12 months of follow-up. The relative expression of TCF7L2 was determined according to the delta-Ct method. Results The linear regression model of BMI x delta-Ct showed a positive correlation (p = 0.037). In the subgroups, an inversely proportional relationship was found between delta-Ct and BMI in the diabetic group and a directly proportional relationship in the non-diabetic group (p>0.05 in both). In the postoperative period, the regression model was similar to the preoperative, except when analyzing the subgroups, where diabetic patients showed a directly proportional relationship (p>0.05). The relative expression of TCF7L2 showed an average of 1.16 ± 0.91, CI-95% 0.79–1.53. There was an increase in relative expression of 48% in the non-diabetic group (p = 0.021), and a decrease of 27% in the T2DM group (p>0.05) in the postoperative. There was a positive correlation between a greater decrease in BMI and increased relative expression (p = 0.027). Conclusion Our results showed that generally, the TCF7L2 expression increase with a decrease in BMI, however, for patients with T2DM, it exhibits an inverse pattern, which is normalized one year after bariatric surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Eduardo S. Macedo
- General Surgery Unit, Hospital das Clínicas, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Guilherme da Conti
- General Surgery Unit, Hospital das Clínicas, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Andriu S. Catena
- Laboratory of Immunopathology Keizo Asami, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Danyelly Bruneska
- Laboratory of Immunopathology Keizo Asami, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Malu Rosa
- Federal University of Pernambuco School of Medicine, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Clarissa G. Noronha
- General Surgery Unit, Hospital das Clínicas, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Fernando Santa Cruz
- Federal University of Pernambuco School of Medicine, Recife, PE, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Álvaro A. B. Ferraz
- General Surgery Unit, Hospital das Clínicas, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
- Department of Surgery, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
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Fernández-Rhodes L, Howard AG, Graff M, Isasi CR, Highland HM, Young KL, Parra E, Below JE, Qi Q, Kaplan RC, Justice AE, Papanicolaou G, Laurie CC, Grant SFA, Haiman C, Loos RJF, North KE. Complex patterns of direct and indirect association between the transcription Factor-7 like 2 gene, body mass index and type 2 diabetes diagnosis in adulthood in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos. BMC OBESITY 2018; 5:26. [PMID: 30305909 PMCID: PMC6167893 DOI: 10.1186/s40608-018-0200-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Background Genome-wide association studies have implicated the transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) gene in type 2 diabetes risk, and more recently, in decreased body mass index. Given the contrary direction of genetic effects on these two traits, it has been suggested that the observed association with body mass index may reflect either selection bias or a complex underlying biology at TCF7L2. Methods Using 9031 Hispanic/Latino adults (21–76 years) with complete weight history and genetic data from the community-based Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL, Baseline 2008–2011), we estimated the multivariable association between the additive number of type 2 diabetes increasing-alleles at TCF7L2 (rs7903146-T) and body mass index. We then used structural equation models to simultaneously model the genetic association on changes in body mass index across the life course and estimate the odds of type 2 diabetes per TCF7L2 risk allele. Results We observed both significant increases in type 2 diabetes prevalence at examination (independent of body mass index) and decreases in mean body mass index and waist circumference across genotypes at rs7903146. We observed a significant multivariable association between the additive number of type 2 diabetes-risk alleles and lower body mass index at examination. In our structured modeling, we observed non-significant inverse direct associations between rs7903146-T and body mass index at ages 21 and 45 years, and a significant positive association between rs7903146-T and type 2 diabetes onset in both middle and late adulthood. Conclusions Herein, we replicated the protective effect of rs7930146-T on body mass index at multiple time points in the life course, and observed that these effects were not explained by past type 2 diabetes status in our structured modeling. The robust replication of the negative effects of TCF7L2 on body mass index in multiple samples, including in our diverse Hispanic/Latino community-based sample, supports a growing body of literature on the complex biologic mechanism underlying the functional consequences of TCF7L2 on obesity and type 2 diabetes across the life course. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40608-018-0200-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Fernández-Rhodes
- 1Department of Epidemiology, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA.,2Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Annie Green Howard
- 2Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA.,3Department of Biostatistics, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Mariaelisa Graff
- 1Department of Epidemiology, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Carmen R Isasi
- 4Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY USA
| | - Heather M Highland
- 1Department of Epidemiology, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Kristin L Young
- 1Department of Epidemiology, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Esteban Parra
- 5Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, ON Canada
| | - Jennifer E Below
- 6Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN USA
| | - Qibin Qi
- 4Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY USA
| | - Robert C Kaplan
- 4Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY USA
| | - Anne E Justice
- 7Biomedical and Translational Informatics Institute, Geisinger Health System, Danville, PA USA
| | - George Papanicolaou
- 8Epidemiology Branch, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Cathy C Laurie
- 9Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Struan F A Grant
- 10Divisions of Human Genetics and Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Christopher Haiman
- 11Department of Preventive Medicine, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Ruth J F Loos
- 12Charles R. Bronfman Instituted for Personalized Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA
| | - Kari E North
- 1Department of Epidemiology, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 123 W Franklin St, Building C, Chapel Hill, NC USA
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Zhou Y, Oskolkov N, Shcherbina L, Ratti J, Kock KH, Su J, Martin B, Oskolkova MZ, Göransson O, Bacon J, Li W, Bucciarelli S, Cilio C, Brazma A, Thatcher B, Rung J, Wierup N, Renström E, Groop L, Hansson O. HMGB1 binds to the rs7903146 locus in TCF7L2 in human pancreatic islets. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2016; 430:138-45. [PMID: 26845344 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The intronic SNP rs7903146 in the T-cell factor 7-like 2 gene (TCF7L2) is the common genetic variant most highly associated with Type 2 diabetes known to date. The risk T-allele is located in an open chromatin region specific to human pancreatic islets of Langerhans, thereby accessible for binding of regulatory proteins. The risk T-allele locus exhibits stronger enhancer activity compared to the non-risk C-allele. The aim of this study was to identify transcriptional regulators that bind the open chromatin region in the rs7903146 locus and thereby potentially regulate TCF7L2 expression and activity. Using affinity chromatography followed by Edman sequencing, we identified one candidate regulatory protein, i.e. high-mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1). The binding of HMGB1 to the rs7903146 locus was confirmed in pancreatic islets from human deceased donors, in HCT116 and in HEK293 cell lines using: (i) protein purification on affinity columns followed by Western blot, (ii) chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by qPCR and (iii) electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The results also suggested that HMGB1 might have higher binding affinity to the C-allele of rs7903146 compared to the T-allele, which was supported in vitro using Dynamic Light Scattering, possibly in a tissue-specific manner. The functional consequence of HMGB1 depletion in HCT116 and INS1 cells was reduced insulin and TCF7L2 mRNA expression, TCF7L2 transcriptional activity and glucose stimulated insulin secretion. These findings suggest that the rs7903146 locus might exert its enhancer function by interacting with HMGB1 in an allele dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuedan Zhou
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Nikolay Oskolkov
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Liliya Shcherbina
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Joyce Ratti
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, CB2 1GA, Cambridge, UK
| | - Kian-Hong Kock
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, CB2 1GA, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jing Su
- European Bioinformatics Institute, Functional Genomics, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Brian Martin
- National Institute of Mental Health NIMH, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | - Olga Göransson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Julie Bacon
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Weimin Li
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, 22100, Sweden
| | | | - Corrado Cilio
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Alvis Brazma
- European Bioinformatics Institute, Functional Genomics, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Bradley Thatcher
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Johan Rung
- European Bioinformatics Institute, Functional Genomics, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Nils Wierup
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Erik Renström
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Leif Groop
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden
| | - Ola Hansson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, 20502, Sweden.
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Kaul N, Ali S. Genes, Genetics, and Environment in Type 2 Diabetes: Implication in Personalized Medicine. DNA Cell Biol 2015; 35:1-12. [PMID: 26495765 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2015.2883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a multifactorial anomaly involving 57 genes located on 16 different chromosomes and 136 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Ten genes are located on chromosome 1, followed by seven genes on chromosome 11 and six genes on chromosomes 3. Remaining chromosomes harbor two to five genes. Significantly, chromosomes 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22, X, and Y do not have any associated diabetogenic gene. Genetic components have their own pathways encompassing insulin secretion, resistance, signaling, and β-cell dysfunction. Environmental factors include epigenetic changes, nutrition, intrauterine surroundings, and obesity. In addition, ethnicity plays a role in conferring susceptibility to T2D. This scenario poses a challenge toward the development of biomarker for quick disease diagnosis or for generating a consensus to delineate different categories of T2D patients. We believe, before prescribing a generic drug, detailed genotypic information with the background of ethnicity and environmental factors may be taken into consideration. This nonconventional approach is envisaged to be more robust in the context of personalized medicine and perhaps would cause lot less burden on the patient ensuring better management of T2D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabodita Kaul
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology , New Delhi, India
| | - Sher Ali
- Molecular Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Immunology , New Delhi, India
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Abstract
Insulin is a key hormone controlling metabolic homeostasis. Loss or dysfunction of pancreatic β-cells lead to the release of insufficient insulin to cover the organism needs, promoting diabetes development. Since dietary nutrients influence the activity of β-cells, their inadequate intake, absorption and/or utilisation can be detrimental. This review will highlight the physiological and pathological effects of nutrients on insulin secretion and discuss the underlying mechanisms. Glucose uptake and metabolism in β-cells trigger insulin secretion. This effect of glucose is potentiated by amino acids and fatty acids, as well as by entero-endocrine hormones and neuropeptides released by the digestive tract in response to nutrients. Glucose controls also basal and compensatory β-cell proliferation and, along with fatty acids, regulates insulin biosynthesis. If in the short-term nutrients promote β-cell activities, chronic exposure to nutrients can be detrimental to β-cells and causes reduced insulin transcription, increased basal secretion and impaired insulin release in response to stimulatory glucose concentrations, with a consequent increase in diabetes risk. Likewise, suboptimal early-life nutrition (e.g. parental high-fat or low-protein diet) causes altered β-cell mass and function in adulthood. The mechanisms mediating nutrient-induced β-cell dysfunction include transcriptional, post-transcriptional and translational modifications of genes involved in insulin biosynthesis and secretion, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, cell differentiation, proliferation and survival. Altered expression of these genes is partly caused by changes in non-coding RNA transcripts induced by unbalanced nutrient uptake. A better understanding of the mechanisms leading to β-cell dysfunction will be critical to improve treatment and find a cure for diabetes.
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