Cardiac output monitoring using indicator-dilution techniques: basics, limits, and perspectives. Anesth Analg. 2010;110:799-811. [PMID: 20185659 DOI: 10.1213/ane.0b013e3181cc885a]

Haemodynamic monitoring during noncardiac surgery: past, present, and future

During surgery, various haemodynamic variables are monitored and optimised to maintain organ perfusion pressure and oxygen delivery - and to eventually improve outcomes. Important haemodynamic variables that provide an understanding of most pathophysiologic haemodynamic conditions during surgery include heart rate, arterial pressure, central venous pressure, pulse pressure variation/stroke volume variation, stroke volume, and cardiac output. A basic physiologic and pathophysiologic understanding of these haemodynamic variables and the corresponding monitoring methods is essential. We therefore revisit the pathophysiologic rationale for intraoperative monitoring of haemodynamic variables, describe the history, current use, and future technological developments of monitoring methods, and finally briefly summarise the evidence that haemodynamic management can improve patient-centred outcomes.

Quantitative analysis of abdominal aortic blood flow by 99mTc-DTPA renal scintigraphy in patients with heart failure

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the characteristics of abdominal aortic blood flow in patients with heart failure (HF) using 99mTc-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) renal scintigraphy. We investigated the ability of renal scintigraphy to measure the cardiopulmonary transit time and assessed whether the time-to-peak of the abdominal aorta (TTPa) can distinguish between individuals with and without HF.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study that included 304 and 37 patients with and without HF (controls), respectively. All participants underwent 99mTc-DTPA renal scintigraphy. The time to peak from the abdominal aorta's first-pass time-activity curve was noted and compared between the groups. The diagnostic significance of TTPa for HF was ascertained through receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis and logistic regression. Factors influencing the TTPa were assessed using ordered logistic regression.

RESULTS

The HF group displayed a significantly prolonged TTPa than controls (18.5 [14, 27] s vs. 11 [11, 13] s). Among the HF categories, HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) exhibited the longest TTPa compared with HF with mildly reduced (HFmrEF) and preserved EF (HFpEF) (25 [17, 36.5] s vs. 17 [15, 23] s vs. 15 [11, 17] s) (P < 0.001). The ROC analysis had an area under the curve of 0.831, which underscored TTPa's independent diagnostic relevance for HF. The diagnostic precision was enhanced as left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) declined and HF worsened. Independent factors for TTPa included the left atrium diameter, LVEF, right atrium diameter, velocity of tricuspid regurgitation, and moderate to severe aortic regurgitation.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on 99mTc-DTPA renal scintigraphy, TTPa may be used as a straightforward and non-invasive tool that can effectively distinguish patients with and without HF.

Modified Thermodilution for Simultaneous Cardiac Output and Recirculation Assessment in Veno-venous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Prospective Diagnostic Accuracy Study

BACKGROUND

Thermodilution is unreliable in veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VV-ECMO). Systemic oxygenation depends on recirculation fractions and ratios of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) flow to cardiac output. In a prospective in vitro simulation, this study assessed the diagnostic accuracy of a modified thermodilution technique for recirculation and cardiac output. The hypothesis was that this method provided clinically acceptable precision and accuracy for cardiac output and recirculation.

METHODS

Two ECMO circuits ran in parallel: one representing a VV-ECMO and the second representing native heart, lung, and circulation. Both circuits shared the right atrium. Extra limbs for recirculation and pulmonary shunt were added. This study simulated ECMO flows from 1 to 2.5 l/min and cardiac outputs from 2.5 to 3.5 l/min with recirculation fractions (0 to 80%) and pulmonary shunts. Thermistors in both ECMO limbs and the pulmonary artery measured the temperature changes induced by cold bolus injections into the arterial ECMO limb. Recirculation fractions were calculated from the ratio of the areas under the temperature curve (AUCs) in the ECMO limbs and from partitioning of the bolus volume (flow based). With known partitioning of bolus volumes between ECMO and pulmonary artery, cardiac output was calculated. High-precision ultrasonic flow probes served as reference for Bland-Altman plots and linear mixed-effect models.

RESULTS

Accuracy and precision for both the recirculation fraction based on AUC (bias, -5.4%; limits of agreement, -18.6 to 7.9%) and flow based (bias, -5.9%; limits of agreement, -18.8 to 7.0%) are clinically acceptable. Calculated cardiac output for all recirculation fractions was accurate but imprecise (RecirculationAUC: bias 0.56 l/min; limits of agreement, -2.27 to 3.4 l/min; and RecirculationFLOW: bias 0.48 l/min; limits of agreement, -2.22 to 3.19 l/min). Recirculation fraction increased bias and decreased precision.

CONCLUSIONS

Adapted thermodilution for VV-ECMO allows simultaneous measurement of recirculation fraction and cardiac output and may help optimize patient management with severe respiratory failure.

EDITOR’S PERSPECTIVE

EFSUMB Technical Review - Update 2023: Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (DCE-CEUS) for the Quantification of Tumor Perfusion

Dynamic contrast-enhanced ultrasound (DCE-US) is a technique to quantify tissue perfusion based on phase-specific enhancement after the injection of microbubble contrast agents for diagnostic ultrasound. The guidelines of the European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB) published in 2004 and updated in 2008, 2011, and 2020 focused on the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), including essential technical requirements, training, investigational procedures and steps, guidance regarding image interpretation, established and recommended clinical indications, and safety considerations. However, the quantification of phase-specific enhancement patterns acquired with ultrasound contrast agents (UCAs) is not discussed here. The purpose of this EFSUMB Technical Review is to further establish a basis for the standardization of DCE-US focusing on treatment monitoring in oncology. It provides some recommendations and descriptions as to how to quantify dynamic ultrasound contrast enhancement, and technical explanations for the analysis of time-intensity curves (TICs). This update of the 2012 EFSUMB introduction to DCE-US includes clinical aspects for data collection, analysis, and interpretation that have emerged from recent studies. The current study not only aims to support future work in this research field but also to facilitate a transition to clinical routine use of DCE-US.

Accuracy of VO2 estimation according to the widely used Krakau formula for the prediction of cardiac output

BACKGROUND

Invasive cardiac output (CO) is measured with the thermodilution (TD) or the indirect Fick method (iFM) in right heart catheterization (RHC). The iFM estimates CO using approximation formulas for oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]O2), but there are significant discrepancies (> 20%) between both methods. Although regularly applied, the formula proposed by Krakau has not been validated. We compared the CO discrepancies between the Krakau formula with the reference (TD) and three established formulas and investigated whether alterations assessed in cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) determined the extent of the deviations.

METHODS

This retrospective study included 188 patients aged 63 ± 14 years (30% women) receiving both CMR and RHC. The CO was measured with TD or with the iFM using the formulas by Krakau, LaFarge, Dehmer, and Bergstra for [Formula: see text]O2 estimation (iFM-K/-L/-D/-B). Percentage errors were calculated as twice the standard deviation of the difference between two CO methods divided by their means; a cut-off of < 30% was regarded as acceptable. The iFM and TD-derived CO ratio was built, and deviations > 20% were counted. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify determinants of a deviation of > 20%.

RESULTS

The TD-derived CO (5.5 ± 1.7 L/min) was significantly different from all iFM (K: 4.8 ± 1.6, L: 4.3 ± 1.6; D: 4.8 ± 1.5 L/min; B: 5.4 ± 1.8 L/min all p < 0.05). The iFM-K-CO differed from all methods (p < 0.001) except iFM‑D (p = 0.19). Percentage errors between TD-CO and iFM-K/-L/-D/-B were all beyond the acceptance limit (44/45/44/43%), while percentage errors between iFM‑K and other iFM were all < 16%. None of the parameters measured in CMR was predictive of a discrepancy of > 20% between both methods.

CONCLUSION

The Krakau formula was comparable to other iFM in estimating CO levels, but none showed satisfactory agreement with the TD method. Improved derivation cohorts for [Formula: see text]O2 estimation are needed that better reflect today's patients undergoing RHC.

Cardiopulmonary interactions-which monitoring tools to use?

Heart-lung interactions occur due to the mechanical influence of intrathoracic pressure and lung volume changes on cardiac and circulatory function. These interactions manifest as respiratory fluctuations in venous, pulmonary, and arterial pressures, potentially affecting stroke volume. In the context of functional hemodynamic monitoring, pulse or stroke volume variation (pulse pressure variation or stroke volume variability) are commonly employed to assess volume or preload responsiveness. However, correct interpretation of these parameters requires a comprehensive understanding of the physiological factors that determine pulse pressure and stroke volume. These factors include pleural pressure, venous return, pulmonary vessel function, lung mechanics, gas exchange, and specific cardiac factors. A comprehensive knowledge of heart-lung physiology is vital to avoid clinical misjudgments, particularly in cases of right ventricular (RV) failure or diastolic dysfunction. Therefore, when selecting monitoring devices or technologies, these factors must be considered. Invasive arterial pressure measurements of variations in breath-to-breath pressure swings are commonly used to monitor heart-lung interactions. Echocardiography or pulmonary artery catheters are valuable tools for differentiating preload responsiveness from right ventricular failure, while changes in diastolic function should be assessed alongside alterations in airway or pleural pressure, which can be approximated by esophageal pressure. In complex clinical scenarios like ARDS, combined forms of shock or right heart failure, additional information on gas exchange and pulmonary mechanics aids in the interpretation of heart-lung interactions. This review aims to describe monitoring techniques that provide clinicians with an integrative understanding of a patient's condition, enabling accurate assessment and patient care.

Evaluation of Electrical Cardiometry for Measuring Cardiac Output and Derived Hemodynamic Variables in Comparison with Lithium Dilution in Anesthetized Dogs

Numerous cardiac output (CO) technologies were developed to replace the 'gold standard' pulmonary artery thermodilution due to its invasiveness and the risks associated with it. Minimally invasive lithium dilution (LiD) shows excellent agreement with thermodilution and can be used as a reference standard in animals. This study evaluated CO via noninvasive electrical cardiometry (EC) and acquired hemodynamic variables against CO measured using LiD in six healthy, anesthetized dogs administered different treatments (dobutamine, esmolol, phenylephrine, and high-dose isoflurane) impacting CO values. These treatments were chosen to cause drastic variations in CO, so that fair comparisons between EC and LiD across a wide range of CO values (low, intermediate, and high) could be made. Statistical analysis included linear regression, Bland-Altman plots, Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (ρ_c), and polar plots. Values of p < 0.05 represented significance. Good agreement was observed between EC and LiD, but consistent underestimation was noted when the CO values were high. The good trending ability, ρ_c of 0.88, and low percentage error of ±31% signified EC's favorable performance. Other EC-acquired variables successfully tracked changes in CO measured using LiD. EC may be a pivotal hemodynamic tool for continuously monitoring circulatory changes, as well as guiding and treating cardiovascular anesthetic complications in clinical settings.

Behaviour and stability of thermodilution signals in a closed extracorporeal circuit: a bench study

Thermodilution is the gold standard for cardiac output measurement in critically ill patients. Its application in extracorporeal therapy is limited, as a portion of the thermal indicator is drawn into the extracorporeal circuit. The behaviour of thermodilution signals in extracorporeal circuits is unknown. We investigated thermodilution curves within a closed-circuit and assessed the impact of injection volume, flow and distance on the behaviour of the thermodilution signals and catheter constants. We injected 3, 5, 7 and 10 ml of thermal indicator into a heated closed circuit. Thermistors at distances of 40, 60, 80, and 100 cm from the injection port recorded the thermodilution signals (at flow settings of 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 L/min). Area under the curve (AUC), rise time, exponential decay and catheter constants were analysed. Linear mixed-effects models were used to evaluate the impact of circuit flow, distance and injection volume. Catheter positioning did not influence AUC (78 injections). Catheter constants were independent of flow, injection volume or distance to the injection port. The distance to the injection port increased peak temperature and rise time and decreased exponential time constant significantly. The distance to the injection port did not influence catheter constants, but the properties of the thermodilution signal itself. This may influence measurements that depend on the exponential decay of the thermodilution signal such as right ventricular ejection fraction.

Agreement between Electrical Cardiometry and Pulmonary Artery Thermodilution for Measuring Cardiac Output in Isoflurane-Anesthetized Dogs

In animals, invasive pulmonary artery thermodilution (PATD) is a gold standard for cardiac output (CO) monitoring, but it is impractical in clinical settings. This study evaluates the agreement between PATD and noninvasive electrical cardiometry (EC) for measuring CO and analyzes the other EC-derived hemodynamic variables in six healthy anesthetized dogs subjected to four different hemodynamic events in a sequential order: (1) euvolemia (baseline); (2) hemorrhage (33% blood volume loss); (3) autologous blood transfusion; and (4) 20 mL/kg colloid bolus. The CO measurements obtained using PATD and EC are compared using Bland-Altman analysis, Lin's concordance correlation (LCC), and polar plot analysis. Values of p < 0.05 are considered significant. The EC measurements consistently underpredict the CO values as compared with PATD, and the LCC is 0.65. The EC's performance is better during hemorrhage, thus indicating its capability in detecting absolute hypovolemia in clinical settings. Even though the percentage error exhibited by EC is 49.4%, which is higher than the standard (<30%), EC displays a good trending ability. Additionally, the EC-derived variables display a significant correlation with the CO measured using PATD. Noninvasive EC may have a potential in monitoring trends in hemodynamics in clinical settings.

ARTERIAL DIAMETER VARIATIONS AS A NEW INDEX FOR STROKE VOLUME ASSESSMENT: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON A CONTROLLED HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK MODEL IN PIGLETS

ABSTRACT

Background: The assessment of cardiac output (CO) is a major challenge during shock. The criterion standard for CO evaluation is transpulmonary thermodilution, which is an invasive technique. Speckle tracking is an automatized method of analyzing tissue motion using echography. This tool can be used to monitor pulsed arterial diameter variations with low interobserver variability. An experimental model of controlled hemorrhagic shock allows for multiple CO variations. The main aim of this study is to show the correlation between the femoral arterial diameter variations (fADVs) and the stroke volume (SV) measured by thermodilution during hemorrhagic shock management and the resuscitation of anesthetized piglets. The secondary objective is to explore the respective correlations between SV and subaortic time-velocity index, abdominal aorta ADV, carotid ADV, and subclavian ADV. Methods : Piglets were bled until mean arterial pressure reached 40 mm Hg. Controlled hemorrhage was maintained for 30 minutes before randomizing the piglets to three resuscitation groups-the fluid-filling group (reanimated with saline solution only), NEph group (norepinephrine + saline solution), and Eph group (epinephrin + saline solution). Speckle tracking, echocardiographic, and hemodynamic measures were performed at different stages of the protocol. Results : Thirteen piglets were recruited and included for statistical analysis. Of all the piglets, 164 fADV measures were attempted and 160 were successful (98%). The correlation coefficient between fADV and SV was 0.71 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.62 to 0.78; P < 0.01). The correlation coefficient between SV and abdominal aorta ADV, subclavian ADV, and carotid ADV was 0.30 (95% CI, 0.13 to 0.46; P < 0.01), 0.56 (95% CI, 0.45 to 0.66, P < 0.01), and 0.15 (95% CI, -0.01 to 0.30, P = 0.06), respectively. Conclusions : In this hemorrhagic shock model using piglets, fADV was strongly correlated with SV.

Agreement between cardiac output estimation by multi-beat analysis of arterial blood pressure waveforms and continuous thermodilution in post cardiac surgery intensive care unit patients

We sought to assess agreement of cardiac output estimation between continuous pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) guided thermodilution (CO-CTD) and a novel pulse wave analysis (PWA) method that performs an analysis of multiple beats of the arterial blood pressure waveform (CO-MBA) in post-operative cardiac surgery patients. PAC obtained CO-CTD measurements were compared with CO-MBA measurements from the Argos monitor (Retia Medical; Valhalla, NY, USA), in prospectively enrolled adult cardiac surgical intensive care unit patients. Agreement was assessed via Bland-Altman analysis. Subgroup analysis was performed on data segments identified as arrhythmia, or with low CO (less than 5 L/min). 927 hours of monitoring data from 79 patients was analyzed, of which 26 had arrhythmia. Mean CO-CTD was 5.29 ± 1.14 L/min (bias ± precision), whereas mean CO-MBA was 5.36 ± 1.33 L/min, (4.95 ± 0.80 L/min and 5.04 ± 1.07 L/min in the arrhythmia subgroup). Mean of differences was 0.04 ± 1.04 L/min with an error of 38.2%. In the arrhythmia subgroup, mean of differences was 0.14 ± 0.90 L/min with an error of 35.4%. In the low CO subgroup, mean of differences was 0.26 ± 0.89 L/min with an error of 40.4%. In adult patients after cardiac surgery, including those with low cardiac output and arrhythmia CO-MBA is not interchangeable with the continuous thermodilution method via a PAC, when using a 30% error threshold.

Integral assessment of gas exchange during veno-arterial ECMO: accuracy and precision of a modified Fick principle in a porcine model

Assessment of native cardiac output during extracorporeal circulation is challenging. We assessed a modified Fick principle under conditions such as dead space and shunt in 13 anesthetized swine undergoing centrally cannulated veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (V-A ECMO, 308 measurement periods) therapy. We assumed that the ratio of carbon dioxide elimination (V̇co₂) or oxygen uptake (V̇o₂) between the membrane and native lung corresponds to the ratio of respective blood flows. Unequal ventilation/perfusion (V̇/Q̇) ratios were corrected towards unity. Pulmonary blood flow was calculated and compared to an ultrasonic flow probe on the pulmonary artery with a bias of 99 mL/min (limits of agreement -542 to 741 mL/min) with blood content V̇o₂ and no-shunt, no-dead space conditions, which showed good trending ability (least significant change from 82 to 129 mL). Shunt conditions led to underestimation of native pulmonary blood flow (bias -395, limits of agreement -1,290 to 500 mL/min). Bias and trending further depended on the gas (O₂, CO₂) and measurement approach (blood content vs. gas phase). Measurements in the gas phase increased the bias (253 [LoA -1,357 to 1,863 mL/min] for expired V̇o₂ bias 482 [LoA -760 to 1,724 mL/min] for expired V̇co₂) and could be improved by correction of V̇/Q̇ inequalities. Our results show that common assumptions of the Fick principle in two competing circulations give results with adequate accuracy and may offer a clinically applicable tool. Precision depends on specific conditions. This highlights the complexity of gas exchange in membrane lungs and may further deepen the understanding of V-A ECMO.

Study of the accuracy of a radial arterial pressure waveform cardiac output measurement device after cardiac surgery

BACKGROUND

Less invasive monitoring, such as radial arterial pulse contour analysis (ProAQT® sensor), represents an alternative when hemodynamic monitoring is necessary to guide postoperative management and invasive monitoring is not technically feasible. The aim of the study is to evaluate the accuracy of the ProAQT® sensor cardiac output measurements in comparison with Pulmonary Artery Catheter (PAC) during the postoperative course of patients who underwent cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass.

CASE PRESENTATION

Prospective observational study in a Surgical Intensive Care Unit of a tertiary university hospital. Ten patients with a mean age of 73.5 years were included. The main comorbidities were hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia and the preoperative left ejection fraction was 43.8 ± 14.5%. Regarding the type of surgery, six patients underwent valve surgery, two underwent coronary artery bypass grafting and two underwent aortic surgery. The cardiac index measured simultaneously by the ProAQT® sensor was compared with the PAC. The parameters were evaluated at predefined time points during the early postoperative courses (6 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h). The degree of agreement with the cardiac index between the PAC and the ProAQT® sensor along the time points was measured using the concordance correlation coefficient, Bland-Altman analysis, and four-quadrant plot. Sixty-three pairs of measurements were analyzed. We showed that measurements of cardiac index were slightly higher with PAC (β ̂ = - 0.146, p-value = 0.094). The concordance correlation coefficient for the additive model of cardiac index was 0.64 (95% Confidence Interval: 0.36, 0.82), indicating a high concordance between both sensors. Bland-Altmann analysis showed a mean bias of 0.45 L·min^-1·m^-2, limits of agreement from - 1.65 to 2.3 L·min^-1·m^-2, and percentage of error was 82.5%. Four-quadrant plot of changes in cardiac index showed a good concordance rate (75%), which increases after applying the exclusion zone (87%).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients undergoing cardiac surgery, the ProAQT® sensor may be useful to monitor cardiac index during the postoperative period, especially when more invasive monitoring is not possible.

Observational study on passive leg raising and the autonomic nervous system

In the intensive care and perioperative setting, circulation is often supported by intravenous fluid preceded by prediction of fluid responsiveness during a passive leg raising (PLR) maneuver. An increase in stroke volume (SV) or cardiac output (CO) of 10%-15% indicates that the subject may increase the flow upon volume expansion. However, the semi-recumbent position as an initial position in PLR likely reduces SV by gravitational displacement of central blood volume (CBV) to lower extremities, thereby accentuating volume responsiveness during leg raising in healthy people. Coincident with gravitational perturbations in hemodynamics, remedial changes occur in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), as expressed in spectral power in heart rate variability (HRV). This study aims to clarify these concomitant changes during PLR. A convenience number of healthy volunteers (N = 11) were recruited by advertisement in university departments. The subjects were exposed to the established PLR sequence and the heart rate (HR), mean arterial pressure (MAP), SV, and CO were sampled at 1 Hz, while electrocardiogram was recorded at 1000 Hz. Relative powers reflecting autonomic nervous system activity were assessed from spectral analysis of HRV. In response to PLR, SV increased (12.4% ± 8.7%, p < 0.0026), while HR (-7.6% ± 4.7%, p < 0.0009) and MAP (-7.6% ± 6.9%, p < 0.01) decreased, with no change in CO (4.1% ± 12.8%, ns). The HRV low-frequency component was reduced (-34%; p < 0.0095), while the high-frequency activity increased (78.5%; p < 0.0013), with a 63% decrease in the low/high frequency ratio (p < 0.0078). Thus, HRV indicated a reduced sympathetic index (semi-recumbent 0.808 vs. PLR -0.177 a.u., p < 0.001) and an increased parasympathetic index (-0.141 to 0.996 a.u., p < 0.0001). Gravitational depletion and expansion of CBV during PLR were associated with a counterregulatory autonomic response. Healthy volunteers appeared volume responsive in terms of SV, but not CO. Responses to PLR are influenced by the ANS, and HRV analysis should be included in the assessment of the PLR test.

Clinical Decision-Making in Practice with New Critical Care Ultrasound Methods for Assessing Respiratory Function and Haemodynamics in Critically Ill Patients

Situations often arise in intensive care units (ICUs) for which only sparse primary evidence or guidelines are applicable or to which existing evidence cannot be applied owing to interactions of multiple disease states. To improve and guide intensive care management in complex scenarios, ultrasonography and echocardiography are invaluable. In five clinical scenarios involving acute deterioration, serial ultrasound examinations of the respiratory system, general critical care ultrasound (GCCUS), and non-invasive haemodynamic critical care echocardiography (CCE) were used routinely. Ultrasonographic results were used to guide further management and initiate experimental therapy or transition from curative to supportive care. The process of initiation of ultrasound examinations to clinical decision-making in these complex scenarios is outlined. These case vignettes highlight the utility of ultrasound and echocardiography. When clinical management is not clear, or evidence is not available, the use of ultrasound for the evaluation of the respiratory system, GCCUS, and non-invasive haemodynamic CCE can help to guide management, reveal newly developed pathologies, lead to clinical management changes, and support the decision for employing experimental therapy approaches in a dynamic way of which few other imaging modalities or monitoring tools are currently capable.

Pilot study: advanced haemodynamic monitoring after acute spinal cord injury-Keep the pressure up?

BACKGROUND

Although the use of vasopressors to maintain haemodynamic goals after acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is still recommended, evidence regarding the target values and possible risks of this practice is limited, and data on haemodynamic parameters unaffected by catecholamines are rare. In this pilot study, we show the haemodynamic profile of patients with acute SCI mainly unaffected by vasopressor use and other factors that influence the cardiovascular system.

METHODS

From March 2018 to March 2020, we conducted a prospective, single-centre pilot study of 30 patients with acute SCI. Factors that could affect the cardiocirculatory system other than SCI (sepsis, pre-existing heart disease or multiple trauma) led to exclusion. A total of 417 measurements were performed using the PiCCO™ system.

RESULTS

The mean systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI, 1447.23 ± 324.71 dyn*s*cm^-5*m²), mean central venous pressure (CVP, 10.69 ± 3.16) and mean global end-diastolic volume index (GEDVI, 801.79 ± 158.95 ml/m²) deviated from the reference range, while the mean cardiac index (CI), mean stroke volume index (SVI), mean arterial pressure (MAP), and mean heart rate (HR) were within the reference range, as indicated in the literature. A mixed model analysis showed a significant negative relationship between norepinephrine treatment and MAP (83.97 vs. 73.69 mmHg, p < 0.001), SVRI (1463.40 vs. 1332.14 dyn*s*cm^-5*m², p = 0.001) and GEDVI (808.89 vs. 759.39 ml/m², p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

These findings could lead to an adaptation of the target range for SVRI and MAP in patients with acute SCI and therefore reduce the use of vasopressors.

Cardiac output monitoring - invasive and noninvasive

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this article is to review various contemporary cardiac output (CO) measurement technologies available and their utility in critically ill patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

CO measurement devices can be invasive, minimally invasive, or noninvasive depending upon their method of CO measurement. All devices have pros and cons, with pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) being the gold standard. The invasive techniques are more accurate; however, their invasiveness can cause more complications. The noninvasive devices predict CO via mathematical modeling with several assumptions and are thus prone to errors in clinical situations. Recently, PAC has made a comeback into clinical practice especially in cardiac intensive care units (ICUs). Critical care echocardiography (CCE) is an upcoming tool that not only provides CO but also helps in differential diagnosis. Lack of proper training and nonavailability of equipment are the main hindrances to the wide adoption of CCE.

SUMMARY

PAC thermodilution for CO measurement is still gold standard and most suitable in patients with cardiac pathology and with experienced user. CCE offers an alternative to thermodilution and is suitable for all ICUs; however, structural training is required.

Hemodynamic profiling by critical care echocardiography could be more accurate than invasive techniques and help identify targets for treatment

In this prospective observational study, non-invasive critical care echocardiography (CCE) was used to obtain quantitative hemodynamic parameters in 107 intensive care unit (ICU) patients; the parameters were then visualized in a novel web graph approach to increase the understanding and impact of CCE abnormalities, as an alternative to thermodilution techniques. Visualizing the CCE hemodynamic data in six-dimensional web graph plots was feasible in almost all ICU patients. In 23.1% of patients, significant tricuspid regurgitation prevented correlation between thermodilution techniques and echocardiographic hemodynamics. Two parameters of longitudinal right ventricular function (TAPSE and S') did not correlate in ICU patients. Clinical surrogate parameters of hemodynamic compromise did not correlate with measured hemodynamics. 26.2% of the patients with mean arterial pressures above 60 mmHg had cardiac indices (CI) below 2.5 L min-1·m-2. A CI below 2.2 L·min-1·m-2 was associated with a significant ICU survival disadvantage. CCE was feasible in addition or as an alternative to thermodilution techniques for the hemodynamic evaluation of ICU patients. Six-dimensional web graph plots visualized the hemodynamic states and were especially useful in conditions in which thermodilution methods were not reliable. Hemodynamic CCE identified patients with previously unknown low CI, which correlated with a higher ICU mortality.

[Targeted hemodynamic monitoring in the operating theatre: what for and by what means?]

Goal directed hemodynamic monitoring and the balance in goal directed therapy between adequate fluid/volume therapy and the application of vasoactive or inotropic drugs are the basic elements of modern perioperative therapy.Surgical procedures should be accompanied by as few side effects and complications as possible. Nevertheless, the number of postoperative complications remains surprisingly high, despite of the modern surgical procedures. Anticipation of potential complications in the perioperative period and their rapid treatment build a core competence of anesthesiological action. Thus, it is clear that anesthesia plays a central role in this balancing act.This article aims to provide an overview of the application of the currently available perioperative goal directed hemodynamic monitoring. The current possibilities are discussed by using a case example and an outlook on the future of hemodynamic monitoring is given.

[Intraoperative Hemodynamic Monitoring and Management]

Postoperative deaths are a consequence of postoperative complications - including acute kidney injury and myocardial injury. Postoperative complications are associated with non-modifiable patient-specific risk factors (i.e., age, medical history), but also with potentially modifiable risk factors - including intraoperative hypotension and compromised intraoperative blood flow. Based on patient- and surgery-specific risk factors, the intraoperative hemodynamic monitoring strategy needs to be selected. Intraoperative hypotension is associated with postoperative organ failure and should thus be avoided. To optimize intraoperative hemodynamics, cardiac output-guided hemodynamic management has been proposed. Cardiac output-guided hemodynamic management aims at optimizing oxygen delivery using fluids, vasopressors, and inotropes. Cardiac output-guided hemodynamic management has been shown to reduce postoperative complications compared to routine hemodynamic management in high-risk patients having major surgery.

Evaluation of Local Skeletal Muscle Blood Flow in Manipulative Therapy by Diffuse Correlation Spectroscopy

Manipulative therapy (MT) is applied to motor organs through a therapist’s hands. Although MT has been utilized in various medical treatments based on its potential role for increasing the blood flow to the local muscle, a quantitative validation of local muscle blood flow in MT remains challenging due to the lack of appropriate bedside evaluation techniques. Therefore, we investigated changes in the local blood flow to the muscle undergoing MT by employing diffuse correlation spectroscopy, a portable and emerging optical measurement technology that non-invasively measures blood flow in deep tissues. This study investigated the changes in blood flow, heart rate, blood pressure, and autonomic nervous activity in the trapezius muscle through MT application in 30 volunteers without neck and shoulder injury. Five minutes of MT significantly increased the median local blood flow relative to that of the pre-MT period (p &lt; 0.05). The post-MT local blood flow increase was significantly higher in the MT condition than in the control condition, where participants remained still without receiving MT for the same time (p &lt; 0.05). However, MT did not affect the heart rate, blood pressure, or cardiac autonomic nervous activity. The post-MT increase in muscle blood flow was significantly higher in the participants with muscle stiffness in the neck and shoulder regions than in those without (p &lt; 0.05). These results suggest that MT could increase the local blood flow to the target skeletal muscle, with minimal effects on systemic circulatory function.

Comparison of Repetitive Cardiac Output Measurements at Rest and End-Exercise by Direct Fick Using Pulse Oximetry vs. Blood Gases in Patients With Pulmonary Hypertension

Background: Exact and simultaneous measurements of mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) and cardiac output (CO) are crucial to calculate pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), which is essential to define pulmonary hypertension (PH). Simultaneous measurements of mPAP and CO are not feasible using the direct Fick (DF) method, due to the necessity to sample blood from the catheter-tip. We evaluated a modified DF method, which allows simultaneous measurement of mPAP and CO without needing repetitive blood samples.

Methods: Twenty-four patients with pulmonary arterial or chronic thromboembolic PH had repetitive measurements of CO at rest and end-exercise during three phases of a crossover trial. CO was assessed by the original DF method using oxygen uptake, measured by a metabolic unit, and arterial and mixed venous oxygen saturations from co-oximetry of respective blood gases served as reference. These CO measurements were then compared with a modified DF method using pulse oximetry at the catheter- and fingertip.

Results: The bias among CO measurements by the two DF methods at rest was −0.26 L/min with limits of agreement of ±1.66 L/min. The percentage error was 28.6%. At the end-exercise, the bias between methods was 0.29 L/min with limits of agreement of ±1.54 L/min and percentage error of 16.1%.

Conclusion: Direct Fick using a catheter- and fingertip pulse oximetry (DFp) is a practicable and reliable method for assessing CO in patients with PH. This method has the advantage of allowing simultaneous measurement of PAP and CO, and frequent repetitive measurements are needed during exercise.

Clinical Trial Registration:https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02755259, identifier: NCT02755259.

Carbon Dioxide Elimination After Sodium Bicarbonate Administration as a Novel Method to Assess Cardiac Output: A Pilot Study

Introduction

Cardiac output/pulmonary blood flow measurement is an important way to assess patients during the perioperative period, as well as patients who are critically ill. Current methods of assessing cardiac output have limitations. One indicator of cardiac output may be the expired carbon dioxide (CO₂) partial pressure response to intravenous sodium bicarbonate (IVSB), which is rapidly converted to CO₂.

Methods

We conducted an initial evaluation of the relationship between expired CO₂ partial pressure and blood flow after a bolus of IVSB. To assess this relationship, we used a cardiopulmonary bypass circuit with predetermined blood flows in a laboratory trial and then assessed 18 patients undergoing surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass.

Results

For the laboratory portion of this pilot study, higher peak expired CO₂, faster time to reach peak, higher area under the curve, and greater kurtosis of peak were observed at higher cardiac output flow rates, and higher mean expired CO₂ was significantly associated with higher flow rates (p < 0.001). In the human study, higher mean (p = 0.023) and peak expired CO₂ (p = 0.028) were both significantly associated with higher cardiac output flow rates.

Conclusions

This technique may be a way to intermittently assess cardiac output or improve accuracy when used in conjunction with other continuous output monitors.

Lung simulation to support non-invasive pulmonary blood flow measurement in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in animals. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2021;2021:76-79. [PMID: 34891243 DOI: 10.1109/embc46164.2021.9630893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

Patients undergoing mechanical lung ventilation are at risk of lung injury. A noninvasive bedside lung monitor may benefit these patients. The Inspired Sinewave Test (IST) can measure cardio-pulmonary parameters noninvasively. We propose a lung simulation to improve the measurement of pulmonary blood flow using IST. The new method was applied to 12 pigs' data before lung injury (control) and after lung injury (ARDS model). Results using the lung simulation shown improvements in correlation in both simulated data (R² increased from 0.98 to 1) and pigs' data (R² increased from <0.001 to 0.26). Paired blood flow measurements were performed by both the IST (noninvasive) and thermodilution (invasive). In the control group, the bias of the two methods was negligible (0.02L/min), and the limit of agreement was from -1.20 to 1.18 L/min. The bias was -0.68 L/min in the ARDS group and with a broader limit of agreement (-2.49 to 1.13 L/min).Clinical Relevance- the inspired sinewave test can be used to measure cardiac output noninvasively in mechanically ventilated subjects with and without acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Lithium dilution cardiac output measurements in isoflurane-anaesthetised goats: Jugular versus cephalic lithium chloride administration

The administration of lithium chloride (LiCl) for cardiac output (CO) measurement via a peripheral instead of a central vein has been described previously as a valid alternative route in pigs and dogs. The aim of the study was to compare CO measurements after administration of LiCl using two peripheral veins, cephalic or jugular, in goats. Ten adult, female, experimental goats undergoing bilateral stifle arthrotomy were recruited for the study. Paired CO measurements were taken two minutes apart during stable conditions in isoflurane-anaesthetised goats. Forty-two paired CO measurements were taken in total, and the median (range) of paired CO measurement per goat were 4.5 (3-6). The mean (SD) CO using the cephalic and jugular vein for injection of LiCl was 5.28 (1.29) L min^-1 and 5.20 (1.24) L min^-1 respectively. The Bland-Altman analysis showed an acceptable agreement with a mean bias of 1.33% with limits of agreement (LoA) of -18.43 to 21.09%. The percentage of error was 25%. The four-quadrant plot analysis showed a poor agreement (71%) between the two routes. The polar plot showed a poor trending ability. An 86% inclusion rate (18/21 points) was reached with a ± 35° radial sector size. The findings revealed that the agreement between the two routes is not as precise as the authors expected, however the results are comparable with studies published previously.

Clinical Application of the Fluid Challenge Approach in Goal-Directed Fluid Therapy: What Can We Learn From Human Studies?

Resuscitative fluid therapy aims to increase stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO) and restore/improve tissue oxygen delivery in patients with circulatory failure. In individualized goal-directed fluid therapy (GDFT), fluids are titrated based on the assessment of responsiveness status (i.e., the ability of an individual to increase SV and CO in response to volume expansion). Fluid administration may increase venous return, SV and CO, but these effects may not be predictable in the clinical setting. The fluid challenge (FC) approach, which consists on the intravenous administration of small aliquots of fluids, over a relatively short period of time, to test if a patient has a preload reserve (i.e., the relative position on the Frank-Starling curve), has been used to guide fluid administration in critically ill humans. In responders to volume expansion (defined as individuals where SV or CO increases ≥10–15% from pre FC values), FC administration is repeated until the individual no longer presents a preload reserve (i.e., until increases in SV or CO are <10–15% from values preceding each FC) or until other signs of shock are resolved (e.g., hypotension). Even with the most recent technological developments, reliable and practical measurement of the response variable (SV or CO changes induced by a FC) has posed a challenge in GDFT. Among the methods used to evaluate fluid responsiveness in the human medical field, measurement of aortic flow velocity time integral by point-of-care echocardiography has been implemented as a surrogate of SV changes induced by a FC and seems a promising non-invasive tool to guide FC administration in animals with signs of circulatory failure. This narrative review discusses the development of GDFT based on the FC approach and the response variables used to assess fluid responsiveness status in humans and animals, aiming to open new perspectives on the application of this concept to the veterinary field.

Perioperative Hemodynamic Monitoring: An Overview of Current Methods

Perioperative hemodynamic monitoring is an essential part of anesthetic care. In this review, we aim to give an overview of methods currently used in the clinical routine and experimental methods under development. The technical aspects of the mentioned methods are discussed briefly. This review includes methods to monitor blood pressures, for example, arterial pressure, mean systemic filling pressure and central venous pressure, and volumes, for example, global end-diastolic volume (GEDV) and extravascular lung water. In addition, monitoring blood flow (cardiac output) and fluid responsiveness (preload) will be discussed.

Comparative study between suprasternal and apical windows: a user-friendly cardiac output measurement for the anesthesiologist

INTRODUCTION

Transthoracic echocardiography is a safe and readily available tool for noninvasive monitoring of Cardiac Output (CO). The use of the suprasternal window situated at the sternal notch can be an alternative approach for estimating blood flow. The present study aimed to compare two methods of CO calculation. We compared the descending aorta Velocity-Time Integral (VTI) measurement from the suprasternal window view with the standard technique to determine CO that uses VTI measurements from the LVOT (Left Ventricular Outflow Tract) view. We also aimed to find out whether after basic training a non-echocardiographer operator can obtain reproducible measurements of VTI using this approach.

METHODS

In the first part of the study, 26 patients without known cardiovascular diseases were evaluated and VTI data were acquired from the suprasternal window by a non-echocardiographer and an echocardiographer. Next, 17 patients were evaluated by an echocardiographer only and VTI and CO measurements were obtained from suprasternal and apical windows. Data were analyzed using the Bland and Altman method (BA), correlation and regression.

RESULTS

We found a strong correlation between measurements obtained by a non-expert and an expert echocardiographer and detected that an inexperienced trainee can acquire VTI measurements from the suprasternal window view. Regarding agreement between CO measurements, data obtained showed a positive correlation and the Bland and Altman analysis presented a total variation of 38.9%.

CONCLUSION

Regarding accuracy, it is likely that TTE (Transthoracic Echocardiogram) measurements of CO from the suprasternal window view are comparable to other minimally invasive techniques currently available. Due to its user-friendliness and low cost, it can be a convenient technique for obtaining perioperative hemodynamic measurements, even by inexperienced operators.

Transpulmonary thermodilution in patients treated with veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

BACKGROUND

We tested the effect of different blood flow levels in the extracorporeal circuit on the measurements of cardiac stroke volume (SV), global end-diastolic volume index (GEDVI) and extravascular lung water index derived from transpulmonary thermodilution (TPTD) in 20 patients with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) treated with veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).

METHODS

Comparative SV measurements with transesophageal echocardiography and TPTD were performed at least 5 times during the treatment of the patients. The data were interpreted with a Bland-Altman analysis corrected for repeated measurements. The interchangeability between both measurement modalities was calculated and the effects of extracorporeal blood flow on SV measurements with TPTD was analysed with a linear mixed effect model. GEDVI and EVLWI measurements were performed immediately before the termination of the ECMO therapy at a blood flow of 6 l/min, 4 l/min and 2 l/min and after the disconnection of the circuit in 7 patients.

RESULTS

170 pairs of comparative SV measurements were analysed. Average difference between the two modalities (bias) was 0.28 ml with an upper level of agreement of 40 ml and a lower level of agreement of -39 ml within a 95% confidence interval and an overall interchangeability rate between TPTD and Echo of 64%. ECMO blood flow did not influence the mean bias between Echo and TPTD (0.03 ml per l/min of ECMO blood flow; p = 0.992; CI - 6.74 to 6.81). GEDVI measurement was not significantly influenced by the blood flow in the ECMO circuit, whereas EVLWI differed at a blood flow of 6 l/min compared to no ECMO flow (25.9 ± 10.1 vs. 11.0 ± 4.2 ml/kg, p = 0.0035).

CONCLUSIONS

Irrespectively of an established ECMO therapy, comparative SV measurements with Echo and TPTD are not interchangeable. Such caveats also apply to the interpretation of EVLWI, especially with a high blood flow in the extracorporeal circulation. In such situations, the clinician should rely on other methods of evaluation of the amount of lung oedema with the haemodynamic situation, vasopressor support and cumulative fluid balance in mind.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00021050). Registered 03/30/2020 https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00017237.

Transit Time Measurement in Indicator Dilution Curves: Overcoming the Missing Ground Truth and Quantifying the Error

The vascular function of a vessel can be qualitatively and intraoperatively checked by recording the blood dynamics inside the vessel via fluorescence angiography (FA). Although FA is the state of the art in proving the existence of blood flow during interventions such as bypass surgery, it still lacks a quantitative blood flow measurement that could decrease the recurrence rate and postsurgical mortality. Previous approaches show that the measured flow has a significant deviation compared to the gold standard reference (ultrasonic flow meter). In order to systematically address the possible sources of error, we investigated the error in transit time measurement of an indicator. Obtaining in vivo indicator dilution curves with a known ground truth is complex and often not possible. Further, the error in transit time measurement should be quantified and reduced. To tackle both issues, we first computed many diverse indicator dilution curves using an in silico simulation of the indicator's flow. Second, we post-processed these curves to mimic measured signals. Finally, we fitted mathematical models (parabola, gamma variate, local density random walk, and mono-exponential model) to re-continualize the obtained discrete indicator dilution curves and calculate the time delay of two analytical functions. This re-continualization showed an increase in the temporal accuracy up to a sub-sample accuracy. Thereby, the Local Density Random Walk (LDRW) model performed best using the cross-correlation of the first derivative of both indicator curves with a cutting of the data at 40% of the peak intensity. The error in frames depends on the noise level and is for a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 20 dB and a sampling rate of f_s = 60 Hz at fs-1·0.25(±0.18), so this error is smaller than the distance between two consecutive samples. The accurate determination of the transit time and the quantification of the error allow the calculation of the error propagation onto the flow measurement. Both can assist surgeons as an intraoperative quality check and thereby reduce the recurrence rate and post-surgical mortality.

Potential application of dynamic contrast enhanced ultrasound in predicting microvascular invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the clinical value of dynamic contrast enhanced ultrasound (D-CEUS) in predicting the microvascular invasion (MVI) of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In this retrospective study, 16 patients with surgery and histopathologically proved HCC lesions were included. Patients were classified according to the presence of MVI: MVI positive group (n = 6) and MVI negative group (n = 10). Contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) examinations were performed within a week before surgery. Dynamic analysis was performed by VueBox® software (Bracco, Italy). Three regions of interests (ROIs) were set in the center of HCC lesions, at the margin of HCC lesions and in the surrounding liver parenchyma accordingly. Time intensity curves (TICs) were generated and quantitative perfusion parameters including WiR (wash-in rate), WoR (wash-out rate), WiAUC (wash-in area under the curve), WoAUC (wash-out area under the curve) and WiPi (wash-in perfusion index) were obtained and analyzed.

RESULTS

All of HCC lesions showed arterial hyperenhancement (100 %) and at the late phase as hypoenhancement (75%) in CEUS. Among all CEUS quantitative parameters, the WiAUC and WoAUC were higher in MVI positive group than in MVI negative group in the center HCC lesions (P < 0.05), WiAUC, WoAUC and WiPI were higher in MVI positive group than in MVI negative group at the margin of HCC lesions. WiR and WoR were significant higher in MVI positive group.

CONCLUSIONS

D-CEUS with quantitative perfusion analysis has potential clinical value in predicting the existence of MVI in HCC lesions.

Physiologic and hemodynamic changes in patients undergoing open abdominal cytoreductive surgery with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy

Objective

We aimed to determine the physiological and hemodynamic changes in patients who were undergoing hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) cytoreductive surgeries.

Methods

This prospective, observational study enrolled 21 patients who were undergoing elective cytoreductive surgery with HIPEC at our hospital over 2 years. We collected vital signs, hemodynamic parameters including global end-diastolic volume index (GEVI) and extravascular lung water index (ELWI) using the VolumeView™ system, and arterial blood gas analysis from all patients. Data were recorded before skin incision (T1); 30 minutes before HIPEC initiation (T2); 30 (T3), 60 (T4), and 90 (T5) minutes after HIPEC initiation; 30 minutes after HIPEC completion (T6); and 10 minutes before surgery completion (T7).

Results

Patients showed an increase in body temperature and cardiac index and a decrease in the systemic vascular resistance index. GEDI was 715.4 (T1) to 809.7 (T6), and ELWI was 6.9 (T1) to 7.3 (T5).

Conclusions

HIPEC increased patients’ body temperature and cardiac output and decreased systemic vascular resistance. Although parameters that were extracted from the VolumeView™ system were within their normal ranges, transpulmonary thermodilution approach is helpful in intraoperative hemodynamic management during open abdominal cytoreductive surgery with HIPEC.

Trial registry name: ClinicalTrials.gov

Trial registration number: NCT02325648

URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?cond=NCT02325648&term

MEASURING CARDIAC OUTPUT THROUGH THERMODILUTION BASED ON MACHINE LEARNING

Cardiac output (CO) refers to the amount of blood ejected from a unilateral ventricle per minute and is an important measure of cardiac function. Thermodilution is the gold standard for CO measurement because of its accuracy. However, the traditional thermodilution method requires calibration of the correction factor before measurement, which makes its practical application difficult. Therefore, conducting CO measurement by using a machine-learning-based thermodilution method is proposed in this paper, and CO is regressed and predicted through the thermodilution curve by a machine learning model. In this paper, we constructed five cardiac vascular models, and three of them were randomly selected to simulate the thermodilution process. Nine features of the thermodilution curve from the time–frequency domains were extracted and fed into the multilayer perceptron model for training. On the basis of a cross-validation method, the accuracy of the final prediction model was 97.99% ([Formula: see text]%). Simultaneously, a trained neural network was used to predict the CO of the remaining two cardiac vascular models, and the resulting error was within 5%. In this paper, an experimental system consisting of a water pump, a three-way valve and a temperature sensor is also designed, and the thermodilution curves at different quantities of flow are tested and regressed and predicted with the above model, with the error being within 10%, which met the requirement for real-world use, and thus, a method was established for measuring CO by using machine-learning-based thermodilution.

Agreement between continuous and intermittent pulmonary artery thermodilution for cardiac output measurement in perioperative and intensive care medicine: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary artery thermodilution is the clinical reference method for cardiac output monitoring. Because both continuous and intermittent pulmonary artery thermodilution are used in clinical practice it is important to know whether cardiac output measurements by the two methods are clinically interchangeable.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies comparing cardiac output measurements assessed using continuous and intermittent pulmonary artery thermodilution in adult surgical and critically ill patients. 54 studies with 1522 patients were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

The heterogeneity across the studies was high. The overall random effects model-derived pooled estimate of the mean of the differences was 0.08 (95%-confidence interval 0.01 to 0.16) L/min with pooled 95%-limits of agreement of - 1.68 to 1.85 L/min and a pooled percentage error of 29.7 (95%-confidence interval 20.5 to 38.9)%.

CONCLUSION

The heterogeneity across clinical studies comparing continuous and intermittent pulmonary artery thermodilution in adult surgical and critically ill patients is high. The overall trueness/accuracy of continuous pulmonary artery thermodilution in comparison with intermittent pulmonary artery thermodilution is good (indicated by a pooled mean of the differences < 0.1 L/min). Pooled 95%-limits of agreement of - 1.68 to 1.85 L/min and a pooled percentage error of 29.7% suggest that continuous pulmonary artery thermodilution barely passes interchangeability criteria with intermittent pulmonary artery thermodilution. PROSPERO registration number CRD42020159730.

Indexing haemodynamic variables in young children

BACKGROUND

Haemodynamic studies in children are rare and most studies have included few subjects in the youngest age group. Haemodynamic variables need to be indexed to establish a reference of normality that is valid in all populations. The traditional way to index haemodynamic variables with body surface area (BSA) is complicated in young children due to its non-linear relationship with body weight (BW). We examined several haemodynamic variables in children by indexing them with BSA and BW.

METHODS

A single-centre, observational cohort study comparing non-indexed and indexed haemodynamic variables in children undergoing heart surgery (divided into three weight groups: 1-5 kg, >5-10 kg and >10-15 kg).

RESULTS

A total of 68 children were included in this study, mean age 11.1 months ± 11.1 month (range 0 to 43 months). All haemodynamic variables, cardiac output (CO), stroke volume (SV), total end-diastolic volume (TEDV), central blood volume (CBV) and active circulation volume (ACV), increased with weight without indexing (P < .05). Indexing variables with BW produced a more linear relationship for all haemodynamic variables between weight groups than BSA. The mean BSA-indexed haemodynamic values were CIBSA 3.5 ± 1.1 L/min/m2 and SVIBSA 27.3 ± 8.9 ml/min/m2 . The mean BW-indexed haemodynamic values were CIBW 180 ± 50 ml/min/kg and SVIBW 1.34 ± 0.38 ml/kg. Blood volume variables indexed with BW were TEDVBW 12.0 ± 2.8 ml/kg, CBVBW 21.3 ± 6.6 ml/kg and ACVBW 70.3 ± 15.2 ml/kg.

CONCLUSIONS

Indexing haemodynamic variables with BW produces a more appropriate body size-independent scale in young children than BSA.

SUMMARY STATEMENT

In this study, we studied indexing of haemodynamic variables and estimation of blood volumes in young children undergoing corrective heart surgery using an indicator dilution technology.

Cardiac output monitoring in paediatric cardiac surgery: a review

The aim of this review is to present the current options for cardiac output (CO) monitoring in children undergoing cardiac surgery. Current technologies for monitoring identified were a range of invasive, minimally invasive, and non-invasive technologies. These include pulmonary artery catheter, transoesophageal echocardiography, pulse contour analysis, electrical cardiography, and thoracic bioreactance. A literature search was conducted using evidence databases which identified two current guidelines; the NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde guideline and Royal College of Anaesthetics Guideline. These were appraised using the AGREE II tool and the evidence identified was used to create an overview summary of each technological option for CO monitoring. There is limited evidence regarding the accuracy of modalities available for CO monitoring in paediatric patients during cardiac surgery. Each technology has advantages and disadvantages; however, none could be championed as the most beneficial. Furthermore, a gold standard for CO monitoring has not yet been identified for paediatric populations, nor is it apparent whether one modality is preferable based on the available evidence. Additional evidence using a standardised method for comparing CO measurements should be conducted in order to determine the best option for CO monitoring in paediatrics. Furthermore, cost-effectiveness assessment of each modality should be conducted. Only then will it be possible for clear, evidence-based guidance to be written.

This is your toolkit in hemodynamic monitoring

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To appraise the basic and more advanced methods available for hemodynamic monitoring, and describe the definitions and criteria for the use of hemodynamic variables.

RECENT FINDINGS

The hemodynamic assessment in critically ill patients suspected of circulatory shock follows a step-by-step algorithm to help determine diagnosis and prognosis. Determination of accurate diagnosis and prognosis in turn is crucial for clinical decision-making. Basic monitoring involving clinical examination in combination with hemodynamic variables obtained with an arterial catheter and a central venous catheter may be sufficient for the majority of patients with circulatory shock. In case of uncertainty of the underlying cause or to guide treatment in severe shock may require additional advanced hemodynamic technologies, and each is utilized for different indications and has specific limitations. Future developments include refining the clinical examination and performing studies that demonstrate better patient outcomes by targeting hemodynamic variables using advanced hemodynamic monitoring.

SUMMARY

Determination of accurate diagnosis and prognosis for patients suspected of circulatory shock is essential for optimal decision-making. Numerous techniques are available, and each has its specific indications and value.

Cardiac output estimation using pulse wave analysis-physiology, algorithms, and technologies: a narrative review

Pulse wave analysis (PWA) allows estimation of cardiac output (CO) based on continuous analysis of the arterial blood pressure (AP) waveform. We describe the physiology of the AP waveform, basic principles of PWA algorithms for CO estimation, and PWA technologies available for clinical practice. The AP waveform is a complex physiological signal that is determined by interplay of left ventricular stroke volume, systemic vascular resistance, and vascular compliance. Numerous PWA algorithms are available to estimate CO, including Windkessel models, long time interval or multi-beat analysis, pulse power analysis, or the pressure recording analytical method. Invasive, minimally-invasive, and noninvasive PWA monitoring systems can be classified according to the method they use to calibrate estimated CO values in externally calibrated systems, internally calibrated systems, and uncalibrated systems.

Assessment of Right Heart Function during Extracorporeal Therapy by Modified Thermodilution in a Porcine Model

BACKGROUND

Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy is a growing treatment modality for acute cardiorespiratory failure. Cardiac output monitoring during veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy remains challenging. This study aims to validate a new thermodilution technique during veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy using a pig model.

METHODS

Sixteen healthy pigs were centrally cannulated for veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and precision flow probes for blood flow assessment were placed on the pulmonary artery. After chest closure, cold boluses of 0.9% saline solution were injected into the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit, right atrium, and right ventricle at different extracorporeal membrane oxygenation flows (4, 3, 2, 1 l/min). Rapid response thermistors in the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit and pulmonary artery recorded the temperature change. After calculating catheter constants, the distributions of injection volumes passing each circuit were assessed and enabled calculation of pulmonary blood flow. Analysis of the exponential temperature decay allowed assessment of right ventricular function.

RESULTS

Calculated blood flow correlated well with measured blood flow (r2 = 0.74, P < 0.001). Bias was -6 ml/min [95% CI ± 48 ml/min] with clinically acceptable limits of agreement (668 ml/min [95% CI ± 166 ml/min]). Percentage error varied with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation blood flow reductions, yielding an overall percentage error of 32.1% and a percentage error of 24.3% at low extracorporeal membrane oxygenation blood flows. Right ventricular ejection fraction was 17 [14 to 20.0]%. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation flow reductions increased end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes with reductions in pulmonary vascular resistance. Central venous pressure and right ventricular ejection fractions remained unchanged. End-diastolic and end-systolic volumes correlated highly (r2 = 0.98, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Adapted thermodilution allows reliable assessment of cardiac output and right ventricular behavior. During veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation weaning, the right ventricle dilates even with stable function, possibly because of increased venous return.

EDITOR’S PERSPECTIVE

The central blood volume as measured by thoracic electrical impedance and plasma proANP is not compromised by donation of 900 mL of blood in men

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate whether the donation of 900 mL of blood reduces the central blood volume (CBV) assessed by thoracic electrical impedance (TI) and plasma pro-atrial natriuretic peptide (proANP).

BACKGROUND

Donation of 450 mL of blood carries a 1% risk of a vasovagal reaction. Withdrawal of 900 mL of blood decreases cardiac output; however, the effect on CBV remains unknown.

METHODS/MATERIALS

A randomised, single-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design was used, where 21 healthy semi-recumbent men donated 2 × 450 mL blood or were sham-phlebotomised. Changes in CBV were estimated by proANP and TI at 1.5 (TI_1.5 ) and 100 (TI₁₀₀ ) kHz, reflecting extracellular volume and (regional) total body water, respectively, and the index value (IDX; 1/T_1.5 -1/TI₁₀₀ ) was used to estimate changes in intracellular (red cell) volume. Systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressure; heart rate; stroke volume; cardiac output; and systemic vascular resistance were monitored. After completion of the study, 1000 mL of isotonic saline was infused.

RESULTS

Changes (mean% ± SD) in TI_1.5 , TI₁₀₀ and IDX were similar after 450 mL (-0.2 ± 1.6%, 0.0 ± 1.1%, -0.4 ± 10.1%) and 900 mL (0.1 ± 1.6%, 0.2 ± 1.5% and -2.0 ± 15.8%) of blood donation compared to after a sham donation of 450 mL (-0.9 ± 1.2%, -0.5 ± 1.5% and -0.1 ± 6.1%) and 900 mL (-1.2 ± 1.5%, -0.6 ± 1.3% and 0.5 ± 9.9%). In addition, changes in plasma proANP were similar after 450 and 900 mL of blood donation (-0.8 ± 6.7% and -7.6 ± 7.9%) as after sham donations (1.3 ± 7.3% and -4.5 ± 5.6%). Monitoring haemodynamic variables revealed that stroke volume decreased after the donation of 900 mL of blood (-12 ± 12 mL) compared to sham donations.

CONCLUSION

During a 900-mL blood loss in semi-recumbent men, CBV measured by TI and plasma proANP is not affected.

Right ventricular stroke volume assessed by pulmonary artery pulse contour analysis

Background

Stroke volume measurement should provide estimates of acute treatment responses. The current pulse contour method estimates left ventricle stroke volume. Heart-lung interactions change right ventricular stroke volume acutely. We investigated the accuracy, precision, and trending abilities of four calibrated stroke volume estimates based on pulmonary artery pulse contour analysis.

Results

Stroke volume was measured in 9 pigs with a pulmonary artery ultrasound flow probe at 5 and 10 cmH₂O of PEEP and three volume states (baseline, bleeding, and retransfusion) and compared against stroke volume estimates of four calibrated pulmonary pulse contour algorithms based on pulse pressure or pressure integration. Bland-Altman comparison with correction for multiple measurements and trend analysis were performed. Heart rate and stroke volumes were 104 ± 24 bpm and 30 ± 12 mL, respectively. The stroke volume estimates had a minimal bias: − 0.11 mL (95% CI − 0.55 to 0.33) to 0.32 mL (95% CI − 0.06 to 0.70). The limits of agreement were − 8.0 to 7.8 mL for calibrated pulse pressure to − 10.4 to 11.5 mL for time corrected pressure integration, resulting in a percentage error of 36 to 37%. The calibrated pulse pressure method performed best. Changes in stroke volume were trended very well (concordance rates 73–100%, r² 0.26 to 0.987, for pulse pressure methods and 71–100%, r² 0.236 to 0.977, for integration methods).

Conclusions

Pulmonary artery pulse contour methods reliably detect acute changes in stroke volume with good accuracy and moderate precision and accurately trend short-term changes in cardiac output over time.

Pulse pressure and end-tidal carbon dioxide for monitoring low native cardiac output during veno-arterial ECLS: a prospective observational study

Background

Veno-arterial extracorporeal life support (VA-ECLS) results in cardiopulmonary shunting with reduced native cardiac output (NCO). Low NCO occurrence is common and associated with risk of thromboembolic and pulmonary complications. Practical tools for monitoring NCO during VA-ECLS would therefore be valuable. Pulse pressure (PP) and end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO₂) are known to be related to cardiac output. We have designed a study to test whether PP and EtCO₂ were efficient for the monitoring of NCO during VA-ECLS.

Methods

In this prospective single-center observational study, patients who underwent a VA-ECLS for cardiogenic shock from January 2016 to October 2017 were included, provided low NCO was suspected by a PP < 20 mmHg. NCO was measured with pulmonary artery catheter or echocardiography and compared to PP and EtCO₂. The ability of PP and EtCO₂ to predict NCO < 1 L/min was evaluated with receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves.

Results

Among the 106 patients treated with VA-ECLS for cardiogenic shock during the study period, 26 were studied, allowing the collection of 196 study points. PP and EtCO₂ relationships with NCO were nonlinear and showed strong correlations for NCO < 2 L/min (r = 0.69 and r = 0.78 respectively). A PP < 15 mmHg and EtCO₂ < 14 mmHg had good predictive values for detecting NCO < 1 L/min (area under ROC curve 0.93 [95% CI 0.89–0.96] and 0.97 [95% CI 0.94–0.99] respectively, p = 0.058).

Conclusions

PP and EtCO₂ may offer an accurate real-time monitoring of low NCO events during VA-ECLS support. Further studies are needed to show if their utilization may help to implement therapeutic strategies in order to prevent thromboembolic and respiratory complications associated with VA-ECLS, and to improve patients’ prognosis.

Trial registration

NCT03323268, July 12, 2016

Lower blood return temperature than core temperature as a causal factor of decreased cardiac output assessed by transpulmonary thermodilution during blood purification

We aimed to evaluate whether cardiac output assessed by transpulmonary thermodilution during blood purification is affected by the difference between the blood return temperature and core temperature. We applied different blood return temperatures using a thermostat bath during blood purification in four pigs. After the blood return temperature stabilized and blood purification process stopped, the cardiac output assessed by transpulmonary thermodilution was measured. The thermostat bath was set at 35°C, 40°C, 45°C, and 50°C, with the order changed at random; four measurements were made at each temperature. Cardiac function was evaluated by echocardiography when ice-cold saline was administered in a pig. A decrease in the blood return temperature resulted in decreased cardiac output assessed by transpulmonary thermodilution, whereas an increase resulted in increased cardiac output assessed by transpulmonary thermodilution. Echocardiography revealed that the change in the blood return temperature did not affect the left ventricular ejection fraction.

A Physiologic Approach to Hemodynamic Monitoring and Optimizing Oxygen Delivery in Shock Resuscitation

The approach to shock resuscitation focuses on all components of oxygen delivery, including preload, afterload, contractility, hemoglobin, and oxygen saturation. Resuscitation focused solely on preload and fluid responsiveness minimizes other key elements, resulting in suboptimal patient care. This review will provide a physiologic and practical approach for the optimization of oxygen delivery utilizing available hemodynamic monitoring technologies. Venous oxygen saturation (SvO₂) and lactate will be discussed as indicators of shock states and endpoints of resuscitation within the framework of resolving oxygen deficit and oxygen debt.