Myf5 expression in somites and limb buds of mouse embryos is controlled by two distinct distal enhancer activities

Genetic models for lineage tracing in musculoskeletal development, injury, and healing

Musculoskeletal development and later post-natal homeostasis are highly dynamic processes, marked by rapid structural and functional changes across very short periods of time. Adult anatomy and physiology are derived from pre-existing cellular and biochemical states. Consequently, these early developmental states guide and predict the future of the system as a whole. Tools have been developed to mark, trace, and follow specific cells and their progeny either from one developmental state to the next or between circumstances of health and disease. There are now many such technologies alongside a library of molecular markers which may be utilized in conjunction to allow for precise development of unique cell 'lineages'. In this review, we first describe the development of the musculoskeletal system beginning as an embryonic germ layer and at each of the key developmental stages that follow. We then discuss these structures in the context of adult tissues during homeostasis, injury, and repair. Special focus is given in each of these sections to the key genes involved which may serve as markers of lineage or later in post-natal tissues. We then finish with a technical assessment of lineage tracing and the techniques and technologies currently used to mark cells, tissues, and structures within the musculoskeletal system.

Finding MyoD and lessons learned along the way

In 1987, Robert Davis, Hal Weintraub and I reported the identification of MyoD, a transcription factor that could reprogram fibroblasts into skeletal muscle cells. In this recollection, I both summarize the prior work of Helen Blau, Woody Wright, Peter Jones and Charlie Emerson that inspired my entry into this field, and the subsequent events that led to finding MyoD. Lastly, I highlight some of the principles in developmental biology that have emerged during the past 30 years, which are particularly relevant to skeletal muscle biology.

New era in genetics of early-onset muscle disease: Breakthroughs and challenges

Early-onset muscle disease includes three major entities that present generally at or before birth: congenital myopathies, congenital muscular dystrophies and congenital myasthenic syndromes. Almost exclusively there is weakness and hypotonia, although cases manifesting hypertonia are increasingly being recognised. These diseases display a wide phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity, with the uptake of next generation sequencing resulting in an unparalleled extension of the phenotype-genotype correlations and "diagnosis by sequencing" due to unbiased sequencing. Perhaps now more than ever, detailed clinical evaluations are necessary to guide the genetic diagnosis; with arrival at a molecular diagnosis frequently occurring following dialogue between the molecular geneticist, the referring clinician and the pathologist. There is an ever-increasing blurring of the boundaries between the congenital myopathies, dystrophies and myasthenic syndromes. In addition, many novel disease genes have been described and new insights have been gained into skeletal muscle development and function. Despite the advances made, a significant percentage of patients remain without a molecular diagnosis, suggesting that there are many more human disease genes and mechanisms to identify. It is now technically- and clinically-feasible to perform next generation sequencing for severe diseases on a population-wide scale, such that preconception-carrier screening can occur. Newborn screening for selected early-onset muscle diseases is also technically and ethically-achievable, with benefits to the patient and family from early management of these diseases and should also be implemented. The need for world-wide Reference Centres to meticulously curate polymorphisms and mutations within a particular gene is becoming increasingly apparent, particularly for interpretation of variants in the large genes which cause early-onset myopathies: NEB, RYR1 and TTN. Functional validation of candidate disease variants is crucial for accurate interpretation of next generation sequencing and appropriate genetic counseling. Many published "pathogenic" variants are too frequent in control populations and are thus likely rare polymorphisms. Mechanisms need to be put in place to systematically update the classification of variants such that accurate interpretation of variants occurs. In this review, we highlight the recent advances made and the challenges ahead for the molecular diagnosis of early-onset muscle diseases.

Expression of myogenic regulatory factors in chicken embryos during somite and limb development

The expression of the myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs), Myf5, MyoD, myogenin (Mgn) and MRF4 have been analysed during the development of chicken embryo somites and limbs. In somites, Myf5 is expressed first in somites and paraxial mesoderm at HH stage 9 followed by MyoD at HH stage 12, and Mgn and MRF4 at HH stage 14. In older somites, Myf5 and MyoD are also expressed in the ventrally extending myotome prior to Mgn and MRF4 expression. In limb muscles a similar temporal sequence is observed with Myf5 expression detected first in forelimbs at HH stage 22, MyoD at HH stage 23, Mgn at HH stage 24 and MRF4 at HH stage 30. This report describes the precise time of onset of expression of each MRF in somites and limbs during chicken embryo development, and provides a detailed comparative timeline of MRF expression in different embryonic muscle groups.

Skeletal myogenesis and Myf5 activation

Myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) are the master regulators of skeletal myogenesis. Among the MRFs, Myf5 is the earliest to be expressed and is regulated by a complex set of enhancers. The expression of Myf5 defines different muscle populations in the somite. Furthermore, Myf5 expression is also found in non-muscle tissues, such as preadipocytes and neurons. Here, we present a current view on the regulation of skeletal myogenesis by transcription factors and cellular signals, with an emphasis on the complexity of transcriptional activation of Myf5. We also discuss Myf5 expression in different populations of myoblasts, preadipocytes and neuronal tissue.

Ancestral Myf5 gene activity in periocular connective tissue identifies a subset of fibro/adipogenic progenitors but does not connote a myogenic origin

Extraocular muscles (EOM) represent a unique muscle group that controls eye movements and originates from head mesoderm, while the more typically studied body and limb muscles are somite-derived. Aiming to investigate myogenic progenitors (satellite cells) in EOM versus limb and diaphragm of adult mice, we have been using flow cytometry in combination with myogenic-specific Cre-loxP lineage marking for cell isolation. While analyzing cells from the EOM of mice that harbor Myf5(Cre)-driven GFP expression, we identified in addition to the expected GFP(+) myogenic cells (presumably satellite cells), a second dominant GFP(+) population distinguished as being Sca1(+), non-myogenic, and exhibiting a fibro/adipogenic potential. This unexpected population was not only unique to EOM compared to the other muscles but also specific to the Myf5(Cre)-driven reporter when compared to the MyoD(Cre) driver. Histological studies of periocular tissue preparations demonstrated the presence of Myf5(Cre)-driven GFP(+) cells in connective tissue locations adjacent to the muscle masses, including cells in the vasculature wall. These vasculature-associated GFP(+) cells were further identified as mural cells based on the presence of the specific XLacZ4 transgene. Unlike the EOM satellite cells that originate from a Pax3-negative lineage, these non-myogenic Myf5(Cre)-driven GFP(+) cells appear to be related to cells of a Pax3-expressing origin, presumably derived from the neural crest. In all, our lineage tracing based on multiple reporter lines has demonstrated that regardless of common ancestral expression of Myf5, there is a clear distinction between periocular myogenic and non-myogenic cell lineages according to their mutually exclusive antecedence of MyoD and Pax3 gene activity.

Distinct transcriptional networks in quiescent myoblasts: a role for Wnt signaling in reversible vs. irreversible arrest

Most cells in adult mammals are non-dividing: differentiated cells exit the cell cycle permanently, but stem cells exist in a state of reversible arrest called quiescence. In damaged skeletal muscle, quiescent satellite stem cells re-enter the cell cycle, proliferate and subsequently execute divergent programs to regenerate both post-mitotic myofibers and quiescent stem cells. The molecular basis for these alternative programs of arrest is poorly understood. In this study, we used an established myogenic culture model (C2C12 myoblasts) to generate cells in alternative states of arrest and investigate their global transcriptional profiles. Using cDNA microarrays, we compared G₀ myoblasts with post-mitotic myotubes. Our findings define the transcriptional program of quiescent myoblasts in culture and establish that distinct gene expression profiles, especially of tumour suppressor genes and inhibitors of differentiation characterize reversible arrest, distinguishing this state from irreversibly arrested myotubes. We also reveal the existence of a tissue-specific quiescence program by comparing G₀ C2C12 myoblasts to isogenic G₀ fibroblasts (10T1/2). Intriguingly, in myoblasts but not fibroblasts, quiescence is associated with a signature of Wnt pathway genes. We provide evidence that different levels of signaling via the canonical Wnt pathway characterize distinct cellular states (proliferation vs. quiescence vs. differentiation). Moderate induction of Wnt signaling in quiescence is associated with critical properties such as clonogenic self-renewal. Exogenous Wnt treatment subverts the quiescence program and negatively affects clonogenicity. Finally, we identify two new quiescence-induced regulators of canonical Wnt signaling, Rgs2 and Dkk3, whose induction in G₀ is required for clonogenic self-renewal. These results support the concept that active signal-mediated regulation of quiescence contributes to stem cell properties, and have implications for pathological states such as cancer and degenerative disease.

Stac3 is a novel regulator of skeletal muscle development in mice

The goal of this study was to identify novel factors that mediate skeletal muscle development or function. We began the study by searching the gene expression databases for genes that have no known functions but are preferentially expressed in skeletal muscle. This search led to the identification of the Src homology three (SH3) domain and cysteine rich (C1) domain 3 (Stac3) gene. We experimentally confirmed that Stac3 mRNA was predominantly expressed in skeletal muscle. We determined if Stac3 plays a role in skeletal muscle development or function by generating Stac3 knockout mice. All Stac3 homozygous mutant mice were found dead at birth, were never seen move, and had a curved body and dropping forelimbs. These mice had marked abnormalities in skeletal muscles throughout the body, including central location of myonuclei, decreased number but increased cross-sectional area of myofibers, decreased number and size of myofibrils, disarrayed myofibrils, and streaming Z-lines. These phenotypes demonstrate that the Stac3 gene plays a critical role in skeletal muscle development and function in mice.

Sonic hedgehog acts cell-autonomously on muscle precursor cells to generate limb muscle diversity

How muscle diversity is generated in the vertebrate body is poorly understood. In the limb, dorsal and ventral muscle masses constitute the first myogenic diversification, as each gives rise to distinct muscles. Myogenesis initiates after muscle precursor cells (MPCs) have migrated from the somites to the limb bud and populated the prospective muscle masses. Here, we show that Sonic hedgehog (Shh) from the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) drives myogenesis specifically within the ventral muscle mass. Shh directly induces ventral MPCs to initiate Myf5 transcription and myogenesis through essential Gli-binding sites located in the Myf5 limb enhancer. In the absence of Shh signaling, myogenesis is delayed, MPCs fail to migrate distally, and ventral paw muscles fail to form. Thus, Shh production in the limb ZPA is essential for the spatiotemporal control of myogenesis and coordinates muscle and skeletal development by acting directly to regulate the formation of specific ventral muscles.

Musculin and TCF21 coordinate the maintenance of myogenic regulatory factor expression levels during mouse craniofacial development

The specification of the skeletal muscle lineage during craniofacial development is dependent on the activity of MYF5 and MYOD, two members of the myogenic regulatory factor family. In the absence of MYF5 or MYOD there is not an overt muscle phenotype, whereas in the double Myf5;MyoD knockout branchiomeric myogenic precursors fail to be specified and skeletal muscle is not formed. The transcriptional regulation of Myf5 is controlled by a multitude of regulatory elements acting at different times and anatomical locations, with at least five operating in the branchial arches. By contrast, only two enhancers have been implicated in the regulation of MyoD. In this work, we characterize an enhancer element that drives Myf5 expression in the branchial arches from 9.5 days post-coitum and show that its activity in the context of the entire locus is dependent on two highly conserved E-boxes. These binding sites are required in a subset of Myf5-expressing cells including both progenitors and those which have entered the myogenic pathway. The correct levels of expression of Myf5 and MyoD result from activation by musculin and TCF21 through direct binding to specific enhancers. Consistent with this, we show that in the absence of musculin the timing of activation of Myf5 and MyoD is not affected but the expression levels are significantly reduced. Importantly, normal levels of Myf5 expression are restored at later stages, which might explain the absence of particular muscles in the Msc;Tcf21 double-knockout mice.

Barx homeobox family in muscle development and regeneration

Homeobox transcription factors are key intrinsic regulators of myogenesis. In studies spanning several years, we have characterized the homeobox factor Barx2 as a novel marker for muscle progenitor cells and an important regulator of muscle growth and repair. In this review, we place the expression and function of Barx2 and its paralogue Barx1 in context with other muscle-expressed homeobox factors in both embryonic and adult myogenesis. We also describe the structure and regulation of Barx genes and possible gene/disease associations. The functional domains of Barx proteins, their molecular interactions, and cellular functions are presented with particular emphasis on control of genes and processes involved in myogenic differentiation. Finally, we describe the patterns of Barx gene expression in vivo and the phenotypes of various Barx gene perturbation models including null mice. We focus on the Barx2 null mouse model, which has demonstrated the critical roles of Barx2 in postnatal myogenesis including muscle maintenance during aging, and regeneration of acute and chronic muscle injury.

Low intensity laser therapy accelerates muscle regeneration in aged rats

BACKGROUND

Elderly people suffer from skeletal muscle disorders that undermine their daily activity and quality of life; some of these problems can be listed as but not limited to: sarcopenia, changes in central and peripheral nervous system, blood hypoperfusion, regenerative changes contributing to atrophy, and muscle weakness. Determination, proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells in the regenerative process are regulated by specific transcription factors, known as myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs). In the elderly, the activation of MRFs is inefficient which hampers the regenerative process. Recent studies found that low intensity laser therapy (LILT) has a stimulatory effect in the muscle regeneration process. However, the effects of this therapy when associated with aging are still unknown.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of LILT (λ=830 nm) on the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle of aged rats.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The total of 56 male Wistar rats formed two population sets: old and young, with 28 animals in each set. Each of these sets were randomly divided into four groups of young rats (3 months of age) with n=7 per group and four groups of aged rats (10 months of age) with n=7 per group. These groups were submitted to cryoinjury + laser irradiation, cryoinjury only, laser irradiation only and the control group (no cryoinjury/no laser irradiation). The laser treatment was performed for 5 consecutive days. The first laser application was done 24 h after the injury (on day 2) and on the seventh day, the TA muscle was dissected and removed under anesthesia. After this the animals were euthanized. Histological analyses with toluidine blue as well as hematoxylin-eosin staining (for counting the blood capillaries) were performed for the lesion areas. In addition, MyoD and VEGF mRNA was assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The results showed significant elevation (p<0.05) in MyoD and VEGF genes expression levels. Moreover, capillary blood count was more prominent in elderly rats in laser irradiated groups when compared to young animals.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, LILT increased the maturation of satellite cells into myoblasts and myotubes, enhancing the regenerative process of aged rats irradiated with laser.

Regulation of gene expression in vertebrate skeletal muscle

During embryonic development the integration of numerous synergistic signalling pathways turns a single cell into a multicellular organism with specialized cell types and highly structured, organized tissues. To achieve this, cells must grow, proliferate, differentiate and die according to their spatiotemporal position. Unravelling the mechanisms by which a cell adopts the correct fate in response to its local environment remains one of the fundamental goals of biological research. In vertebrates skeletal myogenesis is coordinated by the activation of the myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) in response to signals that are interpreted by their associated regulatory elements in different precursor cells during development. The MRFs trigger a cascade of transcription factors and downstream structural genes, ultimately resulting in the generation of one of the fundamental histotypes. In this review we discuss the regulation of the different MRFs in relation to their position in the myogenic cascade, the changes in the general transcriptional machinery during muscle differentiation and the emerging importance of miRNA regulation in skeletal myogenesis.

Sonic hedgehog-dependent synthesis of laminin alpha1 controls basement membrane assembly in the myotome

Basement membranes have essential structural and signalling roles in tissue morphogenesis during embryonic development, but the mechanisms that control their formation are still poorly understood. Laminins are key components of basement membranes and are thought to be essential for initiation of basement membrane assembly. Here, we report that muscle progenitor cells populating the myotome migrate aberrantly in the ventral somite in the absence of sonic hedgehog (Shh) signalling, and we show that this defect is due to the failure to form a myotomal basement membrane. We reveal that expression of Lama1, which encodes laminin alpha1, a subunit of laminin-111, is not activated in Shh(-/-) embryos. Recovery of Lama1 expression or addition of exogenous laminin-111 to Shh(-/-);Gli3(-/-) embryos restores the myotomal basement membrane, demonstrating that laminin-111 is necessary and sufficient to initiate assembly of the myotomal basement membrane. This study uncovers an essential role for Shh signalling in the control of laminin-111 synthesis and in the initiation of basement membrane assembly in the myotome. Furthermore, our data indicate that laminin-111 function cannot be compensated by laminin-511.

Global transcriptional regulation of the locus encoding the skeletal muscle determination genes Mrf4 and Myf5

The linked Mrf4 and Myf5 genes encode two transcription factors essential for the determination and differentiation of skeletal muscle in the embryo. The locus is controlled by a multitude of interdigitated enhancers that activate gene expression at different times and in precisely defined progenitor cell populations. Manipulation of the enhancer-promoter composition of the locus reveals a novel mechanism for the regulation of such a gene cluster. Enhancers, promoters, and a new class of elements we call transcription balancing sequences, which can act as cryptic promoters, exist in a series of equilibria to ensure that enhancers and promoters together produce the highly dynamic and exquisitely specific expression patterns of the two genes. The proposed model depends upon nonproductive interactions between enhancers and both minimal and cryptic promoters, and is distinct from those developed for the beta-globin and Hox clusters. Moreover, it provides an explanation for the unexpected phenotypes of the three Mrf4 knockout alleles.

cis-Decoder discovers constellations of conserved DNA sequences shared among tissue-specific enhancers

: The use of cis-Decoder, a new tool for discovery of conserved sequence elements that are shared between similarly regulating enhancers, suggests that enhancers use overlapping repertoires of highly conserved core elements.

A systematic approach is described for analysis of evolutionarily conserved cis-regulatory DNA using cis-Decoder, a tool for discovery of conserved sequence elements that are shared between similarly regulated enhancers. Analysis of 2,086 conserved sequence blocks (CSBs), identified from 135 characterized enhancers, reveals most CSBs consist of shorter overlapping/adjacent elements that are either enhancer type-specific or common to enhancers with divergent regulatory behaviors. Our findings suggest that enhancers employ overlapping repertoires of highly conserved core elements.

Six proteins regulate the activation of Myf5 expression in embryonic mouse limbs

Myf5, a member of the myogenic regulatory factor family, plays a major role in determining myogenic cell fate at the onset of skeletal muscle formation in the embryo. Spatiotemporal control of its expression during development requires multiple enhancer elements spread over >100 kb at the Myf5 locus. Transcription in embryonic limbs is regulated by a 145-bp element located at -57.5 kb from the Myf5 gene. In the present study we show that Myf5 expression is severely impaired in the limb buds of Six1(-/-) and Six1(-/-)Six4(-/+) mouse mutants despite the presence of myogenic progenitor cells. The 145-bp regulatory element contains a sequence that binds Six1 and Six4 in electromobility shift assays in vitro and in chromatin immunoprecipitation assays with embryonic extracts. We further show that Six1 is able to transactivate a reporter gene under the control of this sequence. In vivo functionality of the Six binding site is demonstrated by transgenic analysis. Mutation of this site impairs reporter gene expression in the limbs and in mature somites where the 145-bp regulatory element is also active. Six1/4 therefore regulate Myf5 transcription, together with Pax3, which was previously shown to be required for the activity of the 145-bp element. Six homeoproteins, which also directly regulate the myogenic differentiation gene Myogenin and lie genetically upstream of Pax3, thus control hypaxial myogenesis at multiple levels.

A homeo-paired domain-binding motif directs Myf5 expression in progenitor cells of limb muscle

Recruitment of multipotent mesodermal cells to the myogenic lineage is mediated by the transcription factor Myf5, the first of the myogenic regulatory factors to be expressed in most sites of myogenesis in the mouse embryo. Among numerous elements controlling the spatiotemporal pattern of Myf5 expression, the -58/-56 kb distal Myf5 enhancer directs expression in myogenic progenitor cells in limbs and in somites. Here, we show by site-directed mutagenesis within this enhancer that a predicted homeobox adjacent to a putative paired domain-binding site is required for the activity in muscle precursor cells in limbs and strongly contributes to expression in somites. By contrast, predicted binding sites for Tcf/Lef, Mef3 and Smad transcription factors play no apparent role for the expression in limbs but might participate in the control in somites. A 30mer oligonucleotide sequence containing and surrounding the homeo and paired domain-binding motifs directs faithful expression in myogenic cells in limbs and also enhances myotomal expression in somites. Pax3 and Meox2 transcription factors can bind to these consensus sites in vitro and therefore constitute potential regulators. However, genetic evidence in the Meox2-deficient mouse mutant argues against a role for Meox2 in the regulation of Myf5 expression. The data presented here demonstrate that a composite homeo and paired domain-binding motif within the -58/-56 enhancer is required and sufficient for activation of the Myf5 gene in muscle progenitor cells in the limb. Although Pax3 constitutes a potential cognate transcription factor for the enhancer, it fails to transactivate the site in transfection experiments.

The Wnt/beta-catenin pathway regulates Gli-mediated Myf5 expression during somitogenesis

Canonical Wnt/beta-catenin signaling regulates the activation of the myogenic determination gene Myf5 at the onset of myogenesis, but the underlying molecular mechanism is unknown. Here, we report that the Wnt signal is transduced in muscle progenitor cells by at least two Frizzled (Fz) receptors (Fz1 and/or Fz6), through the canonical beta-catenin pathway, in the epaxial domain of newly formed somites. We show that Myf5 activation is dramatically reduced by blocking the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway in somite progenitor cells, whereas expression of activated beta-catenin is sufficient to activate Myf5 in somites but not in the presomitic mesoderm. In addition, we identified Tcf/Lef sequences immediately 5' to the Myf5 early epaxial enhancer. These sites determine the correct spatiotemporal expression of Myf5 in the epaxial domain of the somite, mediating the synergistic action of the Wnt/beta-catenin and the Shh/Gli pathways. Taken together, these results demonstrate that Myf5 is a direct target of Wnt/beta-catenin, and that its full activation requires a cooperative interaction between the canonical Wnt and the Shh/Gli pathways in muscle progenitor cells.

Multiple upstream modules regulate zebrafish myf5 expression

Background

Myf5 is one member of the basic helix-loop-helix family of transcription factors, and it functions as a myogenic factor that is important for the specification and differentiation of muscle cells. The expression of myf5 is somite- and stage-dependent during embryogenesis through a delicate regulation. However, this complex regulatory mechanism of myf5 is not clearly understood.

Results

We isolated a 156-kb bacterial artificial chromosome clone that includes an upstream 80-kb region and a downstream 70-kb region of zebrafish myf5 and generated a transgenic line carrying this 156-kb segment fused to a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene. We find strong GFP expression in the most rostral somite and in the presomitic mesoderm during segmentation stages, similar to endogenous myf5 expression. Later, the GFP signals persist in caudal somites near the tail bud but are down-regulated in the older, rostral somites. During the pharyngula period, we detect GFP signals in pectoral fin buds, dorsal rostral myotomes, hypaxial myotomes, and inferior oblique and superior oblique muscles, a pattern that also corresponds well with endogenous myf5 transcripts. To characterize the specific upstream cis-elements that regulate this complex and dynamic expression pattern, we also generated several transgenic lines that harbor various lengths within the upstream 80-kb segment. We find that (1) the -80 kb/-9977 segment contains a fin and cranial muscle element and a notochord repressor; (2) the -9977/-6213 segment contains a strong repressive element that does not include the notochord-specific repressor; (3) the -6212/-2938 segment contains tissue-specific elements for bone and spinal cord; (4) the -2937/-291 segment contains an eye enhancer, and the -2937/-2457 segment is required for notochord and myocyte expression; and (5) the -290/-1 segment is responsible for basal transcription in somites and the presomitic mesoderm.

Conclusion

We suggest that the cell lineage-specific expression of myf5 is delicately orchestrated by multiple modules within the distal upstream region. This study provides an insight to understand the molecular control of myf5 and myogenesis in the zebrafish.

Myogenic progenitor cells in the mouse embryo are marked by the expression of Pax3/7 genes that regulate their survival and myogenic potential

The transcription factors Pax3 and Pax7 are important regulators of myogenic cell fate, as demonstrated by genetic manipulations in the mouse embryo. Pax3 lies genetically upstream of MyoD and has also been shown recently to directly control Myf5 transcription in derivatives of the hypaxial somite, where it also plays an important role in ensuring cell survival. Both Pax3 and Pax7 are expressed in myogenic progenitor cells derived from the central dermomyotome that make a major contribution to skeletal muscle growth. In Pax3/Pax7 double mutants, the myogenic determination genes, Myf5 and MyoD, are not activated in these cells which become incorporated into other tissues or die. This again demonstrates the dual function of Pax factors in regulating the entry of progenitor cells into the myogenic programme and in ensuring their survival. Pax3 expression marks cells in the dermomyotome that either become myogenic or downregulate Pax3 and assume another cell fate. The latter include the smooth muscle cells of the dorsal aorta that share a common clonal origin with the skeletal muscle of the myotome, thus illustrating the initial multipotency of Pax3 expressing cells.

A novel genetic hierarchy functions during hypaxial myogenesis: Pax3 directly activates Myf5 in muscle progenitor cells in the limb

We address the molecular control of myogenesis in progenitor cells derived from the hypaxial somite. Null mutations in Pax3, a key regulator of skeletal muscle formation, lead to cell death in this domain. We have developed a novel allele of Pax3 encoding a Pax3-engrailed fusion protein that acts as a transcriptional repressor. Heterozygote mouse embryos have an attenuated mutant phenotype, with partial conservation of the hypaxial somite and its myogenic derivatives, including some hindlimb muscles. At these sites, expression of Myf5 is compromised, showing that Pax3 acts genetically upstream of this myogenic determination gene. We have characterized a 145-base-pair (bp) regulatory element, at -57.5 kb from Myf5, that directs transgene expression to the mature somite, notably to myogenic cells of the hypaxial domain that form ventral trunk and limb muscles. A Pax3 consensus site in this sequence binds Pax3 in vitro and in vivo. Multimers of the 145-bp sequence direct transgene expression to sites of Pax3 function, and an assay of its activity in the chick embryo shows Pax3 dependence. Mutation of the Pax3 site abolishes all expression controlled by the 145-bp sequence in transgenic mouse embryos. We conclude that Pax3 directly regulates Myf5 in the hypaxial somite and its derivatives.

Identification and analysis of putative regulatory sequences for the MYF5/MYF6 locus in different vertebrate species

The myogenic factors (MYF) 5 and 6 are integral to the initiation and development of skeletal muscle and to the maintenance of its phenotype. Thus, they are candidate genes for growth- and meat quality-related traits. We performed a comparative sequence analysis of the MYF5/MYF6 locus in swine, cattle, dog, chicken and zebrafish on the basis of structural and functional information from human and mouse. Beside the characterization of upstream regulatory elements recently identified in mice, we demonstrate the existence of further highly conserved elements (E1 to E4) which may play a role in the regulation of MYF5 and MYF6 expression. Comparative sequence analysis of putative regulatory sequences in swine revealed a total of 21 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) including 1 and 6 SNPs new for the promoters of MYF5 and MYF6, respectively. The conserved organization of the locus in vertebrates indicates a common basic mechanism of muscle development. However, the existence of numerous regulatory elements at large distances to MYF5 and MYF6 points to a very complex pattern of the gene regulation with significant differences between species.

Foxd3 mediates zebrafish myf5 expression during early somitogenesis

Myf5, one of the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors, controls muscle differentiation and is expressed in somites during early embryogenesis. However, the transcription factors bound to the cis-elements of myf5 are poorly understood. In this study, we used the yeast one-hybrid assay and found that Forkhead box d3 (Foxd3) interacted specifically with the -82/-62 cassette, a key element directing somite-specific expression of myf5. The dual-luciferase assay revealed that the expression of Foxd3 potently transactivated the myf5 promoter. Knocking down foxd3 with morpholino oligonucleotide (MO) resulted in a dramatic down-regulation of myf5 in somites and adaxial cells but not in the presomitic mesoderm. On the other hand, myod expression remained unchanged in foxd3 morphants. Foxd3 mediation of myf5 expression is stage-dependent, maintaining myf5 expression in the somites and adaxial cells during the 7- to 18-somite stage. Furthermore, in the pax3 morphant, the expression of foxd3 was down-regulated greatly and the expression of myf5 was similar to that of the foxd3 morphant. Co-injection of foxd3 mRNA and pax3-MO1 greatly restored the expression of myf5 in the somites and adaxial cells, suggesting that pax3 induces foxd3 expression, which then induces the expression of myf5. This report is the first study to show that Foxd3, a well-known regulator in neural crest development, is also involved in myf5 regulation.

The differentiation and morphogenesis of craniofacial muscles

Unraveling the complex tissue interactions necessary to generate the structural and functional diversity present among craniofacial muscles is challenging. These muscles initiate their development within a mesenchymal population bounded by the brain, pharyngeal endoderm, surface ectoderm, and neural crest cells. This set of spatial relations, and in particular the segmental properties of these adjacent tissues, are unique to the head. Additionally, the lack of early epithelialization in head mesoderm necessitates strategies for generating discrete myogenic foci that may differ from those operating in the trunk. Molecular data indeed indicate dissimilar methods of regulation, yet transplantation studies suggest that some head and trunk myogenic populations are interchangeable. The first goal of this review is to present key features of these diversities, identifying and comparing tissue and molecular interactions regulating myogenesis in the head and trunk. Our second focus is on the diverse morphogenetic movements exhibited by craniofacial muscles. Precursors of tongue muscles partly mimic migrations of appendicular myoblasts, whereas myoblasts destined to form extraocular muscles condense within paraxial mesoderm, then as large cohorts they cross the mesoderm:neural crest interface en route to periocular regions. Branchial muscle precursors exhibit yet another strategy, establishing contacts with neural crest populations before branchial arch formation and maintaining these relations through subsequent stages of morphogenesis. With many of the prerequisite stepping-stones in our knowledge of craniofacial myogenesis now in place, discovering the cellular and molecular interactions necessary to initiate and sustain the differentiation and morphogenesis of these neglected craniofacial muscles is now an attainable goal.

Pax3 and Pax7 have distinct and overlapping functions in adult muscle progenitor cells

The growth and repair of skeletal muscle after birth depends on satellite cells that are characterized by the expression of Pax7. We show that Pax3, the paralogue of Pax7, is also present in both quiescent and activated satellite cells in many skeletal muscles. Dominant-negative forms of both Pax3 and -7 repress MyoD, but do not interfere with the expression of the other myogenic determination factor, Myf5, which, together with Pax3/7, regulates the myogenic differentiation of these cells. In Pax7 mutants, satellite cells are progressively lost in both Pax3-expressing and -nonexpressing muscles. We show that this is caused by satellite cell death, with effects on the cell cycle. Manipulation of the dominant-negative forms of these factors in satellite cell cultures demonstrates that Pax3 cannot replace the antiapoptotic function of Pax7. These findings underline the importance of cell survival in controlling the stem cell populations of adult tissues and demonstrate a role for upstream factors in this context.

The circuitry of a master switch: Myod and the regulation of skeletal muscle gene transcription

The expression of Myod is sufficient to convert a fibroblast to a skeletal muscle cell, and, as such, is a model system in developmental biology for studying how a single initiating event can orchestrate a highly complex and predictable response. Recent findings indicate that Myod functions in an instructive chromatin context and directly regulates genes that are expressed throughout the myogenic program, achieving promoter-specific regulation of its own binding and activity through a feed-forward mechanism. These studies are beginning to merge our understanding of how lineage-specific information is encoded in chromatin with how master regulatory factors drive programs of cell differentiation.

Gli2 and Gli3 have redundant and context-dependent function in skeletal muscle formation

The Gli family of zinc finger transcription factors are mediators of Shh signalling in vertebrates. In previous studies, we showed that Shh signalling,via an essential Gli -binding site in the Myf5 epaxial somite (ES)enhancer, is required for the specification of epaxial muscle progenitor cells. Shh signalling is also required for the normal mediolateral patterning of myogenic cells within the somite. In this study, we investigate the role and the transcriptional activities of Gli proteins during somite myogenesis in the mouse embryo. We report that Gli genes are differentially expressed in the mouse somite. Gli2 and Gli3 are essential for Gli1 expression in somites, establishing Gli2 and Gli3 as primary mediators and Gli1 as a secondary mediator of Shh signalling. Combining genetic studies with the use of a transgenic mouse line expressing a reporter gene under the control of the Myf5 epaxial somite enhancer, we show that Gli2 or Gli3 is required for Myf5 activation in the epaxial muscle progenitor cells. Furthermore, Gli3, but not Gli2 represses Myf5 transcription in a dose-dependent manner in the absence of Shh. Finally, we provide evidence that hypaxial and myotomal gene expression is mispatterned in Gli2–/–Gli3–/–and Gli3–/–Shh–/–somites. Together, our data demonstrate both positive and negative regulatory functions for Gli2 and Gli3 in the control of Myf5 activation in the epaxial muscle progenitor cells and in dorsoventral and mediolateral patterning of the somite.

Identification of a critical control element directing expression of the muscle-specific transcription factor MRF4 in the mouse embryo

Skeletal muscle development in the vertebrate embryo critically depends on the myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) including MRF4 and Myf5. Both genes exhibit distinct expression patterns during mouse embryogenesis, although they are genetically closely linked with multiple regulatory elements dispersed throughout the common gene locus. MRF4 has a biphasic expression profile, first in somites and later in foetal skeletal muscles. Here, we demonstrate by transgenic analysis that elements within a 7.5-kb promoter fragment of the MRF4 gene are sufficient to drive the embryonic wave of expression very similar to the endogenous gene in somites of mouse embryos. In contrast, a 3-kb fragment of the proximal promoter fails to support expression in the myotome, suggesting that essential cis-acting elements are located between -7.5 and -3 kb upstream of MRF4. Further analysis of this sequence delimits an essential region between -6.6 and -5.6 kb that together with the 3-kb promoter fragment directs transgene expression in the epaxial myotome of all somites during the appropriate developmental period. These data provide evidence that the partly overlapping expression patterns of Mrf4 and Myf5 in somites are controlled by distinct regulatory elements. We also show that 11.4 kb sequence upstream of MRF4, including the promoter and the somitic control region identified in this study, is not sufficient to elicit target specificity towards the strong Myf5 (-58/-48 kb) enhancer, suggesting that additional yet unidentified elements are necessary to convey promoter selectivity and protect the MRF4 gene from this enhancer.

Myf5 expression in satellite cells and spindles in adult muscle is controlled by separate genetic elements

The myogenic regulatory factor Myf5 is integral to the initiation and control of skeletal muscle formation. In adult muscle, Myf5 is expressed in satellite cells, stem cells of mature muscle, but not in the myonuclei that sustain the myofibre. Using the Myf5(nlacZ/+) mouse, we now show that Myf5 is also constitutively expressed in muscle spindles-stretch-sensitive mechanoreceptors, while muscle denervation induces extensive reactivation of the Myf5 gene in myonuclei. To identify the elements involved in the regulation of Myf5 in adult muscle, we analysed reporter gene expression in a transgenic bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) deletion series of the Mrf4/Myf5 locus. A BAC carrying 140 kb upstream of the Myf5 transcription start site was sufficient to drive all aspects of Myf5 expression in adult muscle. In contrast, BACs carrying 88 and 59 kb upstream were unable to drive consistent expression in satellite cells, although expression in muscle spindles and reactivation of the locus in myonuclei were retained. Therefore, as during development, multiple enhancers are required to generate the full expression pattern of Myf5 in the adult. Together, these observations show that elements controlling adult Myf5 expression are genetically separable and possibly distinct from those that control Myf5 during development. These studies are a first step towards identifying cognate transcription factors involved in muscle stem cell regulation.

An enhancer directs differential expression of the linked Mrf4 and Myf5 myogenic regulatory genes in the mouse

The myogenic regulatory factors, Mrf4 and Myf5, play a key role in skeletal muscle formation. An enhancer trap approach, devised to isolate positive-acting elements from a 200-kb YAC covering the mouse Mrf4-Myf5 locus in a C2 myoblast assay, yielded an enhancer, A17, which mapped at -8 kb 5' of Mrf4 and -17 kb 5' of Myf5. An E-box bound by complexes containing the USF transcription factor is critical for enhancer activity. In transgenic mice, A17 gave two distinct and mutually exclusive expression profiles before birth, which correspond to two phases of Mrf4 transcription. Linked to the Tk or Mrf4 minimal promoters, the nlacZ reporter was expressed either in embryonic myotomes, or later in fetal muscle, with the majority of Mrf4 lines showing embryonic expression. When linked to the Myf5 minimal promoter, only fetal muscle expression was detected. These observations identify A17 as a sequence that targets sites of myogenesis in vivo and raise questions about the mutually exclusive modes of expression and possible promoter/enhancer interactions at the Mrf4-Myf5 locus.