De novo DNA methylation is dispensable for the initiation and propagation of X chromosome inactivation

Decoding the epigenetic mechanism of mammalian sex determination

Sex determination embodies a dynamic and intricate developmental process wielding significant influence over the destiny of bipotential gonads, steering them towards male or female gonads. Gonadal differentiation and the postnatal manifestation of the gonadal phenotype involve a sophisticated interplay of transcription factors such as SOX9 and FOXL2. Central to this interplay are chromatin modifiers regulating the mutual antagonism during this interplay. In this review, the key findings and knowledge gaps in DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA-mediated control throughout mammalian gonadal development are covered. Furthermore, it explores the role of the developing brain in playing a pivotal role in the initiation of gonadogenesis and the subsequent involvement of gonadal hormone/hormone receptor in fine-tuning sexual differentiation. Based on promising facts, the role of the developing brain through the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis is explained and suggested as a novel hypothesis. The article also discusses the potential impact of ecological factors on the human epigenome in relation to sex determination and trans-generational epigenetics in uncovering novel genes and mechanisms involved in sex determination and gonadal differentiation. We have subtly emphasized the disruptions in epigenetic regulations contributing to sexual disorders, which further allows us to raise certain questions, decipher approaches for handling these questions and setting up the direction of future research.

Establishment and maintenance of random monoallelic expression

This Review elucidates the regulatory principles of random monoallelic expression by focusing on two well-studied examples: the X-chromosome inactivation regulator Xist and the olfactory receptor gene family. Although the choice of a single X chromosome or olfactory receptor occurs in different developmental contexts, common gene regulatory principles guide monoallelic expression in both systems. In both cases, an event breaks the symmetry between genetically and epigenetically identical copies of the gene, leading to the expression of one single random allele, stabilized through negative feedback control. Although many regulatory steps that govern the establishment and maintenance of monoallelic expression have been identified, key pieces of the puzzle are still missing. We provide an overview of the current knowledge and models for the monoallelic expression of Xist and olfactory receptors. We discuss their similarities and differences, and highlight open questions and approaches that could guide the study of other monoallelically expressed genes.

Pace of aging, family environment and cognitive skills in children and adolescents

Pace of aging is an epigenetic clock which captures the speed at which someone is biologically aging compared to the chronological-age peers. We here use data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) to investigate the interrelation between the study children's parental social class at birth, and their pace of aging and cognitive skills measures in childhood and adolescence. We show that children from lower parental social classes display faster pace of aging and that the social class gradient in pace of aging is strongest in adolescence. About one third of this association can be explained by other socio-economic and demographic covariates, as well as life events. Similarly, study children's pace of aging manifests a negative association with their measures of cognitive skills in late adolescence only. This association becomes stronger as the contemporary pace of aging of the mother becomes faster. Our results seem to identify adolescence as the period of life when pace of aging, family environment and cognitive skills measures begin to interact.

Mechanisms of chromatin-based epigenetic inheritance

Multi-cellular organisms such as humans contain hundreds of cell types that share the same genetic information (DNA sequences), and yet have different cellular traits and functions. While how genetic information is passed through generations has been extensively characterized, it remains largely obscure how epigenetic information encoded by chromatin regulates the passage of certain traits, gene expression states and cell identity during mitotic cell divisions, and even through meiosis. In this review, we will summarize the recent advances on molecular mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance, discuss the potential impacts of epigenetic inheritance during normal development and in some disease conditions, and outline future research directions for this challenging, but exciting field.

Selective Xi reactivation and alternative methods to restore MECP2 function in Rett syndrome

The human X-chromosome harbors only 4% of our genome but carries over 20% of genes associated with intellectual disability. Given that they inherit only one X-chromosome, males are more frequently affected by X-linked neurodevelopmental genetic disorders than females. However, despite inheriting two X-chromosomes, females can also be affected because X-chromosome inactivation enables only one of two X-chromosomes to be expressed per cell. For Rett syndrome and similar X-linked disorders affecting females, disease-specific treatments have remained elusive. However, a cure may be found within their own cells because every sick cell carries a healthy copy of the affected gene on the inactive X (Xi). Therefore, selective Xi reactivation may be a viable approach that would address the root cause of various X-linked disorders. Here, we discuss Rett syndrome and compare current approaches in the pharmaceutical pipeline to restore MECP2 function. We then focus on Xi reactivation and review available methods, lessons learned, and future directions.

SmcHD1 underlies the formation of H3K9me3 blocks on the inactive X chromosome in mice

Stable silencing of the inactive X chromosome (Xi) in female mammals is crucial for the development of embryos and their postnatal health. SmcHD1 is essential for stable silencing of the Xi, and its functional deficiency results in derepression of many X-inactivated genes. Although SmcHD1 has been suggested to play an important role in the formation of higher-order chromatin structure of the Xi, the underlying mechanism is largely unknown. Here, we explore the epigenetic state of the Xi in SmcHD1-deficient epiblast stem cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts in comparison with their wild-type counterparts. The results suggest that SmcHD1 underlies the formation of H3K9me3-enriched blocks on the Xi, which, although the importance of H3K9me3 has been largely overlooked in mice, play a crucial role in the establishment of the stably silenced state. We propose that the H3K9me3 blocks formed on the Xi facilitate robust heterochromatin formation in combination with H3K27me3, and that the substantial loss of H3K9me3 caused by SmcHD1 deficiency leads to aberrant distribution of H3K27me3 on the Xi and derepression of X-inactivated genes.

Establishment of Mouse Primed Stem Cells by Combination of Activin and LIF Signaling

In mice, embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and epiblast stem cells (EpiSCs) are established from pre- and post-implantation embryos and represent the naive and primed state, respectively. Herein we used mouse leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), which supports ESCs self-renewal and Activin A (Act A), which is the main factor in maintaining EpiSCs in post-implantation epiblast cultures, to derive a primed stem cell line named ALSCs. Like EpiSCs, ALSCs express key pluripotent genes Oct4, Sox2, and Nanog; one X chromosome was inactivated; and the cells failed to contribute to chimera formation in vivo. Notably, compared to EpiSCs, ALSCs efficiently reversed to ESCs (rESCs) on activation of Wnt signaling. Moreover, we also discovered that culturing EpiSCs in AL medium for several passages favored Wnt signaling-driven naive pluripotency. Our results show that ALSCs is a primed state stem cell and represents a simple model to study the control of pluripotency fate and conversion from the primed to the naive state.

Dosage Sensing, Threshold Responses, and Epigenetic Memory: A Systems Biology Perspective on Random X-Chromosome Inactivation

X-chromosome inactivation ensures dosage compensation between the sexes in mammals by randomly choosing one out of the two X chromosomes in females for inactivation. This process imposes a plethora of questions: How do cells count their X chromosome number and ensure that exactly one stays active? How do they randomly choose one of two identical X chromosomes for inactivation? And how do they stably maintain this state of monoallelic expression? Here, different regulatory concepts and their plausibility are evaluated in the context of theoretical studies that have investigated threshold behavior, ultrasensitivity, and bistability through mathematical modeling. It is discussed how a twofold difference between a single and a double dose of X-linked genes might be converted to an all-or-nothing response and how mutually exclusive expression can be initiated and maintained. Finally, candidate factors that might mediate the proposed regulatory principles are reviewed.

Xist drives spatial compartmentalization of DNA and protein to orchestrate initiation and maintenance of X inactivation

X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is the process whereby one of the X chromosomes in female mammalian cells is silenced to equalize X-linked gene expression with males. XCI depends on the long noncoding RNA Xist, which coats the inactive X chromosome in cis and triggers a cascade of events that ultimately lead to chromosome-wide transcriptional silencing that is stable for the lifetime of an organism. In recent years, the discovery of proteins that interact with Xist have led to new insights into how the initiation of XCI occurs. Nevertheless, there are still various unknowns about the mechanisms by which Xist orchestrates and maintains stable X-linked silencing. Here, we review recent work elucidating the role of Xist and its protein partners in mediating chromosome-wide transcriptional repression, as well as discuss a model by which Xist may compartmentalize proteins across the inactive X chromosome to enable both the initiation and maintenance of XCI.

Maternal H3K27me3-dependent autosomal and X chromosome imprinting

Genomic imprinting and X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) are classic epigenetic phenomena that involve transcriptional silencing of one parental allele. Germline-derived differential DNA methylation is the best-studied epigenetic mark that initiates imprinting, but evidence indicates that other mechanisms exist. Recent studies have revealed that maternal trimethylation of H3 on lysine 27 (H3K27me3) mediates autosomal maternal allele-specific gene silencing and has an important role in imprinted XCI through repression of maternal Xist. Furthermore, loss of H3K27me3-mediated imprinting contributes to the developmental defects observed in cloned embryos. This novel maternal H3K27me3-mediated non-canonical imprinting mechanism further emphasizes the important role of parental chromatin in development and could provide the basis for improving the efficiency of embryo cloning.

The influence of DNA methylation on monoallelic expression

Monoallelic gene expression occurs in diploid cells when only one of the two alleles of a gene is active. There are three main classes of genes that display monoallelic expression in mammalian genomes: (1) imprinted genes that are monoallelically expressed in a parent-of-origin dependent manner; (2) X-linked genes that undergo random X-chromosome inactivation in female cells; (3) random monoallelically expressed single and clustered genes located on autosomes. The heritability of monoallelic expression patterns during cell divisions implies that epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the cellular memory of these expression states. Among these, methylation of CpG sites on DNA is one of the best described modification to explain somatic inheritance. Here, we discuss the relevance of DNA methylation for the establishment and maintenance of monoallelic expression patterns among these three groups of genes, and how this is intrinsically linked to development and cellular states.

Prenatal influences on temperament development: The role of environmental epigenetics

This review summarizes current knowledge and outlines future directions relevant to questions concerning environmental epigenetics and the processes that contribute to temperament development. Links between prenatal adversity, epigenetic programming, and early manifestations of temperament are important in their own right, also informing our understanding of biological foundations for social-emotional development. In addition, infant temperament attributes represent key etiological factors in the onset of developmental psychopathology, and studies elucidating their prenatal foundations expand our understanding of developmental origins of health and disease. Prenatal adversity can take many forms, and this overview is focused on the environmental effects of stress, toxicants, substance use/psychotropic medication, and nutrition. Dysregulation associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disruptive disorders was noted in the context of maternal substance use and toxicant exposures during gestation, as well as stress. Although these links can be made based on the existing literature, currently few studies directly connect environmental influences, epigenetic programming, and changes in brain development/behavior. The chain of events starting with environmental inputs and resulting in alterations to gene expression, physiology, and behavior of the organism is driven by epigenetics. Epigenetics provides the molecular mechanism of how environmental factors impact development and subsequent health and disease, including early brain and temperament development.

Parallels between Mammalian Mechanisms of Monoallelic Gene Expression

Different types of monoallelic gene expression are present in mammals, some of which are highly flexible, whereas others are more rigid. These include allelic exclusion at antigen receptor loci, the expression of olfactory receptor genes, genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, and random monoallelic expression (MAE). Although these processes play diverse biological roles, and arose through different selective pressures, the underlying epigenetic mechanisms show striking resemblances. Regulatory transcriptional events are important in all systems, particularly in the specification of MAE. Combined with comparative studies between species, this suggests that the different MAE systems found in mammals may have evolved from analogous ancestral processes.

Genetic Studies on Mammalian DNA Methyltransferases

Cytosine methylation at the C5-position, generating 5-methylcytosine (5mC), is a DNA modification found in many eukaryotic organisms, including fungi, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, albeit its levels vary greatly in different organisms. In mammals, cytosine methylation occurs predominantly in the context of CpG dinucleotides, with the majority (60-80 %) of CpG sites in their genomes being methylated. DNA methylation plays crucial roles in the regulation of chromatin structure and gene expression and is essential for mammalian development. Aberrant changes in DNA methylation levels and patterns are associated with various human diseases, including cancer and developmental disorders. DNA methylation is mediated by three active DNA methyltransferases (Dnmts), namely, Dnmt1, Dnmt3a, and Dnmt3b, in mammals. Over the last two decades, genetic manipulations of these enzymes, as well as their regulators, in mice have greatly contributed to our understanding of the biological functions of DNA methylation in mammals. In this chapter, we discuss genetic studies on mammalian Dnmts, focusing on their roles in embryogenesis, cellular differentiation, genomic imprinting, and X-chromosome inactivation.

How Many Non-coding RNAs Does It Take to Compensate Male/Female Genetic Imbalance?

Genetic sex determination in mammals relies on dimorphic sex chromosomes that confer phenotypic/physiologic differences between males and females. In this heterogametic system, X and Y chromosomes diverged from an ancestral pair of autosomes, creating a genetic disequilibrium between XX females and XY males. Dosage compensation mechanisms alleviate intrinsic gene dosage imbalance, leading to equal expression levels of most X-linked genes in the two sexes. In therian mammals, this is achieved through inactivation of one of the two X chromosomes in females. Failure to undergo X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) results in developmental arrest and death. Although fundamental for survival, a surprising loose conservation in the mechanisms to achieve XCI during development in therian lineage has been, and continues, to be uncovered. XCI involves the concerted action of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including the well-known Xist RNA, and has thus become a classical paradigm to study the mode of action of this particular class of transcripts. In this chapter, we will describe the processes coping with sex chromosome genetic imbalance and how ncRNAs underlie dosage compensation mechanisms and influence male-female differences in mammals. Moreover, we will discuss how ncRNAs have been tinkered with during therian evolution to adapt XCI mechanistic to species-specific constraints.

Dosage compensation in mammals

Many organisms show major chromosomal differences between sexes. In mammals, females have two copies of a large, gene-rich chromosome, the X, whereas males have one X and a small, gene-poor Y. The imbalance in expression of several hundred genes is lethal if not dealt with by dosage compensation. The male-female difference is addressed by silencing of genes on one female X early in development. However, both males and females now have only one active X chromosome. This is compensated by twofold up-regulation of genes on the active X. This complex system continues to provide important insights into mechanisms of epigenetic regulation.

Stress-induced perinatal and transgenerational epigenetic programming of brain development and mental health

Research efforts during the past decades have provided intriguing evidence suggesting that stressful experiences during pregnancy exert long-term consequences on the future mental wellbeing of both the mother and her baby. Recent human epidemiological and animal studies indicate that stressful experiences in utero or during early life may increase the risk of neurological and psychiatric disorders, arguably via altered epigenetic regulation. Epigenetic mechanisms, such as miRNA expression, DNA methylation, and histone modifications are prone to changes in response to stressful experiences and hostile environmental factors. Altered epigenetic regulation may potentially influence fetal endocrine programming and brain development across several generations. Only recently, however, more attention has been paid to possible transgenerational effects of stress. In this review we discuss the evidence of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of stress exposure in human studies and animal models. We highlight the complex interplay between prenatal stress exposure, associated changes in miRNA expression and DNA methylation in placenta and brain and possible links to greater risks of schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, anxiety- or depression-related disorders later in life. Based on existing evidence, we propose that prenatal stress, through the generation of epigenetic alterations, becomes one of the most powerful influences on mental health in later life. The consideration of ancestral and prenatal stress effects on lifetime health trajectories is critical for improving strategies that support healthy development and successful aging.

Long nonoding RNAs in the X-inactivation center

The X-inactivation center is a hotbed of functional long noncoding RNAs in eutherian mammals. These RNAs are thought to help orchestrate the epigenetic transcriptional states of the two X-chromosomes in females as well as of the single X-chromosome in males. To balance X-linked gene expression between the sexes, females undergo transcriptional silencing of most genes on one of the two X-chromosomes in a process termed X-chromosome inactivation. While one X-chromosome is inactivated, the other X-chromosome remains active. Moreover, with a few notable exceptions, the originally established epigenetic transcriptional profiles of the two X-chromosomes is maintained as such through many rounds of cell division, essentially for the life of the organism. The stable and divergent transcriptional fates of the two X-chromosomes, despite residing in a shared nucleoplasm, make X-inactivation a paradigm of epigenetic transcriptional regulation. Originally proposed in 1961 by Mary Lyon, the X-inactivation hypothesis has been validated through much experimentation. In the last 25 years, the discovery and functional characterization has firmly established X-linked long noncoding RNAs as key players in choreographing X-chromosome inactivation.

The Mbd1-Atf7ip-Setdb1 pathway contributes to the maintenance of X chromosome inactivation

Background

X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is a developmental program of heterochromatin formation that initiates during early female mammalian embryonic development and is maintained through a lifetime of cell divisions in somatic cells. Despite identification of the crucial long non-coding RNA Xist and involvement of specific chromatin modifiers in the establishment and maintenance of the heterochromatin of the inactive X chromosome (Xi), interference with known pathways only partially reactivates the Xi once silencing has been established. Here, we studied ATF7IP (MCAF1), a protein previously characterized to coordinate DNA methylation and histone H3K9 methylation through interactions with the methyl-DNA binding protein MBD1 and the histone H3K9 methyltransferase SETDB1, as a candidate maintenance factor of the Xi.

Results

We found that siRNA-mediated knockdown of Atf7ip in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) induces the activation of silenced reporter genes on the Xi in a low number of cells. Additional inhibition of two pathways known to contribute to Xi maintenance, DNA methylation and Xist RNA coating of the X chromosome, strongly increased the number of cells expressing Xi-linked genes upon Atf7ip knockdown. Despite its functional importance in Xi maintenance, ATF7IP does not accumulate on the Xi in MEFs or differentiating mouse embryonic stem cells. However, we found that depletion of two known repressive biochemical interactors of ATF7IP, MBD1 and SETDB1, but not of other unrelated H3K9 methyltransferases, also induces the activation of an Xi-linked reporter in MEFs.

Conclusions

Together, these data indicate that Atf7ip acts in a synergistic fashion with DNA methylation and Xist RNA to maintain the silent state of the Xi in somatic cells, and that Mbd1 and Setdb1, similar to Atf7ip, play a functional role in Xi silencing. We therefore propose that ATF7IP links DNA methylation on the Xi to SETDB1-mediated H3K9 trimethylation via its interaction with MBD1, and that this function is a crucial feature of the stable silencing of the Xi in female mammalian cells.

X marks the spot: does it matter that O-GlcNAc transferase is an X-linked gene?

O-GlcNAcylation has emerged as a critical post-translational modification important for a wide array of cellular processes. This modification has been identified on a large pool of intracellular proteins that have wide-ranging roles, including transcriptional regulation, cell cycle progression, and signaling, among others. Interestingly, in mammals the single gene encoding O-GlcNAc Transferase (OGT) is located on the X-chromosome near the Xist locus suggesting that tight dosage regulation is necessary for normal development. Herein, we highlight the importance of OGT dosage and consider how its genomic location can contribute to a gender-specific increased risk for a number of diseases.

Loss of DNMT1o disrupts imprinted X chromosome inactivation and accentuates placental defects in females

The maintenance of key germline derived DNA methylation patterns during preimplantation development depends on stores of DNA cytosine methyltransferase-1o (DNMT1o) provided by the oocyte. Dnmt1o^mat−/− mouse embryos born to Dnmt1^Δ1o/Δ1o female mice lack DNMT1o protein and have disrupted genomic imprinting and associated phenotypic abnormalities. Here, we describe additional female-specific morphological abnormalities and DNA hypomethylation defects outside imprinted loci, restricted to extraembryonic tissue. Compared to male offspring, the placentae of female offspring of Dnmt1^Δ1o/Δ1o mothers displayed a higher incidence of genic and intergenic hypomethylation and more frequent and extreme placental dysmorphology. The majority of the affected loci were concentrated on the X chromosome and associated with aberrant biallelic expression, indicating that imprinted X-inactivation was perturbed. Hypomethylation of a key regulatory region of Xite within the X-inactivation center was present in female blastocysts shortly after the absence of methylation maintenance by DNMT1o at the 8-cell stage. The female preponderance of placental DNA hypomethylation associated with maternal DNMT1o deficiency provides evidence of additional roles beyond the maintenance of genomic imprints for DNA methylation events in the preimplantation embryo, including a role in imprinted X chromosome inactivation.

During oocyte growth and maturation, vital proteins and enzymes are produced to ensure that, when fertilized, a healthy embryo will arise. When this natural process is interrupted, one or more of these essential elements can fail to be produced thus compromising the health of the future embryo. We are using a mouse model, lacking an enzyme (DNMT1o) produced in the oocyte and only required post-fertilization in the early embryo for the maintenance of inherited DNA methylation marks. Here, we reveal that oocytes lacking DNMT1o, when fertilized, generated conceptuses with a wide variety of placental abnormalities. These placental abnormalities were more frequent and severe in females, and showed specific genomic regions constantly deprived of their normal methylation marks. The affected genomic regions were concentrated on the X chromosome. Interestingly, we also found that a region important for the regulation of the X chromosome inactivation process was hypomethylated in female blastocysts and was associated with sex-specific abnormalities in the placenta, relaxation of imprinted X chromosome inactivation, and disruption of DNA methylation later in development. Our findings provide a novel unanticipated role for DNA methylation events taking place within the first few days of life specifically in female preimplantation embryos.

Role and control of X chromosome dosage in mammalian development

Many species have evolved sex chromosomes with highly divergent gene content, such as the X and Y chromosomes in mammals. As most non sex-specific genes probably need to be expressed at similar levels in males and females, dosage compensation mechanisms are in place to equalize the gene dosage between the sexes, and possibly also between sex chromosomes and autosomes. In mammals, one out of two X chromosomes is inactivated early during development in a process called X-chromosome inactivation that has been investigated intensively in the 50 years since it was discovered. Less is known about the potential functional roles of X-linked gene dosage, for example in controlling development in a sex-specific manner. In this review, we discuss the evolution of dosage compensation and how it is controlled during embryogenesis of mammals. In addition we will summarize evidence on the potential role of X chromosome number during early development.

Genomic insights into cancer-associated aberrant CpG island hypermethylation

Carcinogenesis is thought to occur through a combination of mutational and epimutational events that disrupt key pathways regulating cellular growth and division. The DNA methylomes of cancer cells can exhibit two striking differences from normal cells; a global reduction of DNA methylation levels and the aberrant hypermethylation of some sequences, particularly CpG islands (CGIs). This aberrant hypermethylation is often invoked as a mechanism causing the transcriptional inactivation of tumour suppressor genes that directly drives the carcinogenic process. Here, we review our current understanding of this phenomenon, focusing on how global analysis of cancer methylomes indicates that most affected CGI genes are already silenced prior to aberrant hypermethylation during cancer development. We also discuss how genome-scale analyses of both normal and cancer cells have refined our understanding of the elusive mechanism(s) that may underpin aberrant CGI hypermethylation.

Tissue of origin determines cancer-associated CpG island promoter hypermethylation patterns

BACKGROUND

Aberrant CpG island promoter DNA hypermethylation is frequently observed in cancer and is believed to contribute to tumor progression by silencing the expression of tumor suppressor genes. Previously, we observed that promoter hypermethylation in breast cancer reflects cell lineage rather than tumor progression and occurs at genes that are already repressed in a lineage-specific manner. To investigate the generality of our observation we analyzed the methylation profiles of 1,154 cancers from 7 different tissue types.

RESULTS

We find that 1,009 genes are prone to hypermethylation in these 7 types of cancer. Nearly half of these genes varied in their susceptibility to hypermethylation between different cancer types. We show that the expression status of hypermethylation prone genes in the originator tissue determines their propensity to become hypermethylated in cancer; specifically, genes that are normally repressed in a tissue are prone to hypermethylation in cancers derived from that tissue. We also show that the promoter regions of hypermethylation-prone genes are depleted of repetitive elements and that DNA sequence around the same promoters is evolutionarily conserved. We propose that these two characteristics reflect tissue-specific gene promoter architecture regulating the expression of these hypermethylation prone genes in normal tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

As aberrantly hypermethylated genes are already repressed in pre-cancerous tissue, we suggest that their hypermethylation does not directly contribute to cancer development via silencing. Instead aberrant hypermethylation reflects developmental history and the perturbation of epigenetic mechanisms maintaining these repressed promoters in a hypomethylated state in normal cells.

An ex vivo model for imprinting: mutually exclusive binding of Cdx2 and Oct4 as a switch for imprinted and random X-inactivation

In the early mammalian embryo, X chromosome inactivation (XCI) achieves dosage parity between males and females for X-linked genes. During mouse development, imprinted paternal XCI is observed first and switches to random XCI in the epiblast but not placental lineages. The mechanism by which this epigenetic switch occurs is currently unknown. Here, we establish an ex vivo model for imprinting and identify a novel trans-acting regulatory factor for imprinted XCI. Using an induced trophoblast stem cell (iTS) model, we show that embryonic stem (ES) cells transdifferentiated into trophoblasts retain partial memory of the XCI imprint. Cdx2, a stem cell factor that determines commitment to the extraembryonic lineage, directly binds Xist and activates expression of Xist RNA in extrembryonic cells. Cdx2 competes with Oct4, a stem cell factor that determines commitment to the embryonic lineage, for overlapping binding sites within Xist. We propose that mutually exclusive binding between Cdx2 and Oct4 in Xist underlies the switch between imprinted and random XCI in the early mouse embryo.

X-chromosome inactivation in monkey embryos and pluripotent stem cells

Inactivation of one X chromosome in female mammals (XX) compensates for the reduced dosage of X-linked gene expression in males (XY). However, the inner cell mass (ICM) of mouse preimplantation blastocysts and their in vitro counterparts, pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs), initially maintain two active X chromosomes (XaXa). Random X chromosome inactivation (XCI) takes place in the ICM lineage after implantation or upon differentiation of ESCs, resulting in mosaic tissues composed of two cell types carrying either maternal or paternal active X chromosomes. While the status of XCI in human embryos and ICMs remains unknown, majority of human female ESCs show non-random XCI. We demonstrate here that rhesus monkey ESCs also display monoallelic expression and methylation of X-linked genes in agreement with non-random XCI. However, XIST and other X-linked genes were expressed from both chromosomes in isolated female monkey ICMs indicating that ex vivo pluripotent cells retain XaXa. Intriguingly, the trophectoderm (TE) in preimplantation monkey blastocysts also expressed X-linked genes from both alleles suggesting that, unlike the mouse, primate TE lineage does not support imprinted paternal XCI. Our results provide insights into the species-specific nature of XCI in the primate system and reveal fundamental epigenetic differences between in vitro and ex vivo primate pluripotent cells.

Epigenetics: judge, jury and executioner of stem cell fate

Emerging evidence is shedding light on a large and complex network of epigenetic modifications at play in human stem cells. This “epigenetic landscape” governs the fine-tuning and precision of gene expression programs that define the molecular basis of stem cell pluripotency, differentiation and reprogramming. This review will focus on recent progress in our understanding of the processes that govern this landscape in stem cells, such as histone modification, DNA methylation, alterations of chromatin structure due to chromatin remodeling and non-coding RNA activity. Further investigation into stem cell epigenetics promises to provide novel advances in the diagnosis and treatment of a wide array of human diseases.

Monoallelic silencing and haploinsufficiency in early murine intestinal neoplasms

Studies of tumors from human familial adenomatous polyposis, sporadic colon cancer, and mouse and rat models of intestinal cancer indicate that the majority of early adenomas develop through loss of normal function of the Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene. In murine models of familial adenomatous polyposis, specifically the multiple intestinal neoplasia mouse (Min) and the polyposis in the rat colon (Pirc) rat, most adenomas have lost their WT copy of the Apc gene through loss of heterozygosity by homologous somatic recombination. We report that large colonic adenomas in the Pirc rat have no detectable copy number losses or gains in genomic material and that most tumors lose heterozygosity only on the short arm of chromosome 18. Examination of early mouse and rat tumors indicates that a substantial subset of tumors shows maintenance of heterozygosity of Apc in genomic DNA, apparently violating Knudson's two-hit hypothesis. Sequencing of the Apc gene in a sampling of rat tumors failed to find secondary mutations in the majority of tumors that maintained heterozygosity of Apc in genomic DNA. Using quantitative allele-specific assays of Apc cDNA, we discovered two neoplastic pathways. One class of tumors maintains heterozygosity of Apc(Min/+) or Apc(Pirc/+) RNA expression and may involve haploinsufficiency for Apc function. Another class of tumors exhibits highly biased monoallelic expression of the mutant Apc allele, providing evidence for a stochastic or random process of monoallelic epigenetic silencing of the tumor suppressor gene Apc.

Lineage-specific function of the noncoding Tsix RNA for Xist repression and Xi reactivation in mice

The noncoding Tsix RNA is an antisense repressor of Xist and regulates X inactivation in mice. Tsix is essential for preventing the inactivation of the maternally inherited X chromosome in extraembryonic lineages where imprinted X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) occurs. Here we establish an inducible Tsix expression system for investigating Tsix function in development. We show that Tsix has a clear functional window in extraembryonic development. Within this window, Tsix can repress Xist, which is accompanied by DNA methylation of the Xist promoter. As a consequence of Xist repression, reactivation of the inactive X chromosome (Xi) is widely observed. In the parietal endoderm, Tsix represses Xist and causes reactivation of an Xi-linked GFP transgene throughout development, whereas Tsix progressively loses its Xist-repressing function from embryonic day 9.5 (E9.5) onward in trophoblast giant cells and spongiotrophoblast, suggesting that Tsix function depends on a lineage-specific environment. Our data also demonstrate that the maintenance of imprinted XCI requires Xist expression in specific extraembryonic tissues throughout development. This finding shows that reversible XCI is not exclusive to pluripotent cells, and that in some lineages cell differentiation is not accompanied by a stabilization of the Xi.

X chromosome inactivation: a silence that needs to be broken

Each mammalian female cell transcriptionally inactivates one X chromosome to balance X-linked gene dosage between males and females. This phenomenon, called X chromosome inactivation, is a perfect epigenetic event, in which two chromosomes with identical DNA sequences are solely distinguished by epigenetic modifications. In this case, epigenetic marks, such as histone modifications, histone variants, DNA methylation, and ncRNAs, are all enriched on one chromosome, the inactive X chromosome (Xi), to establish its chromosome-wide gene silencing. At face value, it seems that the gene silencing mechanism of Xi is well understood. However, the "silence" of Xi in somatic cells is so tightly maintained that it remains largely intact even after almost all known epigenetic modifications are artificially depleted. To understand how the gene silence of Xi is maintained in soma is a major challenge in current research. We summarize the current knowledge related with this issue and discuss future research directions.

Regulation of X-chromosome inactivation by the X-inactivation centre

X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) ensures dosage compensation in mammals and is a paradigm for allele-specific gene expression on a chromosome-wide scale. Important insights have been made into the developmental dynamics of this process. Recent studies have identified several cis- and trans-acting factors that regulate the initiation of XCI via the X-inactivation centre. Such studies have shed light on the relationship between XCI and pluripotency. They have also revealed the existence of dosage-dependent activators that trigger XCI when more than one X chromosome is present, as well as possible mechanisms underlying the monoallelic regulation of this process. The recent discovery of the plasticity of the inactive state during early development, or during cloning, and induced pluripotency have also contributed to the X chromosome becoming a gold standard in reprogramming studies.

Gene silencing in X-chromosome inactivation: advances in understanding facultative heterochromatin formation

In female mammals, one of the two X chromosomes is silenced for dosage compensation between the sexes. X-chromosome inactivation is initiated in early embryogenesis by the Xist RNA that localizes to the inactive X chromosome. During development, the inactive X chromosome is further modified, a specialized form of facultative heterochromatin is formed and gene repression becomes stable and independent of Xist in somatic cells. The recent identification of several factors involved in this process has provided insights into the mechanism of Xist localization and gene silencing. The emerging picture is complex and suggests that chromosome-wide silencing can be partitioned into several steps, the molecular components of which are starting to be defined.

DNA methylation regulates phenotype-dependent transcriptional activity in Candida albicans

DNA methylation is a common epigenetic signaling mechanism associated with silencing of repeated DNA and transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes. Here we report that DNA methylation in the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans is primarily localized within structural genes and modulates transcriptional activity. Major repeat sequences and multigene families are largely free of DNA methylation. Among the genes subject to DNA methylation are those associated with dimorphic transition between yeast and hyphal forms, switching between white and opaque cells, and iron metabolism. Transcriptionally repressed methylated loci showed increased frequency of C-to-T transitions during asexual growth, an evolutionarily stable pattern of repression associated mutation that could bring about genetic alterations under changing environmental or host conditions. Dynamic differential DNA methylation of structural genes may be one factor contributing to morphological plasticity that is cued by nutrition and host interaction.

Epigenetic patterns maintained in early Caenorhabditis elegans embryos can be established by gene activity in the parental germ cells

Epigenetic information, such as parental imprints, can be transmitted with genetic information from parent to offspring through the germ line. Recent reports show that histone modifications can be transmitted through sperm as a component of this information transfer. How the information that is transferred is established in the parent and maintained in the offspring is poorly understood. We previously described a form of imprinted X inactivation in Caenorhabditis elegans where dimethylation on histone 3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me2), a mark of active chromatin, is excluded from the paternal X chromosome (Xp) during spermatogenesis and persists through early cell divisions in the embryo. Based on the observation that the Xp (unlike the maternal X or any autosome) is largely transcriptionally inactive in the paternal germ line, we hypothesized that transcriptional activity in the parent germ line may influence epigenetic information inherited by and maintained in the embryo. We report that chromatin modifications and histone variant patterns assembled in the germ line can be retained in mature gametes. Furthermore, despite extensive chromatin remodeling events at fertilization, the modification patterns arriving with the gametes are largely retained in the early embryo. Using transgenes, we observe that expression in the parental germline correlates with differential chromatin assembly that is replicated and maintained in the early embryo. Expression in the adult germ cells also correlates with more robust expression in the somatic lineages of the offspring. These results suggest that differential expression in the parental germ lines may provide a potential mechanism for the establishment of parent-of-origin epigenomic content. This content can be maintained and may heritably affect gene expression in the offspring.

Analysis of associations between the patterns of global DNA hypomethylation and expression of DNA methyltransferase in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVES

To analyze associations between the patterns of global DNA hypomethylation and expression of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and to obtain a deeper understanding of the role that epigenetic mechanism may have on SLE.

METHODS

The global DNA methylation profile in T cells from 34 patients with SLE and 23 healthy controls was assessed by the specific monoclonal antibodies to 5-methylcytosine and was analyzed quantitatively by flow cytometry. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was applied to analyze DNMTs (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) mRNA levels in T cells from patients and controls.

RESULTS

Patients with SLE had significantly global DNA hypomethylation than that in controls (P = 0.004), and the global DNA methylation was inverse correlated with the SLE Disease Activity Index (P < 0.0005). Patients with SLE had significantly lower levels of DNMT1 mRNA than that in controls (P < 0.0005), and there was no correlation between the level of DNMT1 mRNA and SLE Disease Activity Index, neither the correlation between the levels of DNMT1 mRNA and global DNA methylation. There was no statistical difference in levels of DNMT3A mRNA between the patients with SLE and normal controls. The levels of DNMT3B mRNA were very low, and there was no difference in patients with SLE and normal controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Global DNA hypomethylation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of SLE. Lower expression of DNMT1 mRNA may play a role in the pathogenesis of SLE, which is not the exclusive regulation factor of global DNA methylation of SLE. The mechanism of global DNA hypomethylation in patients with SLE was complicated. Enzymes that participate in DNA methylation and demethylation events should be studied further.

A system for imaging the regulatory noncoding Xist RNA in living mouse embryonic stem cells

In mammals, silencing of one of the two X chromosomes in female cells provides dosage compensation between the sexes. The noncoding Xist RNA localizes over the inactive X chromosome and initiates gene silencing. Visualization of Xist in living cells is used to study the mechanism of localization and measure the dynamics of chromosome-bound Xist.

In mammals, silencing of one of the two X chromosomes in female cells compensates for the different number of X chromosomes between the sexes. The noncoding Xist RNA initiates X chromosome inactivation. Xist spreads from its transcription site over the X chromosome territory and triggers the formation of a repressive chromatin domain. To understand localization of Xist over one X chromosome we aimed to develop a system for investigating Xist in living cells. Here we report successful visualization of transgenically expressed MS2‑tagged Xist in mouse embryonic stem cells. Imaging of Xist during an entire cell cycle shows that Xist spreads from a single point to a steady state when the chromosome is covered with a constant amount of Xist. Photobleaching experiments of the established Xist cluster indicate that chromosome‑bound Xist is dynamic and turns over on the fully Xist covered chromosome. It appears that in interphase the loss of bound Xist and newly produced Xist are in equilibrium. We also show that the turnover of bound Xist requires transcription, and Xist binding becomes stable when transcription is inhibited. Our data reveal a strategy for visualizing Xist and indicate that spreading over the chromosome might involve dynamic binding and displacement.

DNA methyltransferase 3b preferentially associates with condensed chromatin

In mammals, DNA methylation is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) encoded by Dnmt1, Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b. Since, the mechanisms of regulation of Dnmts are still largely unknown, the physical interaction between Dnmt3b and chromatin was investigated in vivo and in vitro. In embryonic stem cell nuclei, Dnmt3b preferentially associated with histone H1-containing heterochromatin without any significant enrichment of silent-specific histone methylation. Recombinant Dnmt3b preferentially associated with nucleosomal DNA rather than naked DNA. Incorporation of histone H1 into nucleosomal arrays promoted the association of Dnmt3b with chromatin, whereas histone acetylation reduced Dnmt3b binding in vitro. In addition, Dnmt3b associated with histone deacetylase SirT1 in the nuclease resistant chromatin. These findings suggest that Dnmt3b is preferentially recruited into hypoacetylated and condensed chromatin. We propose that Dnmt3b is a 'reader' of higher-order chromatin structure leading to gene silencing through DNA methylation.

Dynamic control of endogenous retroviruses during development

Close to half of the human genome encompasses mobile genetic elements, most of which are retrotransposons. These genetic invaders are formidable evolutionary forces that have shaped the architecture of the genomes of higher organisms, with some conserving the ability to induce new integrants within their hosts' genome. Expectedly, the control of endogenous retroviruses is tight and multi-pronged. It is most crucially established in the germ line and during the first steps of embryogenesis, primarily through transcriptional mechanisms that have likely evolved under their very pressure, but are now engaged in controlling gene expression at large, notably during early development.

Two-step imprinted X inactivation: repeat versus genic silencing in the mouse

Mammals compensate for unequal X-linked gene dosages between the sexes by inactivating one X chromosome in the female. In marsupials and in the early mouse embryo, X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is imprinted to occur selectively on the paternal X chromosome (X(P)). The mechanisms and events underlying X(P) imprinting remain unclear. Here, we find that the imprinted X(P) can be functionally divided into two domains, one comprising traditional coding genes (genic) and the other comprising intergenic repetitive elements. X(P) repetitive element silencing occurs by the two-cell stage, does not require Xist, and occurs several divisions prior to genic silencing. In contrast, genic silencing initiates at the morula-to-blastocyst stage and absolutely requires Xist. Genes translocate into the presilenced repeat region as they are inactivated, whereas active genes remain outside. Thus, during the gamete-embryo transition, imprinted XCI occurs in two steps, with repeat silencing preceding genic inactivation. Nucleolar association may underlie the epigenetic asymmetry of X(P) and X(M). We hypothesize that transgenerational information (the imprint) is carried by repeats from the paternal germ line or that, alternatively, repetitive elements are silenced at the two-cell stage in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. Our model incorporates aspects of the so-called classical, de novo, and preinactivation hypotheses and suggests that Xist RNA functions relatively late during preimplantation mouse development.

Active chromatin marks are retained on X chromosomes lacking gene or repeat silencing despite XIST/Xist expression in somatic cell hybrids

Background

X-chromosome inactivation occurs early in mammalian development and results in the inactive X chromosome acquiring numerous hallmarks of heterochromatin. While XIST is a key player in the inactivation process, the method of action of this ncRNA is yet to be determined.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To assess which features of heterochromatin may be directly recruited by the expression and localization of the XIST RNA we have analyzed a mouse/human somatic cell hybrid in which expression of human and mouse XIST/Xist has been induced from the active X by demethylation. Such hybrids had previously been demonstrated to disconnect XIST/Xist expression from gene silencing and we confirm maintenance of X-linked gene expression, even close to the Xist locus, despite the localized expression of mouse Xist.

Conclusions/Significance

Loss of the active chromatin marks H3 acetylation and H3 lysine 4 methylation was not observed upon XIST/Xist expression, nor was there a gain of DNA methylation; thus these marks of facultative heterochromatin are not solely dependent upon Xist expression. Cot-1 holes, regions of depleted RNA hybridization with a Cot-1 probe, were observed upon Xist expression; however, these were at reduced frequency and intensity in these somatic cells. Domains of human Cot-1 transcription were observed corresponding to the human chromosomes in the somatic cell hybrids. The Cot-1 domain of the X was not reduced with the expression of XIST, which fails to localize to the human X chromosome in a mouse somatic cell background. The human inactive X in a mouse/human hybrid cell also shows delocalized XIST expression and an ongoing Cot-1 domain, despite X-linked gene silencing. These results are consistent with recent reports separating Cot-1 silencing from genic silencing, but also demonstrate repetitive element expression from an otherwise silent X chromosome in these hybrid cells.

BISMA--fast and accurate bisulfite sequencing data analysis of individual clones from unique and repetitive sequences

Background

Bisulfite sequencing is a popular method to analyze DNA methylation patterns at high resolution. A region of interest is targeted by PCR and about 20-50 subcloned DNA molecules are usually analyzed, to determine the methylation status at single CpG sites and molecule resolution.

Results

The BISMA (Bisulfite Sequencing DNA Methylation Analysis) software for analysis of primary bisulfite sequencing data implements sequencing data extraction and enhanced data processing, quality controls, analysis and presentation of the methylation state. It uses an improved strategy for detection of clonal molecules and accurate CpG site detection and it supports for the first time analysis of repetitive sequences.

Conclusions

BISMA works highly automated but still provides the user full control over all steps of the analysis. The BISMA software is freely available as an online tool for academic purposes for the analysis of bisulfite sequencing data from both unique and repetitive sequences http://biochem.jacobs-university.de/BDPC/BISMA/.

The X as model for RNA's niche in epigenomic regulation

The X-linked region now known as the "X-inactivation center" (Xic) was once dominated by protein-coding genes but, with the rise of Eutherian mammals some 150-200 million years ago, became infiltrated by genes that produce long noncoding RNA (ncRNA). Some of the noncoding genes have been shown to play crucial roles during X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), including the targeting of chromatin modifiers to the X. The rapid establishment of ncRNA hints at a possible preference for long transcripts in some aspects of epigenetic regulation. This article discusses the role of RNA in XCI and considers the advantages RNA offers in delivering allelic, cis-limited, and locus-specific control. Unlike proteins and small RNAs, long ncRNAs are tethered to the site of transcription and effectively tag the allele of origin. Furthermore, long ncRNAs are drawn from larger sequence space than proteins and can mark a unique region in a complex genome. Thus, like their small RNA cousins, long ncRNAs may emerge as versatile and powerful regulators of the epigenome.

DNA methylation in early development

Development from separate parental germ cells through fertilization and proceeding to a fully functioning adult animal occurs through an intricate program of transcriptional and chromatin changes. Epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation are an important part of this process. This review looks at the role of DNA methylation in early embryonic development, as well as how this epigenetic mark affects stem cell differentiation and tissue-specific gene expression in somatic cells.

The Trithorax group protein Ash2l and Saf-A are recruited to the inactive X chromosome at the onset of stable X inactivation

Mammals compensate X chromosome gene dosage between the sexes by silencing of one of the two female X chromosomes. X inactivation is initiated in the early embryo and requires the non-coding Xist RNA, which encompasses the inactive X chromosome (Xi) and triggers its silencing. In differentiated cells, several factors including the histone variant macroH2A and the scaffold attachment factor SAF-A are recruited to the Xi and maintain its repression. Consequently, in female somatic cells the Xi remains stably silenced independently of Xist. Here, we identify the Trithorax group protein Ash2l as a novel component of the Xi. Ash2l is recruited by Xist concomitantly with Saf-A and macroH2A at the transition to Xi maintenance. Recruitment of these factors characterizes a developmental transition point for the chromatin composition of the Xi. Surprisingly, expression of a mutant Xist RNA that does not cause gene repression can trigger recruitment of Ash2l, Saf-A and macroH2A to the X chromosome, and can cause chromosome-wide histone H4 hypoacetylation. This suggests that a chromatin configuration is established on non-genic chromatin on the Xi by Xist to provide a repressive compartment that could be used for maintaining gene silencing. Gene silencing is mechanistically separable from the formation of this repressive compartment and, thus, requires additional pathways. This observation highlights a crucial role for spatial organization of chromatin changes in the maintenance of X inactivation.

X-changing information on X inactivation

In female somatic cells of mammalian species one X chromosome is inactivated to ensure dosage equality of X-encoded genes between females and males, during development and adulthood. X chromosome inactivation (XCI) involves various epigenetic mechanisms, including RNA mediated gene silencing in cis, DNA methylation, and changes in chromatin modifications and composition. XCI therefore provides an attractive paradigm to study epigenetic gene regulation in a more general context. The XCI process starts with counting of the number of X chromosomes present in a nucleus, and initiation of XCI follows if this number exceeds one per diploid genome. Recently, X-encoded RNF12 has been identified as a dose-dependent activator of XCI. In addition, other factors, including the pluripotency factors OCT4, SOX2 and Nanog, have been implicated to play a role in suppression of initiation of XCI. In this review, we highlight and explain these new and old findings in the context of a stochastic model for X chromosome counting and XCI initiation.