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Sudderick ZR, Glover JD. Periodic pattern formation during embryonic development. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:75-88. [PMID: 38288903 PMCID: PMC10903485 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
During embryonic development many organs and structures require the formation of series of repeating elements known as periodic patterns. Ranging from the digits of the limb to the feathers of the avian skin, the correct formation of these embryonic patterns is essential for the future form and function of these tissues. However, the mechanisms that produce these patterns are not fully understood due to the existence of several modes of pattern generation which often differ between organs and species. Here, we review the current state of the field and provide a perspective on future approaches to studying this fundamental process of embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe R. Sudderick
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
| | - James D. Glover
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
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2
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Li YY, Ji SF, Fu XB, Jiang YF, Sun XY. Biomaterial-based mechanical regulation facilitates scarless wound healing with functional skin appendage regeneration. Mil Med Res 2024; 11:13. [PMID: 38369464 PMCID: PMC10874556 DOI: 10.1186/s40779-024-00519-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Scar formation resulting from burns or severe trauma can significantly compromise the structural integrity of skin and lead to permanent loss of skin appendages, ultimately impairing its normal physiological function. Accumulating evidence underscores the potential of targeted modulation of mechanical cues to enhance skin regeneration, promoting scarless repair by influencing the extracellular microenvironment and driving the phenotypic transitions. The field of skin repair and skin appendage regeneration has witnessed remarkable advancements in the utilization of biomaterials with distinct physical properties. However, a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms remains somewhat elusive, limiting the broader application of these innovations. In this review, we present two promising biomaterial-based mechanical approaches aimed at bolstering the regenerative capacity of compromised skin. The first approach involves leveraging biomaterials with specific biophysical properties to create an optimal scarless environment that supports cellular activities essential for regeneration. The second approach centers on harnessing mechanical forces exerted by biomaterials to enhance cellular plasticity, facilitating efficient cellular reprogramming and, consequently, promoting the regeneration of skin appendages. In summary, the manipulation of mechanical cues using biomaterial-based strategies holds significant promise as a supplementary approach for achieving scarless wound healing, coupled with the restoration of multiple skin appendage functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Ying Li
- Research Center for Tissue Repair and Regeneration Affiliated to the Medical Innovation Research Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital and PLA Medical College; PLA Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regenerative Medicine and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration; Research Unit of Trauma Care, Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, 2019RU051, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Shuai-Fei Ji
- Research Center for Tissue Repair and Regeneration Affiliated to the Medical Innovation Research Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital and PLA Medical College; PLA Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regenerative Medicine and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration; Research Unit of Trauma Care, Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, 2019RU051, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Xiao-Bing Fu
- Research Center for Tissue Repair and Regeneration Affiliated to the Medical Innovation Research Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital and PLA Medical College; PLA Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regenerative Medicine and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration; Research Unit of Trauma Care, Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, 2019RU051, Beijing, 100048, China.
| | - Yu-Feng Jiang
- Department of Tissue Regeneration and Wound Repair, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China.
| | - Xiao-Yan Sun
- Research Center for Tissue Repair and Regeneration Affiliated to the Medical Innovation Research Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital and PLA Medical College; PLA Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regenerative Medicine and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration; Research Unit of Trauma Care, Tissue Repair and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, 2019RU051, Beijing, 100048, China.
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3
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Pfeifer CR, Shyer AE, Rodrigues AR. Creative processes during vertebrate organ morphogenesis: Biophysical self-organization at the supracellular scale. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2024; 86:102305. [PMID: 38181658 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2023.102305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Here, we review recent developments in the literature that provide insight into self-organization at supracellular scales in vertebrate organ morphogenesis. We briefly present a historical and conceptual analysis of the term "self-organization." Based on this analysis, we suggest that self-organizing processes, at their root, possess a form of causal relationship, reciprocal causality, that is markedly distinct from linear causal chains. We survey the extent to which reciprocal causality can be used to interpret or clarify supracellular studies in development and disease. Finally, we explore how reciprocal causality can exist across length-scales, identifying situations where multiple scales require simultaneous analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte R Pfeifer
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Amy E Shyer
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Alan R Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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4
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Yang S, Palmquist KH, Nathan L, Pfeifer CR, Schultheiss PJ, Sharma A, Kam LC, Miller PW, Shyer AE, Rodrigues AR. Morphogens enable interacting supracellular phases that generate organ architecture. Science 2023; 382:eadg5579. [PMID: 37995219 DOI: 10.1126/science.adg5579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
During vertebrate organogenesis, increases in morphological complexity are tightly coupled to morphogen expression. In this work, we studied how morphogens influence self-organizing processes at the collective or "supra"-cellular scale in avian skin. We made physical measurements across length scales, which revealed morphogen-enabled material property differences that were amplified at supracellular scales in comparison to cellular scales. At the supracellular scale, we found that fibroblast growth factor (FGF) promoted "solidification" of tissues, whereas bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) promoted fluidity and enhanced mechanical activity. Together, these effects created basement membrane-less compartments within mesenchymal tissue that were mechanically primed to drive avian skin tissue budding. Understanding this multiscale process requires the ability to distinguish between proximal effects of morphogens that occur at the cellular scale and their functional effects, which emerge at the supracellular scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sichen Yang
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Karl H Palmquist
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Levy Nathan
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Charlotte R Pfeifer
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Paula J Schultheiss
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Anurag Sharma
- Electron Microscopy Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Lance C Kam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Pearson W Miller
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Amy E Shyer
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Alan R Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
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5
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Wang Q, Zhou M, Zhang H, Hou Z, Liu D. Hypoxia Treatment of Adipose Mesenchymal Stem Cells Promotes the Growth of Dermal Papilla Cells via HIF-1α and ERK1/2 Signaling Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11198. [PMID: 37446376 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241311198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermal papilla cells (DPCs) cultured in vitro induce hair follicle formation. Using a hypoxic microenvironment to culture adipose mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) can promote hair follicle growth. However, the exact molecular mechanisms underlying this process remain unclear. In this study, ADSCs and DPCs from Arbas Cashmere goats were used. A hypoxic microenvironment promoted the proliferation of ADSCs and increased the pluripotency of ADSCs. The growth factors vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) were upregulated in ADSCs in the hypoxia-conditioned medium (Hypo-cm). Hypo-cm also enhanced the ability of DPCs to induce hair follicle formation. Inhibitors of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway caused the expressions of growth factors that increased in hypoxic microenvironments to decrease; moreover, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) increased the expression levels of VEGF, bFGF, and PDGF and inhibited the expression of bone morphogenic protein 7 (BMP7). In conclusion, these findings improve the theoretical basis for the development of gene therapy drugs for the treatment of alopecia areata and hair thinning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation & Breeding of Grassland Livestock, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China
| | - Mei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation & Breeding of Grassland Livestock, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China
| | - Hongyan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation & Breeding of Grassland Livestock, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China
| | - Zhuang Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation & Breeding of Grassland Livestock, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China
| | - Dongjun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation & Breeding of Grassland Livestock, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China
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6
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Diao X, Yao L, Wang X, Li S, Qin J, Yang L, He L, Zhang W. Hair Follicle Development and Cashmere Traits in Albas Goat Kids. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040617. [PMID: 36830404 PMCID: PMC9951752 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this trial were to study the growth and development of hair follicles and cashmere traits in cashmere goats and to provide a theoretical basis for the regulation of secondary hair follicle development and the scientific breeding selection of cashmere goats. Twelve single-fetal female kids were selected as research objects. A long-term tracking plan was created to regularly determine their growth performance, cashmere performance, and hair follicle traits. The results showed no significant difference in live weight after the first and second combing. The cashmere yield and unit yield of the first combing were significantly higher than those of the second combing (p < 0.05). Sections of hair follicles showed that the primary hair follicles are almost fully developed by 1 month, and the secondary hair follicles are fully developed by 5-6 months after birth. The primary hair follicle density (PFD) and secondary hair follicle density (SFD) were highest at birth and decreased within 1 month; and SFD was stable at 5-6 months of age. The change of MSFD took a maximum time of 2 to 3 months. The S:P increase reached its peak at 6 months. BMP4 expression increased with time. FGF2, FGF21 and BMP7 were higher at 3 months old than at the other two-time points. In conclusion, this study determined the total development time of primary and secondary hair follicles from morphology and speculated that FGF2, FGF21, and BMP7 may play a regulatory role in developing secondary hair follicles. Therefore, the period from birth to 6 months of age was the best time to regulate secondary hair follicle development in cashmere goats kids. The traits of the hair follicle and cashmere at 6 months of age could be breeding selection indicators for cashmere goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaogao Diao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lingyun Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xinhui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Sen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jiaxin Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Liwen He
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, No. 2, Yuan Ming Yuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China
- Correspondence:
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7
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Cooper RL, Nicklin EF, Rasch LJ, Fraser GJ. Teeth outside the mouth: The evolution and development of shark denticles. Evol Dev 2023; 25:54-72. [PMID: 36594351 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate skin appendages are incredibly diverse. This diversity, which includes structures such as scales, feathers, and hair, likely evolved from a shared anatomical placode, suggesting broad conservation of the early development of these organs. Some of the earliest known skin appendages are dentine and enamel-rich tooth-like structures, collectively known as odontodes. These appendages evolved over 450 million years ago. Elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, and rays) have retained these ancient skin appendages in the form of both dermal denticles (scales) and oral teeth. Despite our knowledge of denticle function in adult sharks, our understanding of their development and morphogenesis is less advanced. Even though denticles in sharks appear structurally similar to oral teeth, there has been limited data directly comparing the molecular development of these distinct elements. Here, we chart the development of denticles in the embryonic small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) and characterize the expression of conserved genes known to mediate dental development. We find that shark denticle development shares a vast gene expression signature with developing teeth. However, denticles have restricted regenerative potential, as they lack a sox2+ stem cell niche associated with the maintenance of a dental lamina, an essential requirement for continuous tooth replacement. We compare developing denticles to other skin appendages, including both sensory skin appendages and avian feathers. This reveals that denticles are not only tooth-like in structure, but that they also share an ancient developmental gene set that is likely common to all epidermal appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory L Cooper
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, The University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ella F Nicklin
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Liam J Rasch
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Gareth J Fraser
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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8
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Li S, Yang G, Chu J, Wang J, Liu A, Mou C. Revealing the impacts on shaping scutate scales in goose skin. Gene 2022; 844:146840. [PMID: 36031017 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2022.146840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Feather follicles and scales are two types of skin appendages distributed on different parts of avian skin. The morphogenesis and development of scales in waterfowl remain largely unknown. Here, we used H&E staining, ISH and RNA sequencing to reveal the morphological and molecular variations at the early development of scutate scales in goose shank skin. Transcriptome analysis produced 1824 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) regulating the induction of scales and further enriched gene function in cell adhesion and Wnt signaling pathway, etc. A total of 8 candidate genes (ALDOC, CSRP2, KRT15, KRT75, LGALS1, S100A6, OGN and SFRP2) were further detected by RT-qPCR to show upregulated (6 genes) and downregulated (2 genes) from pre-placodal to placode stage during the induction of goose scales. The localization of 7 candidate genes (ALDOC, CSRP2, CD109, KRT15, KRT75, S100A6, and OGN) by ISH suggests the potential roles for dermal and epidermal development during the induction of scutate scales. The dynamic molecular changes and specific gene expression patterns revealed in this report provide general knowledge of scale development in waterfowl as well as skin appendage diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaomei Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Ge Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Jinyu Chu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Jiangsu Agri-animal Husbandry Vocational College, Taizhou 215300, China
| | - Anfang Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing 402460, China
| | - Chunyan Mou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing 402460, China
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Li Y, Lv X, Wang S, Cao X, Yuan Z, Getachew T, Mwacharo JM, Haile A, Sun W. BMP7 Functions to Regulate Proliferation of Dermal Papilla Cells in Hu Sheep. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13020201. [PMID: 35205246 PMCID: PMC8872560 DOI: 10.3390/genes13020201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are the structurally similar and highly conserved type of functional proteins that play an important role in hair follicle growth and development. BMP7 was a differentially expressed gene in different patterns of Hu sheep lambskin identified using Agilent microarray. Since hair follicle is the basis of pattern formation of lambskin, and its growth and development is governed by dermal papilla cells (DPCs), to clarify the role of BMP7 and hair follicle, our study was designed to investigate the regulation between BMP7 and DPCs. Firstly, the CDS region of BMP7 was cloned by 3'Race and PCR in Hu sheep and performed serious of bioinformatic analysis. Then, the effects of BMP7 on DPCs were analyzed after overexpression and interference of BMP7 in dermal papilla cells by CCK8, EdU, and PI assay. Additionally, qPCR was also conducted to clarify the relationship between BMP7 and the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. A total of 1,296 bp of the BMP7 CDS region sequence was sucessfully cloned in Hu sheep, encoding a signal peptide of 431 amino acids, molecular weight was 49,316.9Da and the isoelectric point (Pi) was 7.75. Nucleotide sequencing analysis of BMP7 revealed that Hu sheep had high homology with Bos taurus, Homo sapiens, and Canis lupus familiaris. Structure domain prediction showed that TGF-β superfamily domain exist between 330th-431th amino acid, BMP7 protein is a secreted protein. In BMP7 up-regulated DPCs, DPCs proliferation rate and cell cycle were significantly higher than that of NC group (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, the expression level of Smad3, Smad4, Samd6, and TGF-β1 in TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway were significantly lower than that in NC group (P < 0.05). In BMP7 down-regulated DPCs, it presented the opposite result. In conclusion, our study showed that BMP7 had a positive effect on DPCs by accelerating the proliferation and cell cycle of DPCs, and hypothesized that regulate hair follicles growth and development via TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. These findings may provide a synergistic target for the subsequent research of hair follicle growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (Y.L.); (S.W.)
| | - Xiaoyang Lv
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (X.L.); (X.C.); (Z.Y.)
| | - Shanhe Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (Y.L.); (S.W.)
| | - Xiukai Cao
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (X.L.); (X.C.); (Z.Y.)
| | - Zehu Yuan
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (X.L.); (X.C.); (Z.Y.)
| | - Tesfaye Getachew
- International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Addis Ababa 999047, Ethiopia; (T.G.); (J.M.M.); (A.H.)
| | - Joram M. Mwacharo
- International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Addis Ababa 999047, Ethiopia; (T.G.); (J.M.M.); (A.H.)
| | - Aynalem Haile
- International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Addis Ababa 999047, Ethiopia; (T.G.); (J.M.M.); (A.H.)
| | - Wei Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (Y.L.); (S.W.)
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (X.L.); (X.C.); (Z.Y.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Griffing AH, Sanger TJ, Epperlein L, Bauer AM, Cobos A, Higham TE, Naylor E, Gamble T. And thereby hangs a tail: morphology, developmental patterns and biomechanics of the adhesive tails of crested geckos ( Correlophus ciliatus). Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210650. [PMID: 34130507 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the most specialized integumentary outgrowths in amniotes are the adhesive, scale-like scansors and lamellae on the digits of anoles and geckos. Less well-known are adhesive tail pads exhibited by 21 gecko genera. While described over 120 years ago, no studies have quantified their possible adhesive function or described their embryonic development. Here, we characterize adult and embryonic morphology and adhesive performance of crested gecko (Correlophus ciliatus) tail pads. Additionally, we use embryonic data to test whether tail pads are serial homologues to toe pads. External morphology and histology of C. ciliatus tail pads are largely similar to tail pads of closely related geckos. Functionally, C. ciliatus tail pads exhibit impressive adhesive ability, hypothetically capable of holding up to five times their own mass. Tail pads develop at approximately the same time during embryogenesis as toe pads. Further, tail pads exhibit similar developmental patterns to toe pads, which are markedly different from non-adhesive gecko toes and tails. Our data provide support for the serial homology of adhesive tail pads with toe pads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron H Griffing
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, PO Box 1881, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
| | - Thomas J Sanger
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60660, USA
| | - Lilian Epperlein
- Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60660, USA
| | - Aaron M Bauer
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stewardship, Villanova University, 800 Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA
| | - Anthony Cobos
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Emily Naylor
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Tony Gamble
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, PO Box 1881, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA.,Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 W. Wells Street, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA.,Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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11
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Ho WKW, Freem L, Zhao D, Painter KJ, Woolley TE, Gaffney EA, McGrew MJ, Tzika A, Milinkovitch MC, Schneider P, Drusko A, Matthäus F, Glover JD, Wells KL, Johansson JA, Davey MG, Sang HM, Clinton M, Headon DJ. Feather arrays are patterned by interacting signalling and cell density waves. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000132. [PMID: 30789897 PMCID: PMC6383868 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Feathers are arranged in a precise pattern in avian skin. They first arise during development in a row along the dorsal midline, with rows of new feather buds added sequentially in a spreading wave. We show that the patterning of feathers relies on coupled fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling together with mesenchymal cell movement, acting in a coordinated reaction-diffusion-taxis system. This periodic patterning system is partly mechanochemical, with mechanical-chemical integration occurring through a positive feedback loop centred on FGF20, which induces cell aggregation, mechanically compressing the epidermis to rapidly intensify FGF20 expression. The travelling wave of feather formation is imposed by expanding expression of Ectodysplasin A (EDA), which initiates the expression of FGF20. The EDA wave spreads across a mesenchymal cell density gradient, triggering pattern formation by lowering the threshold of mesenchymal cells required to begin to form a feather bud. These waves, and the precise arrangement of feather primordia, are lost in the flightless emu and ostrich, though via different developmental routes. The ostrich retains the tract arrangement characteristic of birds in general but lays down feather primordia without a wave, akin to the process of hair follicle formation in mammalian embryos. The embryonic emu skin lacks sufficient cells to enact feather formation, causing failure of tract formation, and instead the entire skin gains feather primordia through a later process. This work shows that a reaction-diffusion-taxis system, integrated with mechanical processes, generates the feather array. In flighted birds, the key role of the EDA/Ectodysplasin A receptor (EDAR) pathway in vertebrate skin patterning has been recast to activate this process in a quasi-1-dimensional manner, imposing highly ordered pattern formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K. W. Ho
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy Freem
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Debiao Zhao
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin J. Painter
- School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas E. Woolley
- School of Mathematics, Cardiff University, Cathays, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Eamonn A. Gaffney
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. McGrew
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Athanasia Tzika
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Pascal Schneider
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Armin Drusko
- FIAS and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Franziska Matthäus
- FIAS and Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - James D. Glover
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kirsty L. Wells
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jeanette A. Johansson
- Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre and MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Megan G. Davey
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Helen M. Sang
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Clinton
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Denis J. Headon
- Roslin Institute Chicken Embryology, Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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12
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Kumar S, Franz-Odendaal TA. Analysis of the FGFR spatiotemporal expression pattern within the chicken scleral ossicle system. Gene Expr Patterns 2018; 30:7-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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13
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Akpan MO, Samuel OM, Emikpe BO. Regional skin histomorphology in adult greater cane rats ( Thryonomys swinderianus): A pilot study. Int J Vet Sci Med 2018; 6:219-226. [PMID: 30564599 PMCID: PMC6286415 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijvsm.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus) demonstrated numerous dermal architectural peculiarities hitherto unreported. This investigation assessed and evaluated certain histologic features of skin samples from the fore and hind limbs, the neck, head, proximal to the ear and oro-nasal regions for follicular evaluations and micro anatomic assessments in the adult species. Twenty wild taken animals of equal gender distribution were used for histologic assessments of structural elements and histo-morphometric evaluations. Hair follicular density, size, distribution and orientations as well as sexual dimorphisms observed in the body regions studied with Motic Image Plus software analysis were also reported. Statistical analysis revealed sexual dimorphism in this feature as females demonstrated significantly higher (P < .05) follicular density and epidermal thickness at about twice the recorded values for males at similar sites evaluated, but half (P < .05) of follicular diameter of values of males. Mean follicular density for oro-nasal area, head, neck, fore and hind limbs were 50 ± 3.55 and 70 ± 3.34n/µm2, 16.24 ± 3.02 and 12 ± 4.00, 8.00 ± 2.68 and 83.66 ± 4.08, 8.02 ± 4.00 and 3.23 ± 3.85, 4.32 ± 3.02 and 2.05 ± 2.04 for females and males respectively. Follicular area decreased proportionally with density increase but it was inversely proportional with epidermal thickness in all evaluated regions. This investigation suggests that the peculiarities observed in dermal structures adapt this species to environmental forces, defense and self-preservation including thermoregulation, foraging and predator evasion, whereas histo-morphometric evaluation result suggests that thermoregulation and other skin sensory modalities may differ between genders in the greater cane rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- M O Akpan
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - O M Samuel
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
| | - B O Emikpe
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
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14
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Chacón-Martínez CA, Koester J, Wickström SA. Signaling in the stem cell niche: regulating cell fate, function and plasticity. Development 2018; 145:145/15/dev165399. [PMID: 30068689 DOI: 10.1242/dev.165399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Stem cells have the ability to self-renew and differentiate along multiple lineages, driving tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Paradigms of unidirectional, hierarchical differentiation trajectories observed in embryonic and hematopoietic stem cells have traditionally been applied to tissue-resident stem cells. However, accumulating evidence implicates stemness as a bidirectional, dynamic state that is largely governed by the niche, which facilitates plasticity and adaptability to changing conditions. In this Review, we discuss mechanisms of cell fate regulation through niche-derived cues, with a particular focus on epithelial stem cells of the mammalian skin, intestine and lung. We discuss a spectrum of niche-derived biochemical, mechanical and architectural inputs that define stem cell states during morphogenesis, homeostasis and regeneration, and highlight how these diverse inputs influence stem cell plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Andrés Chacón-Martínez
- Paul Gerson Unna Group 'Skin Homeostasis and Ageing', Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Janis Koester
- Paul Gerson Unna Group 'Skin Homeostasis and Ageing', Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Sara A Wickström
- Paul Gerson Unna Group 'Skin Homeostasis and Ageing', Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, D-50931 Cologne, Germany .,Helsinki Institute of Life Science, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.,Wihuri Research Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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15
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Schneider RA. Neural crest and the origin of species-specific pattern. Genesis 2018; 56:e23219. [PMID: 30134069 PMCID: PMC6108449 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
For well over half of the 150 years since the discovery of the neural crest, the special ability of these cells to function as a source of species-specific pattern has been clearly recognized. Initially, this observation arose in association with chimeric transplant experiments among differentially pigmented amphibians, where the neural crest origin for melanocytes had been duly noted. Shortly thereafter, the role of cranial neural crest cells in transmitting species-specific information on size and shape to the pharyngeal arch skeleton as well as in regulating the timing of its differentiation became readily apparent. Since then, what has emerged is a deeper understanding of how the neural crest accomplishes such a presumably difficult mission, and this includes a more complete picture of the molecular and cellular programs whereby neural crest shapes the face of each species. This review covers studies on a broad range of vertebrates and describes neural-crest-mediated mechanisms that endow the craniofacial complex with species-specific pattern. A major focus is on experiments in quail and duck embryos that reveal a hierarchy of cell-autonomous and non-autonomous signaling interactions through which neural crest generates species-specific pattern in the craniofacial integument, skeleton, and musculature. By controlling size and shape throughout the development of these systems, the neural crest underlies the structural and functional integration of the craniofacial complex during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. Schneider
- Department of Orthopedic SurgeryUniversity of California at San Francisco, 513 Parnassus AvenueS‐1161San Francisco, California
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16
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Nie Y, Li S, Zheng X, Chen W, Li X, Liu Z, Hu Y, Qiao H, Qi Q, Pei Q, Cai D, Yu M, Mou C. Transcriptome Reveals Long Non-coding RNAs and mRNAs Involved in Primary Wool Follicle Induction in Carpet Sheep Fetal Skin. Front Physiol 2018; 9:446. [PMID: 29867522 PMCID: PMC5968378 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine primary hair follicle induction is driven by the communication between the mesenchyme and epithelium and mostly governed by signaling pathways including wingless-related integration site (WNT), ectodysplasin A receptor (EDAR), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), and fibroblast growth factor (FGF), as observed in genetically modified mouse models. Sheep skin may serve as a valuable system for hair research owing to the co-existence of sweat glands with wool follicles in trunk skin and asynchronized wool follicle growth pattern similar to that of human head hair follicles. However, the mechanisms underlying wool follicle development remain largely unknown. To understand how long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and mRNAs function in primary wool follicle induction in carpet wool sheep, we conducted high-throughput RNA sequencing and revealed globally altered lncRNAs (36 upregulated and 26 downregulated), mRNAs (228 elevated and 225 decreased), and 80 differentially expressed novel transcripts. Several key signals in WNT (WNT2B and WNT16), BMP (BMP3, BMP4, and BMP7), EDAR (EDAR and EDARADD), and FGF (FGFR2 and FGF20) pathways, and a series of lncRNAs, including XLOC_539599, XLOC_556463, XLOC_015081, XLOC_1285606, XLOC_297809, and XLOC_764219, were shown to be potentially important for primary wool follicle induction. GO and KEGG analyses of differentially expressed mRNAs and potential targets of altered lncRNAs were both significantly enriched in morphogenesis biological processes and transforming growth factor-β, Hedgehog, and PI3K-Akt signaling, as well as focal adhesion and extracellular matrix-receptor interactions. The prediction of mRNA-mRNA and lncRNA-mRNA interaction networks further revealed transcripts potentially involved in primary wool follicle induction. The expression patterns of mRNAs and lncRNAs of interest were validated by qRT-PCR. The localization of XLOC_297809 and XLOC_764219 both in placodes and dermal condensations was detected by in situ hybridization, indicating important roles of lncRNAs in primary wool follicle induction and skin development. This is the first report elucidating the gene network of lncRNAs and mRNAs associated with primary wool follicle early development in carpet wool sheep and will shed new light on selective wool sheep breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangfan Nie
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shaomei Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - XinTing Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenshuo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xueer Li
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yong Hu
- Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai, China
| | - Haisheng Qiao
- Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai, China
| | - Quanqing Qi
- Sanjiaocheng Sheep Breeding Farm, Qinghai, China
| | - Quanbang Pei
- Sanjiaocheng Sheep Breeding Farm, Qinghai, China
| | - Danzhuoma Cai
- Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Station, Qinghai, China
| | - Mei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Chunyan Mou
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Ministry of Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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17
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Ishida K, Mitsui T. Role of the boundary in feather bud formation on one-dimensional bioengineered skin. APL Bioeng 2018; 2:016107. [PMID: 31069292 PMCID: PMC6481706 DOI: 10.1063/1.4989414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of a boundary in pattern formation from a homogenous state in Turing's reaction–diffusion equations is important, particularly when the domain size is comparable to the pattern scale. Such experimental conditions may be achieved for in vitro regeneration of ectodermal appendages such as feathers, via reconstruction of embryonic single cells. This procedure can eliminate a predefined genetic map, such as the midline of chick feather bud formation, leaving uniformly distributed identical cells as a bioengineered skin. Here, the self-organizing nature of multiple feather bud formation was examined in bioengineered 1D-skin samples. Primal formation of feather buds occurred at a fixed length from the skin edge. This formation was numerically recapitulated by a standard two-component reaction-diffusion model, suggesting that the boundary effect caused this observation. The proper boundary conditions were nonstandard, either mixed Dirichlet–Neumann or partial-flux. In addition, the model implies imperfect or hindered bud formation as well as nearly equal distances between buds. In contrast, experimental observations indicated that the skin curvature, which was not included in our model, also strongly affected bud formation. Thus, bioengineered skin may provide an ideal template for modeling a self-organized process from a homogenous state. This study will examine the possible diffusion activities of activator or inhibitor molecular candidates and mechanical activities during cell aggregation, which will advance our understanding of skin appendage regeneration from pluripotent or embryonic stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Ishida
- Department of Physics and Mathematics, College of Science and Engineering, Aoyama Gakuin University, Kanagawa 252-5258, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Mitsui
- Department of Physics and Mathematics, College of Science and Engineering, Aoyama Gakuin University, Kanagawa 252-5258, Japan
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18
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Kahata K, Dadras MS, Moustakas A. TGF-β Family Signaling in Epithelial Differentiation and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018; 10:cshperspect.a022194. [PMID: 28246184 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a022194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Epithelia exist in the animal body since the onset of embryonic development; they generate tissue barriers and specify organs and glands. Through epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs), epithelia generate mesenchymal cells that form new tissues and promote healing or disease manifestation when epithelial homeostasis is challenged physiologically or pathologically. Transforming growth factor-βs (TGF-βs), activins, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and growth and differentiation factors (GDFs) have been implicated in the regulation of epithelial differentiation. These TGF-β family ligands are expressed and secreted at sites where the epithelium interacts with the mesenchyme and provide paracrine queues from the mesenchyme to the neighboring epithelium, helping the specification of differentiated epithelial cell types within an organ. TGF-β ligands signal via Smads and cooperating kinase pathways and control the expression or activities of key transcription factors that promote either epithelial differentiation or mesenchymal transitions. In this review, we discuss evidence that illustrates how TGF-β family ligands contribute to epithelial differentiation and induce mesenchymal transitions, by focusing on the embryonic ectoderm and tissues that form the external mammalian body lining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaoru Kahata
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mahsa Shahidi Dadras
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Aristidis Moustakas
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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19
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Skin and Its Regenerative Powers: An Alliance between Stem Cells and Their Niche. Dev Cell 2017; 43:387-401. [PMID: 29161590 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tissues have a natural capacity to replace dying cells and to heal wounds. This ability resides in resident stem cells, which self-renew, preserve, and repair their tissue during homeostasis and following injury. The skin epidermis and its appendages are subjected to daily assaults from the external environment. A high demand is placed on renewal and regeneration of the skin's barrier in order to protect the body from infection and dehydration and to heal wounds. This review focuses on the epithelial stem cells of skin, where they come from, where they reside, and how they function in normal homeostasis and wound repair.
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20
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Wang Q, Pi J, Pan A, Shen J, Qu L. A novel sex-linked mutant affecting tail formation in Hongshan chicken. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10079. [PMID: 28855651 PMCID: PMC5577132 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10943-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Hongshan chicken is a Chinese indigenous breed that has two distinctly different tail types. Some chickens have stunted tails as compared to the normal phenotype, and they are termed rumpless. Rumplessness in other chicken breeds was caused by a reduction in the number of coccygeal vertebrae. However, X-ray examination showed that rumpless Hongshan chickens possess the normal number of coccygeal vertebrae. Our analyses of the main tail feathers and tissue sections led us to speculate that their stunted tail appearance may be the result of abnormal feather development. To investigate the genetic mechanism underlying rumplessness in Hongshan chickens, we analyzed the results of various crosses. The results indicated that rumplessness is a Z-linked dominant character. In addition, we chose some normal and rumpless individuals for pool-sequencing. Nucleotide diversity and Fst were calculated, and a selective sweep was detected on the Z chromosome. These analyses allowed us to reduce the search area to 71.8–72 Mb on the Z chromosome (galGal5.0). A pseudogene LOC431648 located in this region appeared a strong candidate involving in Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway to regulate feather development in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Wang
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jinsong Pi
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Embryonic Engineering and Molecular Breeding, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Ailuan Pan
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Embryonic Engineering and Molecular Breeding, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Jie Shen
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Embryonic Engineering and Molecular Breeding, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Lujiang Qu
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
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21
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Shyer AE, Rodrigues AR, Schroeder GG, Kassianidou E, Kumar S, Harland RM. Emergent cellular self-organization and mechanosensation initiate follicle pattern in the avian skin. Science 2017; 357:811-815. [PMID: 28705989 PMCID: PMC5605277 DOI: 10.1126/science.aai7868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The spacing of hair in mammals and feathers in birds is one of the most apparent morphological features of the skin. This pattern arises when uniform fields of progenitor cells diversify their molecular fate while adopting higher-order structure. Using the nascent skin of the developing chicken embryo as a model system, we find that morphological and molecular symmetries are simultaneously broken by an emergent process of cellular self-organization. The key initiators of heterogeneity are dermal progenitors, which spontaneously aggregate through contractility-driven cellular pulling. Concurrently, this dermal cell aggregation triggers the mechanosensitive activation of β-catenin in adjacent epidermal cells, initiating the follicle gene expression program. Taken together, this mechanism provides a means of integrating mechanical and molecular perspectives of organ formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Shyer
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Alan R Rodrigues
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Grant G Schroeder
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Elena Kassianidou
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Sanjay Kumar
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Richard M Harland
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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22
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Lu CP, Polak L, Keyes BE, Fuchs E. Spatiotemporal antagonism in mesenchymal-epithelial signaling in sweat versus hair fate decision. Science 2017; 354:354/6319/aah6102. [PMID: 28008008 DOI: 10.1126/science.aah6102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The gain of eccrine sweat glands in hairy body skin has empowered humans to run marathons and tolerate temperature extremes. Epithelial-mesenchymal cross-talk is integral to the diverse patterning of skin appendages, but the molecular events underlying their specification remain largely unknown. Using genome-wide analyses and functional studies, we show that sweat glands are specified by mesenchymal-derived bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and fibroblast growth factors that signal to epithelial buds and suppress epithelial-derived sonic hedgehog (SHH) production. Conversely, hair follicles are specified when mesenchymal BMP signaling is blocked, permitting SHH production. Fate determination is confined to a critical developmental window and is regionally specified in mice. In contrast, a shift from hair to gland fates is achieved in humans when a spike in BMP silences SHH during the final embryonic wave(s) of bud morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine P Lu
- Laboratory of Mammalian Cell Biology and Development, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Lisa Polak
- Laboratory of Mammalian Cell Biology and Development, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Brice E Keyes
- Laboratory of Mammalian Cell Biology and Development, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Elaine Fuchs
- Laboratory of Mammalian Cell Biology and Development, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA. .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815-6789, USA
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23
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Cooper RL, Martin KJ, Rasch LJ, Fraser GJ. Developing an ancient epithelial appendage: FGF signalling regulates early tail denticle formation in sharks. EvoDevo 2017; 8:8. [PMID: 28469835 PMCID: PMC5414203 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-017-0071-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Vertebrate epithelial appendages constitute a diverse group of organs that includes integumentary structures such as reptilian scales, avian feathers and mammalian hair. Recent studies have provided new evidence for the homology of integumentary organ development throughout amniotes, despite their disparate final morphologies. These structures develop from conserved molecular signalling centres, known as epithelial placodes. It is not yet certain whether this homology extends beyond the integumentary organs of amniotes, as there is a lack of knowledge regarding their development in basal vertebrates. As the ancient sister lineage of bony vertebrates, extant chondrichthyans are well suited to testing the phylogenetic depth of this homology. Elasmobranchs (sharks, skates and rays) possess hard, mineralised epithelial appendages called odontodes, which include teeth and dermal denticles (placoid scales). Odontodes constitute some of the oldest known vertebrate integumentary appendages, predating the origin of gnathostomes. Here, we used an emerging model shark (Scyliorhinus canicula) to test the hypothesis that denticles are homologous to other placode-derived amniote integumentary organs. To examine the conservation of putative gene regulatory network (GRN) member function, we undertook small molecule inhibition of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signalling during caudal denticle formation. Results We show that during early caudal denticle morphogenesis, the shark expresses homologues of conserved developmental gene families, known to comprise a core GRN for early placode morphogenesis in amniotes. This includes conserved expression of FGFs, sonic hedgehog (shh) and bone morphogenetic protein 4 (bmp4). Additionally, we reveal that denticle placodes possess columnar epithelial cells with a reduced rate of proliferation, a conserved characteristic of amniote skin appendage development. Small molecule inhibition of FGF signalling revealed placode development is FGF dependent, and inhibiting FGF activity resulted in downregulation of shh and bmp4 expression, consistent with the expectation from comparison to the amniote integumentary appendage GRN. Conclusion Overall, these findings suggest the core GRN for building vertebrate integumentary epithelial appendages has been highly conserved over 450 million years. This provides evidence for the continuous, historical homology of epithelial appendage placodes throughout jawed vertebrates, from sharks to mammals. Epithelial placodes constitute the shared foundation upon which diverse vertebrate integumentary organs have evolved. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13227-017-0071-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory L Cooper
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, and the Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN UK
| | - Kyle J Martin
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, and the Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN UK
| | - Liam J Rasch
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, and the Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN UK
| | - Gareth J Fraser
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, and the Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN UK
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24
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Gavish A, Shwartz A, Weizman A, Schejter E, Shilo BZ, Barkai N. Periodic patterning of the Drosophila eye is stabilized by the diffusible activator Scabrous. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10461. [PMID: 26876750 PMCID: PMC4756378 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Generation of periodic patterns is fundamental to the differentiation of multiple tissues during development. How such patterns form robustly is still unclear. The Drosophila eye comprises ∼750 units, whose crystalline order is set during differentiation of the eye imaginal disc: an activation wave sweeping across the disc is coupled to lateral inhibition, sequentially selecting pro-neural cells. Using mathematical modelling, here we show that this template-based lateral inhibition is highly sensitive to spatial variations in biochemical parameters and cell sizes. We reveal the basis of this sensitivity, and suggest that it can be overcome by assuming a short-range diffusible activator. Clonal experiments identify Scabrous, a previously implicated inhibitor, as the predicted activator. Our results reveal the mechanism by which periodic patterning in the fly eye is stabilized against spatial variations, highlighting how the need to maintain robustness shapes the design of patterning circuits. Patterning in the Drosophila eye is achieved by a series of signalling cascades over several cell distances. Here Gavish et al. model lateral inhibition in the developing eye to understand how developmental noise refines such patterning, identifying a novel activator required for buffering spatial variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avishai Gavish
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Geha Mental Health Center, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Rabin Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Bellinson Campus, Petah Tiqva 49100, Israel
| | - Arkadi Shwartz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Abraham Weizman
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Geha Mental Health Center, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Rabin Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Bellinson Campus, Petah Tiqva 49100, Israel
| | - Eyal Schejter
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ben-Zion Shilo
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Naama Barkai
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Meinhardt H. Dorsoventral patterning by the Chordin-BMP pathway: a unified model from a pattern-formation perspective for drosophila, vertebrates, sea urchins and nematostella. Dev Biol 2015; 405:137-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2015.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Ellis NA, Glazer AM, Donde NN, Cleves PA, Agoglia RM, Miller CT. Distinct developmental genetic mechanisms underlie convergently evolved tooth gain in sticklebacks. Development 2015; 142:2442-51. [PMID: 26062935 DOI: 10.1242/dev.124248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Teeth are a classic model system of organogenesis, as repeated and reciprocal epithelial and mesenchymal interactions pattern placode formation and outgrowth. Less is known about the developmental and genetic bases of tooth formation and replacement in polyphyodonts, which are vertebrates with continual tooth replacement. Here, we leverage natural variation in the threespine stickleback fish Gasterosteus aculeatus to investigate the genetic basis of tooth development and replacement. We find that two derived freshwater stickleback populations have both convergently evolved more ventral pharyngeal teeth through heritable genetic changes. In both populations, evolved tooth gain manifests late in development. Using pulse-chase vital dye labeling to mark newly forming teeth in adult fish, we find that both high-toothed freshwater populations have accelerated tooth replacement rates relative to low-toothed ancestral marine fish. Despite the similar evolved phenotype of more teeth and an accelerated adult replacement rate, the timing of tooth number divergence and the spatial patterns of newly formed adult teeth are different in the two populations, suggesting distinct developmental mechanisms. Using genome-wide linkage mapping in marine-freshwater F2 genetic crosses, we find that the genetic basis of evolved tooth gain in the two freshwater populations is largely distinct. Together, our results support a model whereby increased tooth number and an accelerated tooth replacement rate have evolved convergently in two independently derived freshwater stickleback populations using largely distinct developmental and genetic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Ellis
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Andrew M Glazer
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Nikunj N Donde
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Phillip A Cleves
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Rachel M Agoglia
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Craig T Miller
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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27
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Chang KW, Huang NA, Liu IH, Wang YH, Wu P, Tseng YT, Hughes MW, Jiang TX, Tsai MH, Chen CY, Oyang YJ, Lin EC, Chuong CM, Lin SP. Emergence of differentially regulated pathways associated with the development of regional specificity in chicken skin. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:22. [PMID: 25612663 PMCID: PMC4326372 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-014-1202-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Regional specificity allows different skin regions to exhibit different characteristics, enabling complementary functions to make effective use of the integumentary surface. Chickens exhibit a high degree of regional specificity in the skin and can serve as a good model for when and how these regional differences begin to emerge. Results We used developing feather and scale regions in embryonic chickens as a model to gauge the differences in their molecular pathways. We employed cosine similarity analysis to identify the differentially regulated and co-regulated genes. We applied low cell techniques for expression validation and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-based enhancer identification to overcome limited cell availabilities from embryonic chicken skin. We identified a specific set of genes demonstrating a high correlation as being differentially expressed during feather and scale development and maturation. Some members of the WNT, TGF-beta/BMP, and Notch family known to be involved in feathering skin differentiation were found to be differentially regulated. Interestingly, we also found genes along calcium channel pathways that are differentially regulated. From the analysis of differentially regulated pathways, we used calcium signaling pathways as an example for further verification. Some voltage-gated calcium channel subunits, particularly CACNA1D, are expressed spatio-temporally in the skin epithelium. These calcium signaling pathway members may be involved in developmental decisions, morphogenesis, or epithelial maturation. We further characterized enhancers associated with histone modifications, including H3K4me1, H3K27ac, and H3K27me3, near calcium channel-related genes and identified signature intensive hotspots that may be correlated with certain voltage-gated calcium channel genes. Conclusion We demonstrated the applicability of cosine similarity analysis for identifying novel regulatory pathways that are differentially regulated during development. Our study concerning the effects of signaling pathways and histone signatures on enhancers suggests that voltage-gated calcium signaling may be involved in early skin development. This work lays the foundation for studying the roles of these gene pathways and their genomic regulation during the establishment of skin regional specificity. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-014-1202-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Wei Chang
- Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Nancy A Huang
- Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - I-Hsuan Liu
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Yi-Hui Wang
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Yen-Tzu Tseng
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Michael W Hughes
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. .,International Research Center for Wound Repair and Regeneration, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Ting Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Mong-Hsun Tsai
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Agricultural Biotechnology Research Centre, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Center for Systems Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Chien-Yu Chen
- Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Center for Systems Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Yen-Jen Oyang
- Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Center for Systems Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - En-Chung Lin
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Shau-Ping Lin
- Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Agricultural Biotechnology Research Centre, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Center for Systems Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Jackman WR, Davies SH, Lyons DB, Stauder CK, Denton-Schneider BR, Jowdry A, Aigler SR, Vogel SA, Stock DW. Manipulation of Fgf and Bmp signaling in teleost fishes suggests potential pathways for the evolutionary origin of multicuspid teeth. Evol Dev 2014; 15:107-18. [PMID: 25098636 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Teeth with two or more cusps have arisen independently from an ancestral unicuspid condition in a variety of vertebrate lineages, including sharks, teleost fishes, amphibians, lizards, and mammals. One potential explanation for the repeated origins of multicuspid teeth is the existence of multiple adaptive pathways leading to them, as suggested by their different uses in these lineages. Another is that the addition of cusps required only minor changes in genetic pathways regulating tooth development. Here we provide support for the latter hypothesis by demonstrating that manipulation of the levels of Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) or Bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) signaling produces bicuspid teeth in the zebrafish (Danio rerio), a species lacking multicuspid teeth in its ancestry. The generality of these results for teleosts is suggested by the conversion of unicuspid pharyngeal teeth into bicuspid teeth by similar manipulations of the Mexican Tetra (Astyanax mexicanus). That these manipulations also produced supernumerary teeth in both species supports previous suggestions of similarities in the molecular control of tooth and cusp number. We conclude that despite their apparent complexity, the evolutionary origin of multicuspid teeth is positively constrained, likely requiring only slight modifications of a pre-existing mechanism for patterning the number and spacing of individual teeth.
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29
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Chen CF, Foley J, Tang PC, Li A, Jiang TX, Wu P, Widelitz RB, Chuong CM. Development, regeneration, and evolution of feathers. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2014; 3:169-95. [PMID: 25387232 PMCID: PMC5662002 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022513-114127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The feather is a complex ectodermal organ with hierarchical branching patterns. It provides functions in endothermy, communication, and flight. Studies of feather growth, cycling, and health are of fundamental importance to avian biology and poultry science. In addition, feathers are an excellent model for morphogenesis studies because of their accessibility, and their distinct patterns can be used to assay the roles of specific molecular pathways. Here we review the progress in aspects of development, regeneration, and evolution during the past three decades. We cover the development of feather buds in chicken embryos, regenerative cycling of feather follicle stem cells, formation of barb branching patterns, emergence of intrafeather pigmentation patterns, interplay of hormones and feather growth, and the genetic identification of several feather variants. The discovery of feathered dinosaurs redefines the relationship between feathers and birds. Inspiration from biomaterials and flight research further fuels biomimetic potential of feathers as a multidisciplinary research focal point.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Feng Chen
- Center for the Integrative and Evolutionary Galliformes Genomics, Taichung, Taiwan
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30
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Moustakas-Verho JE, Zimm R, Cebra-Thomas J, Lempiäinen NK, Kallonen A, Mitchell KL, Hämäläinen K, Salazar-Ciudad I, Jernvall J, Gilbert SF. The origin and loss of periodic patterning in the turtle shell. Development 2014; 141:3033-9. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.109041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The origin of the turtle shell over 200 million years ago greatly modified the amniote body plan, and the morphological plasticity of the shell has promoted the adaptive radiation of turtles. The shell, comprising a dorsal carapace and a ventral plastron, is a layered structure formed by basal endochondral axial skeletal elements (ribs, vertebrae) and plates of bone, which are overlain by keratinous ectodermal scutes. Studies of turtle development have mostly focused on the bones of the shell; however, the genetic regulation of the epidermal scutes has not been investigated. Here, we show that scutes develop from an array of patterned placodes and that these placodes are absent from a soft-shelled turtle in which scutes were lost secondarily. Experimentally inhibiting Shh, Bmp or Fgf signaling results in the disruption of the placodal pattern. Finally, a computational model is used to show how two coupled reaction-diffusion systems reproduce both natural and abnormal variation in turtle scutes. Taken together, these placodal signaling centers are likely to represent developmental modules that are responsible for the evolution of scutes in turtles, and the regulation of these centers has allowed for the diversification of the turtle shell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline E. Moustakas-Verho
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Roland Zimm
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Judith Cebra-Thomas
- Biology Department, Millersville University, P.O. Box 1002, Millersville, PA 17551, USA
| | - Netta K. Lempiäinen
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Aki Kallonen
- Division of Materials Physics, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Katherine L. Mitchell
- Biology Department, Swarthmore College, 500 College Avenue, Swarthmore, PA 19081, USA
| | - Keijo Hämäläinen
- Division of Materials Physics, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Isaac Salazar-Ciudad
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
- Departament de Genètica i Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jukka Jernvall
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Scott F. Gilbert
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
- Biology Department, Swarthmore College, 500 College Avenue, Swarthmore, PA 19081, USA
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Variation in the ovine WFIKKN2 gene. Gene 2014; 543:53-7. [PMID: 24704001 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.03.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
WFIKKN2 may play a role in the regulation of muscle growth and development through its interaction with growth and differentiation factor 8 (GDF8) and growth and differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), but to date research into the function of the protein has been focused on mice, even though the WFIKKN2 gene (WFIKKN2) was first identified in humans in 2001. In this study two regions (intron 1 and the 3' UTR) of ovine WFIKKN2 were investigated, using Polymerase Chain Reaction-Single Stranded Conformational Polymorphism (PCR-SSCP). Two different PCR-SSCP patterns, representing two unique DNA sequences (designated a and b) were detected in a 399-bp amplicon derived from the 3' UTR, with sequence analysis revealing one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). In a 421-bp amplicon from intron 1, five different PCR-SSCP patterns (designated A-E) were observed and twelve SNPs were detected. Either one or two different sequences were detected in individual sheep and all the sequences identified shared homology with the WFIKKN2 sequences from cattle and other animal species, suggesting that these sequences represent variants of the ovine WFIKKN2 gene. In intron 1 of 487 sheep from eight breeds, variants B and C were the most common, followed by A, D and E. These results indicate that ovine WFIKKN2 is polymorphic and suggest that further analysis is required to see if variation in the gene is associated with variation in growth and muscle traits in sheep.
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Nissimov JN, Das Chaudhuri AB. Hair curvature: a natural dialectic and review. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2014; 89:723-66. [PMID: 24617997 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Although hair forms (straight, curly, wavy, etc.) are present in apparently infinite variations, each fibre can be reduced to a finite sequence of tandem segments of just three types: straight, bent/curly, or twisted. Hair forms can thus be regarded as resulting from genetic pathways that induce, reverse or modulate these basic curvature modes. However, physical interconversions between twists and curls demonstrate that strict one-to-one correspondences between them and their genetic causes do not exist. Current hair-curvature theories do not distinguish between bending and twisting mechanisms. We here introduce a multiple papillary centres (MPC) model which is particularly suitable to explain twisting. The model combines previously known features of hair cross-sectional morphology with partially/completely separated dermal papillae within single follicles, and requires such papillae to induce differential growth rates of hair cortical material in their immediate neighbourhoods. The MPC model can further help to explain other, poorly understood, aspects of hair growth and morphology. Separate bending and twisting mechanisms would be preferentially affected at the major or minor ellipsoidal sides of fibres, respectively, and together they exhaust the possibilities for influencing hair-form phenotypes. As such they suggest dialectic for hair-curvature development. We define a natural-dialectic (ND) which could take advantage of speculative aspects of dialectic, but would verify its input data and results by experimental methods. We use this as a top-down approach to first define routes by which hair bending or twisting may be brought about and then review evidence in support of such routes. In particular we consider the wingless (Wnt) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathways as paradigm pathways for molecular hair bending and twisting mechanisms, respectively. In addition to the Wnt canonical pathway, the Wnt/Ca(2+) and planar cell polarity (PCP) pathways, and others, can explain many alternatives and specific variations of hair bending phenotypes. Mechanisms for hair papilla budding or its division by bisection or fission can explain MPC formation. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal (EMT) and mesenchymal-to-epithelial (MET) transitions, acting in collaboration with epithelial-mesenchymal communications are also considered as mechanisms affecting hair growth and its bending and twisting. These may be treated as sub-mechanisms of an overall development from neural-crest stem cell (NCSC) lineages to differentiated hair follicle (HF) cell types, thus providing a unified framework for hair growth and development.
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Cheng CW, Niu B, Warren M, Pevny LH, Lovell-Badge R, Hwa T, Cheah KSE. Predicting the spatiotemporal dynamics of hair follicle patterns in the developing mouse. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:2596-601. [PMID: 24550288 PMCID: PMC3932898 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1313083111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Reaction-diffusion models have been used as a paradigm for describing the de novo emergence of biological patterns such as stripes and spots. In many organisms, these initial patterns are typically refined and elaborated over the subsequent course of development. Here we study the formation of secondary hair follicle patterns in the skin of developing mouse embryos. We used the expression of sex-determining region Y box 2 to identify and distinguish the primary and secondary hair follicles and to infer the spatiotemporal dynamics of the follicle formation process. Quantitative analysis of the specific follicle patterns observed reveals a simple geometrical rule governing the formation of secondary follicles, and motivates an expansion-induction (EI) model in which new follicle formation is driven by the physical growth of the embryo. The EI model requires only one diffusible morphogen and provides quantitative, accurate predictions on the relative positions and timing of secondary follicle formation, using only the observed configuration of primary follicles as input. The same model accurately describes the positions of additional follicles that emerge from skin explants treated with an activator. Thus, the EI model provides a simple and robust mechanism for predicting secondary space-filling patterns in growing embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Wa Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ben Niu
- Department of Biochemistry, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Mya Warren
- Department of Physics and Center for Theoretical Biological Physics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0374
| | - Larysa Halyna Pevny
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; and
| | - Robin Lovell-Badge
- Division of Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Genetics, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London NW7 1AA, United Kingdom
| | - Terence Hwa
- Department of Physics and Center for Theoretical Biological Physics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0374
| | - Kathryn S. E. Cheah
- Department of Biochemistry, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Epidermal development in mammals: key regulators, signals from beneath, and stem cells. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:10869-95. [PMID: 23708093 PMCID: PMC3709707 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140610869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermis is one of the best-studied tissues in mammals that contain types of stem cells. Outstanding works in recent years have shed great light on behaviors of different epidermal stem cell populations in the homeostasis and regeneration of the epidermis as well as hair follicles. Also, the molecular mechanisms governing these stem cells are being elucidated, from genetic to epigenetic levels. Compared with the explicit knowledge about adult skin, embryonic development of the epidermis, especially the early period, still needs exploration. Furthermore, stem cells in the embryonic epidermis are largely unstudied or ambiguously depicted. In this review, we will summarize and discuss the process of embryonic epidermal development, with focuses on some key molecular regulators and the role of the sub-epidermal mesenchyme. We will also try to trace adult epidermal stem cell populations back to embryonic development. In addition, we will comment on in vitro derivation of epidermal lineages from ES cells and iPS cells.
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Shaping organs by a wingless-int/Notch/nonmuscle myosin module which orients feather bud elongation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:E1452-61. [PMID: 23576731 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1219813110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
How organs are shaped to specific forms is a fundamental issue in developmental biology. To address this question, we used the repetitive, periodic pattern of feather morphogenesis on chicken skin as a model. Avian feathers within a single tract extend from dome-shaped primordia to thin conical structures with a common axis of orientation. From a systems biology perspective, the process is precise and robust. Using tissue transplantation assays, we demonstrate that a "zone of polarizing activity," localized in the posterior feather bud, is necessary and sufficient to mediate the directional elongation. This region contains a spatially well-defined nuclear β-catenin zone, which is induced by wingless-int (Wnt)7a protein diffusing in from posterior bud epithelium. Misexpressing nuclear β-catenin randomizes feather polarity. This dermal nuclear β-catenin zone, surrounded by Notch1 positive dermal cells, induces Jagged1. Inhibition of Notch signaling disrupts the spatial configuration of the nuclear β-catenin zone and leads to randomized feather polarity. Mathematical modeling predicts that lateral inhibition, mediated by Notch signaling, functions to reduce Wnt7a gradient variations and fluctuations to form the sharp boundary observed for the dermal β-catenin zone. This zone is also enriched for nonmuscle myosin IIB. Suppressing nonmuscle myosin IIB disrupts directional cell rearrangements and abolishes feather bud elongation. These data suggest that a unique molecular module involving chemical-mechanical coupling converts a pliable chemical gradient to a precise domain, ready for subsequent mechanical action, thus defining the position, boundary, and duration of localized morphogenetic activity that molds the shape of growing organs.
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Chuong CM, Yeh CY, Jiang TX, Widelitz R. Module-based complexity formation: periodic patterning in feathers and hairs. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2013; 2:97-112. [PMID: 23539312 PMCID: PMC3607644 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Patterns describe order which emerges from homogeneity. Complex patterns on the integument are striking because of their visibility throughout an organism’s lifespan. Periodic patterning is an effective design because the ensemble of hair or feather follicles (modules) allows the generation of complexity, including regional variations and cyclic regeneration, giving the skin appendages a new lease on life. Spatial patterns include the arrangements of feathers and hairs in specific number, size, and spacing.We explorehowa field of equivalent progenitor cells can generate periodically arranged modules based on genetic information, physical–chemical rules and developmental timing. Reconstitution experiments suggest a competitive equilibrium regulated by activators/inhibitors involving Turing reaction-diffusion. Temporal patterns result from oscillating stem cell activities within each module (microenvironment regulation), reflected as growth (anagen) and resting (telogen) phases during the cycling of feather and hair follicles. Stimulating modules with activators initiates the spread of regenerative hair waves, while global inhibitors outside each module (macroenvironment) prevent this. Different wave patterns can be simulated by cellular automata principles. Hormonal status and seasonal changes can modulate appendage phenotypes, leading to ‘organ metamorphosis’, with multiple ectodermal organ phenotypes generated from the same precursors. We discuss potential novel evolutionary steps using this module-based complexity in several amniote integument organs, exemplified by the spectacular peacock feather pattern. We thus explore the application of the acquired knowledge of patterning in tissue engineering. New hair follicles can be generated after wounding. Hairs and feathers can be reconstituted through self-organization of dissociated progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA,
| | - Chao-Yuan Yeh
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA,
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA,
| | - Randall Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA,
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Obinata A, Akimoto Y. Effects of retinoic acid and Gbx1 on feather-bud formation and epidermal transdifferentiation in chick embryonic cultured dorsal skin. Dev Dyn 2012; 241:1405-12. [PMID: 22826214 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.23834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Retinoic acid, an active metabolite of retinol, is known to regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and morphogenesis during normal development of many tissues. Using chick embryonic tarsometatarsal skin, we showed previously that the expression of Gbx1, a divergent homeobox gene, is increased in the epidermis through interaction with retinol-pretreated dermal fibroblasts followed by epidermal transdifferentiation to mucous epithelium. This present study was performed to elucidate the effects of retinoic acid and Gbx1 on feather-bud formation and epidermal transdifferentiation. RESULTS We showed that Gbx1 was expressed in the chick embryonic dorsal epidermis as early as at placode stage (Hamburger and Hamilton stage 31) and increased in amount during feather-bud formation. Treatment with 1 μM retinoic acid for 24 hr inhibited feather-bud formation and induced the transdifferentiation of the epidermis to a mucosal epithelium with a concomitant increase in Gbx1 mRNA expression in the epithelium. Furthermore, transient transfection of the epidermis with Gbx1 cDNA by electroporation induced elongation of the feather bud, but did not result in transdifferentiation. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that Gbx1 was involved in the feather-bud formation and was one of target genes of retinoic acid and that other signals in addition to Gbx1 were required for epidermal mucous transdifferentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Obinata
- Department of Physiological Chemistry II, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Teikyo University, Kanagawa, Japan
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Wells KL, Hadad Y, Ben-Avraham D, Hillel J, Cahaner A, Headon DJ. Genome-wide SNP scan of pooled DNA reveals nonsense mutation in FGF20 in the scaleless line of featherless chickens. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:257. [PMID: 22712610 PMCID: PMC3464622 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Scaleless (sc/sc) chickens carry a single recessive mutation that causes a lack of almost all body feathers, as well as foot scales and spurs, due to a failure of skin patterning during embryogenesis. This spontaneous mutant line, first described in the 1950s, has been used extensively to explore the tissue interactions involved in ectodermal appendage formation in embryonic skin. Moreover, the trait is potentially useful in tropical agriculture due to the ability of featherless chickens to tolerate heat, which is at present a major constraint to efficient poultry meat production in hot climates. In the interests of enhancing our understanding of feather placode development, and to provide the poultry industry with a strategy to breed heat-tolerant meat-type chickens (broilers), we mapped and identified the sc mutation. Results Through a cost-effective and labour-efficient SNP array mapping approach using DNA from sc/sc and sc/+ blood sample pools, we map the sc trait to chromosome 4 and show that a nonsense mutation in FGF20 is completely associated with the sc/sc phenotype. This mutation, common to all sc/sc individuals and absent from wild type, is predicted to lead to loss of a highly conserved region of the FGF20 protein important for FGF signalling. In situ hybridisation and quantitative RT-PCR studies reveal that FGF20 is epidermally expressed during the early stages of feather placode patterning. In addition, we describe a dCAPS genotyping assay based on the mutation, developed to facilitate discrimination between wild type and sc alleles. Conclusions This work represents the first loss of function genetic evidence supporting a role for FGF ligand signalling in feather development, and suggests FGF20 as a novel central player in the development of vertebrate skin appendages, including hair follicles and exocrine glands. In addition, this is to our knowledge the first report describing the use of the chicken SNP array to map genes based on genotyping of DNA samples from pooled whole blood. The identification of the sc mutation has important implications for the future breeding of this potentially useful trait for the poultry industry, and our genotyping assay can facilitate its rapid introgression into production lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty L Wells
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
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Närhi K, Tummers M, Ahtiainen L, Itoh N, Thesleff I, Mikkola ML. Sostdc1 defines the size and number of skin appendage placodes. Dev Biol 2012; 364:149-61. [PMID: 22509524 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Mammary glands and hair follicles develop as ectodermal organs sharing common features during embryonic morphogenesis. The molecular signals controlling the initiation and patterning of skin appendages involve the bone morphogenetic proteins and Wnt family members, which are commonly thought to serve as inhibitory and activating cues, respectively. Here, we have examined the role of the Bmp and Wnt pathway modulator Sostdc1 in mammary gland, and hair and vibrissa follicle development using Sostdc1-null mice. Contrary to previous speculations, loss of Sostdc1 did not affect pelage hair cycling. Instead, we found that Sostdc1 limits the number of developing vibrissae and other muzzle hair follicles, and the size of primary hair placodes. Sostdc1 controls also the size and shape of mammary buds. Furthermore, Sostdc1 is essential for suppression of hair follicle fate in the normally hairless nipple epidermis, but its loss also promotes the appearance of supernumerary nipple-like protrusions. Our data suggest that functions of Sostdc1 can be largely attributed to its ability to attenuate Wnt/β-catenin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Närhi
- Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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41
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Lehtonen PK, Laaksonen T, Artemyev AV, Belskii E, Berg PR, Both C, Buggiotti L, Bureš S, Burgess MD, Bushuev AV, Krams I, Moreno J, Mägi M, Nord A, Potti J, Ravussin PA, Sirkiä PM, Sætre GP, Winkel W, Primmer CR. Candidate genes for colour and vision exhibit signals of selection across the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) breeding range. Heredity (Edinb) 2011; 108:431-40. [PMID: 22027894 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2011.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of natural selection in shaping adaptive trait differentiation in natural populations has long been recognized. Determining its molecular basis, however, remains a challenge. Here, we search for signals of selection in candidate genes for colour and its perception in a passerine bird. Pied flycatcher plumage varies geographically in both its structural and pigment-based properties. Both characteristics appear to be shaped by selection. A single-locus outlier test revealed 2 of 14 loci to show significantly elevated signals of divergence. The first of these, the follistatin gene, is expressed in the developing feather bud and is found in pathways with genes that determine the structure of feathers and may thus be important in generating variation in structural colouration. The second is a gene potentially underlying the ability to detect this variation: SWS1 opsin. These two loci were most differentiated in two Spanish pied flycatcher populations, which are also among the populations that have the highest UV reflectance. The follistatin and SWS1 opsin genes thus provide strong candidates for future investigations on the molecular basis of adaptively significant traits and their co-evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- P K Lehtonen
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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42
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Lin J, Luo J, Redies C. Differential regional expression of multiple ADAMs during feather bud formation. Dev Dyn 2011; 240:2142-52. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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Jiang TX, Tuan TL, Wu P, Widelitz RB, Chuong CM. From buds to follicles: matrix metalloproteinases in developmental tissue remodeling during feather morphogenesis. Differentiation 2011; 81:307-14. [PMID: 21497985 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Organogenesis involves a series of dynamic morphogenesis and remodeling processes. Since feathers exhibit complex forms, we have been using the feather as a model to analyze how molecular pathways and cellular events are used. While several major molecular pathways have been studied, the roles of matrix degrading proteases and inhibitors in feather morphogenesis are unknown. Here we addressed this knowledge gap by studying the temporal and spatial expression of proteases and inhibitors in developing feathers using mammalian antibodies that cross react with chicken proteins. We also investigated the effect of protease inhibitors on feather development employing an in vitro feather bud culture system. The results show that antibodies specific for mammalian MMP2 and TIMP2 stained positive in both feather epithelium and mesenchyme. The staining co-localized in structures of E10-E13 developing feathers. Interestingly, MMP2 and TIMP2 exhibited a complementary staining pattern in developing E15 and E20 feathers and in maturing feather filaments. Although they exhibited a slight delay in feather bud development, similar patterns of MMP2 and TIMP2 staining were observed in in vitro culture explants. The broad spectrum pharmacological inhibitors AG3340 and BB103 (MMP inhibitors) but not Aprotinin (a plasmin inhibitor) showed a reversible effect on epithelium invagination and feather bud elongation. TIMP2, a physiological inhibitor to MMPs, exhibited a similar effect. Markers of feather morphogenesis showed that MMP activity was required for both epithelium invagination and mesenchymal cell proliferation. Inhibition of MMP activity led to an overall delay in the expression of molecules that regulate either early feather bud growth and/or differentiation and thereby produced abnormal buds with incomplete follicle formation. This work demonstrates that MMPs and their inhibitors are not only important in injury repair, but also in development tissue remodeling as demonstrated here for the formation of feather follicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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44
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Mou C, Pitel F, Gourichon D, Vignoles F, Tzika A, Tato P, Yu L, Burt DW, Bed'hom B, Tixier-Boichard M, Painter KJ, Headon DJ. Cryptic patterning of avian skin confers a developmental facility for loss of neck feathering. PLoS Biol 2011; 9:e1001028. [PMID: 21423653 PMCID: PMC3057954 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Vertebrate skin is characterized by its patterned array of appendages, whether feathers, hairs, or scales. In avian skin the distribution of feathers occurs on two distinct spatial levels. Grouping of feathers within discrete tracts, with bare skin lying between the tracts, is termed the macropattern, while the smaller scale periodic spacing between individual feathers is referred to as the micropattern. The degree of integration between the patterning mechanisms that operate on these two scales during development and the mechanisms underlying the remarkable evolvability of skin macropatterns are unknown. A striking example of macropattern variation is the convergent loss of neck feathering in multiple species, a trait associated with heat tolerance in both wild and domestic birds. In chicken, a mutation called Naked neck is characterized by a reduction of body feathering and completely bare neck. Here we perform genetic fine mapping of the causative region and identify a large insertion associated with the Naked neck trait. A strong candidate gene in the critical interval, BMP12/GDF7, displays markedly elevated expression in Naked neck embryonic skin due to a cis-regulatory effect of the causative mutation. BMP family members inhibit embryonic feather formation by acting in a reaction-diffusion mechanism, and we find that selective production of retinoic acid by neck skin potentiates BMP signaling, making neck skin more sensitive than body skin to suppression of feather development. This selective production of retinoic acid by neck skin constitutes a cryptic pattern as its effects on feathering are not revealed until gross BMP levels are altered. This developmental modularity of neck and body skin allows simple quantitative changes in BMP levels to produce a sparsely feathered or bare neck while maintaining robust feather patterning on the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Mou
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Frederique Pitel
- UMR INRA/ENVT Laboratoire de Génétique Cellulaire, INRA, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | | | - Florence Vignoles
- UMR INRA/ENVT Laboratoire de Génétique Cellulaire, INRA, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Athanasia Tzika
- Laboratory of Natural and Artificial Evolution, Department of Zoology and Animal Biology, Sciences III, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Patricia Tato
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Le Yu
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Dave W. Burt
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Kevin J. Painter
- Department of Mathematics and Maxwell Institute for Mathematical Sciences, School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Denis J. Headon
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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Cohen M, Baum B, Miodownik M. The importance of structured noise in the generation of self-organizing tissue patterns through contact-mediated cell-cell signalling. J R Soc Interface 2010; 8:787-98. [PMID: 21084342 PMCID: PMC3104346 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2010.0488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Lateral inhibition provides the basis for a self-organizing patterning system in which distinct cell states emerge from an otherwise uniform field of cells. The development of the microchaete bristle pattern on the notum of the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster, has long served as a popular model of this process. We recently showed that this bristle pattern depends upon a population of dynamic, basal actin-based filopodia, which span multiple cell diameters. These protrusions establish transient signalling contacts between non-neighbouring cells, generating a type of structured noise that helps to yield a well-ordered and spaced pattern of bristles. Here, we develop a general model of protrusion-based patterning to analyse the role of noise in this process. Using a simple asynchronous cellular automata rule-based model we show that this type of structured noise drives the gradual refinement of lateral inhibition-mediated patterning, as the system moves towards a stable configuration in which cells expressing the inhibitory signal are near-optimally packed. By analysing the effects of introducing thresholds required for signal detection in this model of lateral inhibition, our study shows how filopodia-mediated cell–cell communication can generate complex patterns of spots and stripes, which, in the presence of signalling noise, align themselves across a patterning field. Thus, intermittent protrusion-based signalling has the potential to yield robust self-organizing tissue-wide patterns without the need to invoke diffusion-mediated signalling.
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Lin CM, Jiang TX, Baker RE, Maini PK, Widelitz RB, Chuong CM. Spots and stripes: pleomorphic patterning of stem cells via p-ERK-dependent cell chemotaxis shown by feather morphogenesis and mathematical simulation. Dev Biol 2009; 334:369-82. [PMID: 19647731 PMCID: PMC2811698 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2008] [Revised: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 07/27/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A key issue in stem cell biology is the differentiation of homogeneous stem cells towards different fates which are also organized into desired configurations. Little is known about the mechanisms underlying the process of periodic patterning. Feather explants offer a fundamental and testable model in which multi-potential cells are organized into hexagonally arranged primordia and the spacing between primordia. Previous work explored roles of a Turing reaction-diffusion mechanism in establishing chemical patterns. Here we show that a continuum of feather patterns, ranging from stripes to spots, can be obtained when the level of p-ERK activity is adjusted with chemical inhibitors. The patterns are dose-dependent, tissue stage-dependent, and irreversible. Analyses show that ERK activity-dependent mesenchymal cell chemotaxis is essential for converting micro-signaling centers into stable feather primordia. A mathematical model based on short-range activation, long-range inhibition, and cell chemotaxis is developed and shown to simulate observed experimental results. This generic cell behavior model can be applied to model stem cell patterning behavior at large.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Min Lin
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
| | - Ting Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
| | - Ruth E. Baker
- Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, 24-29 St Giles', Oxford OX1 3LB, UK
| | - Philip K. Maini
- Centre for Mathematical Biology, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, 24-29 St Giles', Oxford OX1 3LB, UK
- Oxford Centre for Integrative Systems Biology, Department for Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Randall B. Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
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Transient expression of ephrin b2 in perinatal skin is required for maintenance of keratinocyte homeostasis. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:2386-95. [PMID: 19571816 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The formation of functional skin entails multiple key signals that are implicated repeatedly in distinct processes during embryogenesis. Although Eph receptors and their membrane-bound ephrin ligands play a role in a wide variety of embryonic processes, their function in skin development has not been addressed. Here, we show that ephrin B2 is transiently expressed in hair buds during embryogenesis and in dermal mesenchymal cells during the perinatal period. Keratinocyte-specific ephrin B2-targeted mutant mice exhibit no skin phenotype, whereas postnatal systemic ephrin B2 ablation results in the enhancement of keratinocyte proliferation. Although the same treatment results in a defect of vascular remodeling, our analyses showed that the keratinocyte phenotype is not caused by hypoxia due to vascular defects. Interestingly, we found an enhanced expression of IL-1 family molecules, which have been implicated in the regulation of keratinocyte proliferation. On the basis of these observations, we propose that the transient expression of ephrin B2 in perinatal dermal mesenchymal cells plays a role in adjusting the activity of the mesenchymal microenvironment that regulates proliferation of keratinocytes.
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Fraser GJ, Bloomquist RF, Streelman JT. A periodic pattern generator for dental diversity. BMC Biol 2008; 6:32. [PMID: 18625062 PMCID: PMC2496899 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7007-6-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2008] [Accepted: 07/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Periodic patterning of iterative structures is a fundamental process during embryonic organization and development. Studies have shown how gene networks are employed to pattern butterfly eyespots, fly bristles and vertebrate epithelial appendages such as teeth, feathers, hair and mammary glands. Despite knowledge of how these features are organized, little is known about how diversity in periodic patterning is generated in nature. We address this problem through the molecular analysis of oral jaw dental diversity in Lake Malawi cichlids, where closely related species exhibit from 1 to 20 rows of teeth, with total teeth counts ranging from around 10 to 700. Results We investigate the expression of conserved gene networks (involving bmp2, bmp4, eda, edar, fgf8, pax9, pitx2, runx2, shh and wnt7b) known to pattern iterative structures and teeth in other vertebrates. We show that spatiotemporal variation in expression pattern reflects adult morphological diversity among three closely related Malawi cichlid species. Combinatorial epithelial expression of pitx2 and shh appears to govern the competence both of initial tooth sites and future tooth rows. Epithelial wnt7b and mesenchymal eda are expressed in the inter-germ and inter-row regions, and likely regulate the spacing of these shh-positive units. Finally, we used chemical knockdown to demonstrate the fundamental role of hedgehog signalling and initial placode formation in the organization of the periodically patterned cichlid dental programme. Conclusion Coordinated patterns of gene expression differ among Malawi species and prefigure the future-ordered distribution of functional teeth of specific size and spacing. This variation in gene expression among species occurs early in the developmental programme for dental patterning. These data show how a complex multi-rowed vertebrate dentition is organized and how developmental tinkering of conserved gene networks during iterative pattern formation can impact upon the evolution of trophic novelty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth J Fraser
- School of Biology, Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0230, USA.
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Houghton L, Lindon CM, Freeman A, Morgan BA. Abortive placode formation in the feather tract of the scaleless chicken embryo. Dev Dyn 2008; 236:3020-30. [PMID: 17948257 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The featherless phenotype of the scaleless mutant provides a model for delineating the process of feather follicle formation. Initial studies established that the mutation affects the epidermis and suggested that epidermis is unable to respond to signals from underlying dermis, or propagate a reciprocal signal. The work presented here demonstrates that scaleless epidermis does indeed respond to the initial inductive signals from dermis, as indicated by the localization of nuclear beta-catenin and transient focal expression of genes expressed in the placode of wild-type feather rudiments. In the sporadic "escaper" feathers that form in scaleless, expression of many genes associated with the progression of feather development is comparable to that in wild-type embryos. An exception is the ectodysplasin receptor gene Edar, which is expressed at lower levels in mutant feather buds. These observations suggest that the scaleless mutation impairs the locally augmented expression of Edar required to stabilize the placodal fate and sustain feather development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Houghton
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA
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50
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Abstract
We have performed in situ hybridization to study the expression of Wise in early chick embryos. Wise expression is first detectable in the ectoderm at posterior levels of late neurula. As development proceeds, Wise expression is seen in specific patterns in the ectoderm of the trunk region, pharyngeal arches, limb buds, and feather buds. In addition to these areas, particular cartilages such as the ones in the maxillary process and limbs start to express Wise at the late pharyngula stage, and the expression in these cartilages becomes stronger than that in epidermal components at later stages. Importantly, Wise is expressed in regions where other signaling molecules such as Wnt, Bmp, and Shh are known to function in morphogenesis and differentiation. Direct comparisons of the expression of Wise and these genes are also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Shigetani
- Division of Developmental Neurobiology, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, United Kingdom
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