Targeted localization of Inn1, Cyk3 and Chs2 by the mitotic-exit network regulates cytokinesis in budding yeast

Central Role of the Actomyosin Ring in Coordinating Cytokinesis Steps in Budding Yeast

Eukaryotic cells must accurately transfer their genetic material and cellular components to their daughter cells. Initially, cells duplicate their chromosomes and subsequently segregate them toward the poles. The actomyosin ring, a crucial molecular machinery normally located in the middle of the cells and underneath the plasma membrane, then physically divides the cytoplasm and all components into two daughter cells, each ready to start a new cell cycle. This process, known as cytokinesis, is conserved throughout evolution. Defects in cytokinesis can lead to the generation of genetically unstable tetraploid cells, potentially initiating uncontrolled proliferation and cancer. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms by which budding yeast cells build the actomyosin ring and the preceding steps involved in forming a scaffolding structure that supports the challenging structural changes throughout cytokinesis. Additionally, we describe how cells coordinate actomyosin ring contraction, plasma membrane ingression, and extracellular matrix deposition to successfully complete cytokinesis. Furthermore, the review discusses the regulatory roles of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (Cdk1) and the Mitotic Exit Network (MEN) in ensuring the precise timing and execution of cytokinesis. Understanding these processes in yeast provides insights into the fundamental aspects of cell division and its implications for human health.

Septin Organization and Dynamics for Budding Yeast Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis, the process by which the cytoplasm divides to generate two daughter cells after mitosis, is a crucial stage of the cell cycle. Successful cytokinesis must be coordinated with chromosome segregation and requires the fine orchestration of several processes, such as constriction of the actomyosin ring, membrane reorganization, and, in fungi, cell wall deposition. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as budding yeast, septins play a pivotal role in the control of cytokinesis by assisting the assembly of the cytokinetic machinery at the division site and controlling its activity. Yeast septins form a collar at the division site that undergoes major dynamic transitions during the cell cycle. This review discusses the functions of septins in yeast cytokinesis, their regulation and the implications of their dynamic remodelling for cell division.

Phosphorylation of the F-BAR protein Hof1 drives septin ring splitting in budding yeast

A double septin ring accompanies cytokinesis in yeasts and mammalian cells. In budding yeast, reorganisation of the septin collar at the bud neck into a dynamic double ring is essential for actomyosin ring constriction and cytokinesis. Septin reorganisation requires the Mitotic Exit Network (MEN), a kinase cascade essential for cytokinesis. However, the effectors of MEN in this process are unknown. Here we identify the F-BAR protein Hof1 as a critical target of MEN in septin remodelling. Phospho-mimicking HOF1 mutant alleles overcome the inability of MEN mutants to undergo septin reorganisation by decreasing Hof1 binding to septins and facilitating its translocation to the actomyosin ring. Hof1-mediated septin rearrangement requires its F-BAR domain, suggesting that it may involve a local membrane remodelling that leads to septin reorganisation. In vitro Hof1 can induce the formation of intertwined septin bundles, while a phosphomimetic Hof1 protein has impaired septin-bundling activity. Altogether, our data indicate that Hof1 modulates septin architecture in distinct ways depending on its phosphorylation status.

Cdc14 phosphatase counteracts Cdk-dependent Dna2 phosphorylation to inhibit resection during recombinational DNA repair

Cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) stimulates resection of DNA double-strand breaks ends to generate single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) needed for recombinational DNA repair. Here we show in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that lack of the Cdk-counteracting phosphatase Cdc14 produces abnormally extended resected tracts at the DNA break ends, involving the phosphatase in the inhibition of resection. Over-resection in the absence of Cdc14 activity is bypassed when the exonuclease Dna2 is inactivated or when its Cdk consensus sites are mutated, indicating that the phosphatase restrains resection by acting through this nuclease. Accordingly, mitotically activated Cdc14 promotes Dna2 dephosphorylation to exclude it from the DNA lesion. Cdc14-dependent resection inhibition is essential to sustain DNA re-synthesis, thus ensuring the appropriate length, frequency, and distribution of the gene conversion tracts. These results establish a role for Cdc14 in controlling the extent of resection through Dna2 regulation and demonstrate that the accumulation of excessively long ssDNA affects the accurate repair of the broken DNA by homologous recombination.

Cdc14 phosphatase contributes to cell wall integrity and pathogenesis in Candida albicans

The Cdc14 phosphatase family is highly conserved in fungi. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Cdc14 is essential for down-regulation of cyclin-dependent kinase activity at mitotic exit. However, this essential function is not broadly conserved and requires only a small fraction of normal Cdc14 activity. Here, we identified an invariant motif in the disordered C-terminal tail of fungal Cdc14 enzymes that is required for full enzyme activity. Mutation of this motif reduced Cdc14 catalytic rate and provided a tool for studying the biological significance of high Cdc14 activity. A S. cerevisiae strain expressing the reduced-activity hypomorphic mutant allele (cdc14^hm ) as the sole source of Cdc14 proliferated like the wild-type parent strain but exhibited an unexpected sensitivity to cell wall stresses, including chitin-binding compounds and echinocandin antifungal drugs. Sensitivity to echinocandins was also observed in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Candida albicans strains lacking CDC14, suggesting this phenotype reflects a novel and conserved function of Cdc14 orthologs in mediating fungal cell wall integrity. In C. albicans, the orthologous cdc14^hm allele was sufficient to elicit echinocandin hypersensitivity and perturb cell wall integrity signaling. It also caused striking abnormalities in septum structure and the same cell separation and hyphal differentiation defects previously observed with cdc14 gene deletions. Since hyphal differentiation is important for C. albicans pathogenesis, we assessed the effect of reduced Cdc14 activity on virulence in Galleria mellonella and mouse models of invasive candidiasis. Partial reduction in Cdc14 activity via cdc14^hm mutation severely impaired C. albicans virulence in both assays. Our results reveal that high Cdc14 activity is important for C. albicans cell wall integrity and pathogenesis and suggest that Cdc14 may be worth future exploration as an antifungal drug target.

PP2A-Cdc55 phosphatase regulates actomyosin ring contraction and septum formation during cytokinesis

Eukaryotic cells divide and separate all their components after chromosome segregation by a process called cytokinesis to complete cell division. Cytokinesis is highly regulated by the recruitment of the components to the division site and through post-translational modifications such as phosphorylations. The budding yeast mitotic kinases Cdc28-Clb2, Cdc5, and Dbf2-Mob1 phosphorylate several cytokinetic proteins contributing to the regulation of cytokinesis. The PP2A-Cdc55 phosphatase regulates mitosis counteracting Cdk1- and Cdc5-dependent phosphorylation. This prompted us to propose that PP2A-Cdc55 could also be counteracting the mitotic kinases during cytokinesis. Here we show that in the absence of Cdc55, AMR contraction and the primary septum formation occur asymmetrically to one side of the bud neck supporting a role for PP2A-Cdc55 in cytokinesis regulation. In addition, by in vivo and in vitro assays, we show that PP2A-Cdc55 dephosphorylates the chitin synthase II (Chs2 in budding yeast) a component of the Ingression Progression Complexes (IPCs) involved in cytokinesis. Interestingly, the non-phosphorylable version of Chs2 rescues the asymmetric AMR contraction and the defective septa formation observed in cdc55∆ mutant cells. Therefore, timely dephosphorylation of the Chs2 by PP2A-Cdc55 is crucial for proper actomyosin ring contraction. These findings reveal a new mechanism of cytokinesis regulation by the PP2A-Cdc55 phosphatase and extend our knowledge of the involvement of multiple phosphatases during cytokinesis.

Choline transporter-like protein 2 interacts with chitin synthase 1 and is involved in insect cuticle development

Chitin is an aminopolysaccharide present in insects as a major structural component of the cuticle. However, current knowledge on the chitin biosynthetic machinery, especially its constituents and mechanism, is limited. Using three independent binding assays, including co-immunoprecipitation, split-ubiquitin membrane yeast two-hybrid assay, and pull-down assay, we demonstrate that choline transporter-like protein 2 (Ctl2) interacts with krotzkopf verkehrt (kkv) in Drosophila melanogaster. The global knockdown of Ctl2 by RNA interference (RNAi) induced lethality at the larval stage. Tissue-specific RNAi to silence Ctl2 in the tracheal system and in the epidermis of the flies resulted in lethality at the first larval instar. The knockdown of Ctl2 in wings led to shrunken wings containing accumulated fluid. Calcofluor White staining demonstrated reduced chitin content in the first longitudinal vein of Ctl2 knockdown wings. The pro-cuticle, which was thinner compared to wildtype, exhibited a reduced number of chitin laminar layers. Phylogenetic analyses revealed orthologues of Ctl2 in different insect orders with highly conserved domains. Our findings provide new insights into cuticle formation, wherein Ctl2 plays an important role as a chitin-synthase interacting protein.

The kinetic landscape and interplay of protein networks in cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is executed by protein networks organized into functional modules. Individual proteins within each module have been characterized to various degrees. However, the collective behavior and interplay of the modules remain poorly understood. In this study, we conducted quantitative time-lapse imaging to analyze the accumulation kinetics of more than 20 proteins from different modules of cytokinesis in budding yeast. This analysis has led to a comprehensive picture of the kinetic landscape of cytokinesis, from actomyosin ring (AMR) assembly to cell separation. It revealed that the AMR undergoes biphasic constriction and that the switch between the constriction phases is likely triggered by AMR maturation and primary septum formation. This analysis also provided further insights into the functions of actin filaments and the transglutaminase-like protein Cyk3 in cytokinesis and, in addition, defined Kre6 as the likely enzyme that catalyzes β-1,6-glucan synthesis to drive cell wall maturation during cell growth and division.

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Cytokinesis is executed by protein modules each with a unique kinetic signature

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Actomyosin ring constricts in a biphasic manner that is elaborately regulated

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The transglutaminase-like domain in Cyk3 plays a dual role in cytokinesis

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Kre6 catalyzes β-1,6-glucan synthesis at the cell surface during growth and division

Yeast as a Model to Understand Actin-Mediated Cellular Functions in Mammals-Illustrated with Four Actin Cytoskeleton Proteins

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has an actin cytoskeleton that comprises a set of protein components analogous to those found in the actin cytoskeletons of higher eukaryotes. Furthermore, the actin cytoskeletons of S. cerevisiae and of higher eukaryotes have some similar physiological roles. The genetic tractability of budding yeast and the availability of a stable haploid cell type facilitates the application of molecular genetic approaches to assign functions to the various actin cytoskeleton components. This has provided information that is in general complementary to that provided by studies of the equivalent proteins of higher eukaryotes and hence has enabled a more complete view of the role of these proteins. Several human functional homologues of yeast actin effectors are implicated in diseases. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning the functions of these proteins is critical to develop improved therapeutic strategies. In this article we chose as examples four evolutionarily conserved proteins that associate with the actin cytoskeleton: (1) yeast Hof1p/mammalian PSTPIP1, (2) yeast Rvs167p/mammalian BIN1, (3) yeast eEF1A/eEF1A1 and eEF1A2 and (4) yeast Yih1p/mammalian IMPACT. We compare the knowledge on the functions of these actin cytoskeleton-associated proteins that has arisen from studies of their homologues in yeast with information that has been obtained from in vivo studies using live animals or in vitro studies using cultured animal cell lines.

Cytokinesis in Eukaryotic Cells: The Furrow Complexity at a Glance

The duplication cycle is the fascinating process that, starting from a cell, results in the formation of two daughter cells and it is essential for life. Cytokinesis is the final step of the cell cycle, it is a very complex phase, and is a concert of forces, remodeling, trafficking, and cell signaling. All of the steps of cell division must be properly coordinated with each other to faithfully segregate the genetic material and this task is fundamental for generating viable cells. Given the importance of this process, molecular pathways and proteins that are involved in cytokinesis are conserved from yeast to humans. In this review, we describe symmetric and asymmetric cell division in animal cell and in a model organism, budding yeast. In addition, we illustrate the surveillance mechanisms that ensure a proper cell division and discuss the connections with normal cell proliferation and organs development and with the occurrence of human diseases.

The Multiple Roles of the Cdc14 Phosphatase in Cell Cycle Control

The Cdc14 phosphatase is a key regulator of mitosis in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cdc14 was initially described as playing an essential role in the control of cell cycle progression by promoting mitotic exit on the basis of its capacity to counteract the activity of the cyclin-dependent kinase Cdc28/Cdk1. A compiling body of evidence, however, has later demonstrated that this phosphatase plays other multiple roles in the regulation of mitosis at different cell cycle stages. Here, we summarize our current knowledge about the pivotal role of Cdc14 in cell cycle control, with a special focus in the most recently uncovered functions of the phosphatase.

Cell Cycle and DNA Repair Regulation in the Damage Response: Protein Phosphatases Take Over the Reins

Cells are constantly suffering genotoxic stresses that affect the integrity of our genetic material. Genotoxic insults must be repaired to avoid the loss or inappropriate transmission of the genetic information, a situation that could lead to the appearance of developmental abnormalities and tumorigenesis. To combat this threat, eukaryotic cells have evolved a set of sophisticated molecular mechanisms that are collectively known as the DNA damage response (DDR). This surveillance system controls several aspects of the cellular response, including the detection of lesions, a temporary cell cycle arrest, and the repair of the broken DNA. While the regulation of the DDR by numerous kinases has been well documented over the last decade, the complex roles of protein dephosphorylation have only recently begun to be investigated. Here, we review recent progress in the characterization of DDR-related protein phosphatases during the response to a DNA lesion, focusing mainly on their ability to modulate the DNA damage checkpoint and the repair of the damaged DNA. We also discuss their protein composition and structure, target specificity, and biochemical regulation along the different stages encompassed in the DDR. The compilation of this information will allow us to better comprehend the physiological significance of protein dephosphorylation in the maintenance of genome integrity and cell viability in response to genotoxic stress.

Role of protein phosphatases PP1, PP2A, PP4 and Cdc14 in the DNA damage response

Maintenance of genome integrity is fundamental for cellular physiology. Our hereditary information encoded in the DNA is intrinsically susceptible to suffer variations, mostly due to the constant presence of endogenous and environmental genotoxic stresses. Genomic insults must be repaired to avoid loss or inappropriate transmission of the genetic information, a situation that could lead to the appearance of developmental anomalies and tumorigenesis. To safeguard our genome, cells have evolved a series of mechanisms collectively known as the DNA damage response (DDR). This surveillance system regulates multiple features of the cellular response, including the detection of the lesion, a transient cell cycle arrest and the restoration of the broken DNA molecule. While the role of multiple kinases in the DDR has been well documented over the last years, the intricate roles of protein dephosphorylation have only recently begun to be addressed. In this review, we have compiled recent information about the function of protein phosphatases PP1, PP2A, PP4 and Cdc14 in the DDR, focusing mainly on their capacity to regulate the DNA damage checkpoint and the repair mechanism encompassed in the restoration of a DNA lesion.

A cell separation checkpoint that enforces the proper order of late cytokinetic events

Eukaryotic cell division requires dependency relationships in which late processes commence only after early ones are appropriately completed. We have discovered a system that blocks late events of cytokinesis until early ones are successfully accomplished. In budding yeast, cytokinetic actomyosin ring contraction and membrane ingression are coupled with deposition of an extracellular septum that is selectively degraded in its primary septum immediately after its completion by secreted enzymes. We find this secretion event is linked to septum completion and forestalled when the process is slowed. Delay of septum degradation requires Fir1, an intrinsically disordered protein localized to the cytokinesis site that is degraded upon septum completion but stabilized when septation is aberrant. Fir1 protects cytokinesis in part by inhibiting a separation-specific exocytosis function of the NDR/LATS kinase Cbk1, a key component of "hippo" signaling that induces mother-daughter separation. We term this system enforcement of cytokinesis order, a checkpoint ensuring proper temporal sequence of mechanistically incompatible processes of cytokinesis.

A PxL motif promotes timely cell cycle substrate dephosphorylation by the Cdc14 phosphatase

The cell division cycle consists of a series of temporally ordered events. Cell cycle kinases and phosphatases provide key regulatory input, but how the correct substrate phosphorylation and dephosphorylation timing is achieved is incompletely understood. Here we identify a PxL substrate recognition motif that instructs dephosphorylation by the budding yeast Cdc14 phosphatase during mitotic exit. The PxL motif was prevalent in Cdc14-binding peptides enriched in a phage display screen of native disordered protein regions. PxL motif removal from the Cdc14 substrate Cbk1 delays its dephosphorylation, whereas addition of the motif advances dephosphorylation of otherwise late Cdc14 substrates. Crystal structures of Cdc14 bound to three PxL motif substrate peptides provide a molecular explanation for PxL motif recognition on the phosphatase surface. Our results illustrate the sophistication of phosphatase-substrate interactions and identify them as an important determinant of ordered cell cycle progression.

Recruitment of the mitotic exit network to yeast centrosomes couples septin displacement to actomyosin constriction

In many eukaryotic organisms cytokinesis is driven by a contractile actomyosin ring (CAR) that guides membrane invagination. What triggers CAR constriction at a precise time of the cell cycle is a fundamental question. In budding yeast CAR is assembled via a septin scaffold at the division site. A Hippo-like kinase cascade, the Mitotic Exit Network (MEN), promotes mitotic exit and cytokinesis, but whether and how these two processes are independently controlled by MEN is poorly understood. Here we show that a critical function of MEN is to promote displacement of the septin ring from the division site, which in turn is essential for CAR constriction. This is independent of MEN control over mitotic exit and involves recruitment of MEN components to the spindle pole body (SPB). Ubiquitination of the SPB scaffold Nud1 inhibits MEN signaling at the end of mitosis and prevents septin ring splitting, thus silencing the cytokinetic machinery.

The Mitotic Exit Network (MEN) promotes mitotic exit and cytokinesis but if and how MEN independently controls these two processes is unclear. Here, the authors report that MEN displaces septins from the cell division site to promote actomyosin ring constriction, independently of MEN control of mitotic exit.

Cell polarity protein Spa2 coordinates Chs2 incorporation at the division site in budding yeast

Deposition of additional plasma membrane and cargoes during cytokinesis in eukaryotic cells must be coordinated with actomyosin ring contraction, plasma membrane ingression and extracellular matrix remodelling. The process by which the secretory pathway promotes specific incorporation of key factors into the cytokinetic machinery is poorly understood. Here, we show that cell polarity protein Spa2 interacts with actomyosin ring components during cytokinesis. Spa2 directly binds to cytokinetic factors Cyk3 and Hof1. The lethal effects of deleting the SPA2 gene in the absence of either Cyk3 or Hof1 can be suppressed by expression of the hypermorphic allele of the essential chitin synthase II (Chs2), a transmembrane protein transported on secretory vesicles that makes the primary septum during cytokinesis. Spa2 also interacts directly with the chitin synthase Chs2. Interestingly, artificial incorporation of Chs2 into the cytokinetic machinery allows the localisation of Spa2 at the site of division. In addition, increased Spa2 protein levels promote Chs2 incorporation at the site of division and primary septum formation. Our data indicate that Spa2 is recruited to the cleavage site to co-operate with the secretory vesicle system and particular actomyosin ring components to promote the incorporation of Chs2 into the so-called 'ingression progression complexes' during cytokinesis in budding yeast.

Role of the Hof1-Cyk3 interaction in cleavage-furrow ingression and primary-septum formation during yeast cytokinesis

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it is well established that Hof1, Cyk3, and Inn1 contribute to septum formation and cytokinesis. Because hof1∆ and cyk3∆ single mutants have relatively mild defects but hof1∆ cyk3∆ double mutants are nearly dead, it has been hypothesized that these proteins contribute to parallel pathways. However, there is also evidence that they interact physically. In this study, we examined this interaction and its functional significance in detail. Our data indicate that the interaction 1) is mediated by a direct binding of the Hof1 SH3 domain to a proline-rich motif in Cyk3; 2) occurs specifically at the time of cytokinesis but is independent of the (hyper)phosphorylation of both proteins that occurs at about the same time; 3) is dispensable for the normal localization of both proteins; 4) is essential for normal primary-septum formation and a normal rate of cleavage-furrow ingression; and 5) becomes critical for growth when either Inn1 or the type II myosin Myo1 (a key component of the contractile actomyosin ring) is absent. The similarity in phenotype between cyk3∆ mutants and mutants specifically lacking the Hof1-Cyk3 interaction suggests that the interaction is particularly important for Cyk3 function, but it may be important for Hof1 function as well.

The Mitotic Exit Network Regulates Spindle Pole Body Selection During Sporulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Age-based inheritance of centrosomes in eukaryotic cells is associated with faithful chromosome distribution in asymmetric cell divisions. During Saccharomyces cerevisiae ascospore formation, such an inheritance mechanism targets the yeast centrosome equivalents, the spindle pole bodies (SPBs) at meiosis II onset. Decreased nutrient availability causes initiation of spore formation at only the younger SPBs and their associated genomes. This mechanism ensures encapsulation of nonsister genomes, which preserves genetic diversity and provides a fitness advantage at the population level. Here, by usage of an enhanced system for sporulation-induced protein depletion, we demonstrate that the core mitotic exit network (MEN) is involved in age-based SPB selection. Moreover, efficient genome inheritance requires Dbf2/20-Mob1 during a late step in spore maturation. We provide evidence that the meiotic functions of the MEN are more complex than previously thought. In contrast to mitosis, completion of the meiotic divisions does not strictly rely on the MEN whereas its activity is required at different time points during spore development. This is reminiscent of vegetative MEN functions in spindle polarity establishment, mitotic exit, and cytokinesis. In summary, our investigation contributes to the understanding of age-based SPB inheritance during sporulation of S. cerevisiae and provides general insights on network plasticity in the context of a specialized developmental program. Moreover, the improved system for a developmental-specific tool to induce protein depletion will be useful in other biological contexts.

Mechanics and regulation of cytokinesis in budding yeast

Cytokinesis is essential for the survival of all organisms. It requires concerted functions of cell signaling, force production, exocytosis, and extracellular matrix remodeling. Due to the conservation in core components and mechanisms between fungal and animal cells, the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has served as an attractive model for studying this fundamental process. In this review, we discuss the mechanics and regulation of distinct events of cytokinesis in budding yeast, including the assembly, constriction, and disassembly of the actomyosin ring, septum formation, abscission, and their spatiotemporal coordination. We also highlight the key concepts and questions that are common to animal and fungal cytokinesis.

Septin-Associated Protein Kinases in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Septins are a family of eukaryotic GTP-binding proteins that associate into linear rods, which, in turn, polymerize end-on-end into filaments, and further assemble into other, more elaborate super-structures at discrete subcellular locations. Hence, septin-based ensembles are considered elements of the cytoskeleton. One function of these structures that has been well-documented in studies conducted in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is to serve as a scaffold that recruits regulatory proteins, which dictate the spatial and temporal control of certain aspects of the cell division cycle. In particular, septin-associated protein kinases couple cell cycle progression with cellular morphogenesis. Thus, septin-containing structures serve as signaling platforms that integrate a multitude of signals and coordinate key downstream networks required for cell cycle passage. This review summarizes what we currently understand about how the action of septin-associated protein kinases and their substrates control information flow to drive the cell cycle into and out of mitosis, to regulate bud growth, and especially to direct timely and efficient execution of cytokinesis and cell abscission. Thus, septin structures represent a regulatory node at the intersection of many signaling pathways. In addition, and importantly, the activities of certain septin-associated protein kinases also regulate the state of organization of the septins themselves, creating a complex feedback loop.

Stabilization of the metaphase spindle by Cdc14 is required for recombinational DNA repair

Cells are constantly threatened by multiple sources of genotoxic stress that cause DNA damage. To maintain genome integrity, cells have developed a coordinated signalling network called DNA damage response (DDR). While multiple kinases have been thoroughly studied during DDR activation, the role of protein dephosphorylation in the damage response remains elusive. Here, we show that the phosphatase Cdc14 is essential to fulfil recombinational DNA repair in budding yeast. After DNA double‐strand break (DSB) generation, Cdc14 is transiently released from the nucleolus and activated. In this state, Cdc14 targets the spindle pole body (SPB) component Spc110 to counterbalance its phosphorylation by cyclin‐dependent kinase (Cdk). Alterations in the Cdk/Cdc14‐dependent phosphorylation status of Spc110, or its inactivation during the induction of a DNA lesion, generate abnormal oscillatory SPB movements that disrupt DSB‐SPB interactions. Remarkably, these defects impair DNA repair by homologous recombination indicating that SPB integrity is essential during the repair process. Together, these results show that Cdc14 promotes spindle stability and DSB‐SPB tethering during DNA repair, and imply that metaphase spindle maintenance is a critical feature of the repair process.

The final cut: cell polarity meets cytokinesis at the bud neck in S. cerevisiae

Cell division is a fundamental but complex process that gives rise to two daughter cells. It includes an ordered set of events, altogether called "the cell cycle", that culminate with cytokinesis, the final stage of mitosis leading to the physical separation of the two daughter cells. Symmetric cell division equally partitions cellular components between the two daughter cells, which are therefore identical to one another and often share the same fate. In many cases, however, cell division is asymmetrical and generates two daughter cells that differ in specific protein inheritance, cell size, or developmental potential. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven to be an excellent system to investigate the molecular mechanisms governing asymmetric cell division and cytokinesis. Budding yeast is highly polarized during the cell cycle and divides asymmetrically, producing two cells with distinct sizes and fates. Many components of the machinery establishing cell polarization during budding are relocalized to the division site (i.e., the bud neck) for cytokinesis. In this review we recapitulate how budding yeast cells undergo polarized processes at the bud neck for cell division.

Timely Endocytosis of Cytokinetic Enzymes Prevents Premature Spindle Breakage during Mitotic Exit

Cytokinesis requires the spatio-temporal coordination of membrane deposition and primary septum (PS) formation at the division site to drive acto-myosin ring (AMR) constriction. It has been demonstrated that AMR constriction invariably occurs only after the mitotic spindle disassembly. It has also been established that Chitin Synthase II (Chs2p) neck localization precedes mitotic spindle disassembly during mitotic exit. As AMR constriction depends upon PS formation, the question arises as to how chitin deposition is regulated so as to prevent premature AMR constriction and mitotic spindle breakage. In this study, we propose that cells regulate the coordination between spindle disassembly and AMR constriction via timely endocytosis of cytokinetic enzymes, Chs2p, Chs3p, and Fks1p. Inhibition of endocytosis leads to over accumulation of cytokinetic enzymes during mitotic exit, which accelerates the constriction of the AMR, and causes spindle breakage that eventually could contribute to monopolar spindle formation in the subsequent round of cell division. Intriguingly, the mitotic spindle breakage observed in endocytosis mutants can be rescued either by deleting or inhibiting the activities of, CHS2, CHS3 and FKS1, which are involved in septum formation. The findings from our study highlight the importance of timely endocytosis of cytokinetic enzymes at the division site in safeguarding mitotic spindle integrity during mitotic exit.

The cytokinesis machinery that is required for physical separation of mother-daughter cells during mitosis is highly conserved from yeast to humans. In budding yeast, cytokinesis is achieved via timely delivery of cytokinetic enzymes to the division site that eventually triggers the constriction of AMR. It has been previously demonstrated that cytokinesis invariably occurs after the disassembly of the mitotic spindle. Intriguingly, Chs2p that is responsible for laying down the primary septum has been shown to localize to the division site before mitotic spindle disassembly. In this study, we show that mitotic spindle integrity upon sister chromatid separation is dependent on the continuous endocytosis of cytokinetic enzymes. Failure in the internalization of cytokinetic proteins during mitotic exit causes premature AMR constriction that eventually contributes to the shearing of mitotic spindle. Consequently, cells fail to re-establish a bipolar spindle in the subsequent round of cell division cycle. Our findings provide insights into how the levels of secreted proteins at the division site impacts cytokinesis. We believe this regulation mechanism might be conserved in higher eukaryotic cells as a secreted protein, hemicentin, has been shown recently to be involved in regulating cytokinesis in both Caenorhabditis elegans and mouse embryos.

Ingression Progression Complexes Control Extracellular Matrix Remodelling during Cytokinesis in Budding Yeast

Eukaryotic cells must coordinate contraction of the actomyosin ring at the division site together with ingression of the plasma membrane and remodelling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to support cytokinesis, but the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. In eukaryotes, glycosyltransferases that synthesise ECM polysaccharides are emerging as key factors during cytokinesis. The budding yeast chitin synthase Chs2 makes the primary septum, a special layer of the ECM, which is an essential process during cell division. Here we isolated a group of actomyosin ring components that form complexes together with Chs2 at the cleavage site at the end of the cell cycle, which we named ‘ingression progression complexes’ (IPCs). In addition to type II myosin, the IQGAP protein Iqg1 and Chs2, IPCs contain the F-BAR protein Hof1, and the cytokinesis regulators Inn1 and Cyk3. We describe the molecular mechanism by which chitin synthase is activated by direct association of the C2 domain of Inn1, and the transglutaminase-like domain of Cyk3, with the catalytic domain of Chs2. We used an experimental system to find a previously unanticipated role for the C-terminus of Inn1 in preventing the untimely activation of Chs2 at the cleavage site until Cyk3 releases the block on Chs2 activity during late mitosis. These findings support a model for the co-ordinated regulation of cell division in budding yeast, in which IPCs play a central role.

Cytokinesis is the process by which a cell divides in two and occurs once cells have replicated and segregated their chromosomes. Eukaryotic cells assemble a molecular machine called the actomyosin ring that drives cytokinesis. Contraction of the actomyosin ring is coupled to ingression of the plasma membrane and extracellular matrix remodelling. In eukaryotes, glycosyltransferases that synthesise polysaccharides of the extracellular matrix are emerging as essential factors during cytokinesis. Defects associated with the function of those glycosyltransferases induce the failure of cell division, which promotes the formation of genetically unstable tetraploid cells. Budding yeast cells contain a glycosyltransferase called Chs2 that makes a special layer of extracellular matrix and is essential during cell division. Our findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanism by which the cytokinesis regulators Inn1 and Cyk3 finely regulate the activity of glycosyltransferase Chs2 at the end of mitosis. In addition we isolated a group of actomyosin ring components that form complexes together with Chs2 and Inn1 at the cleavage site, which we have named ‘ingression progression complexes’. These complexes coordinate the contraction of the actomyosin ring, ingression of the plasma membrane and extracellular matrix remodelling in a precise manner. Chs2 is indeed a key factor for coordinating these events. It appears that similar principles could apply to other eukaryotic species, such as fission yeast even if the identity of the relevant glycosyltransferase has changed over the evolution. Taking into account the conservation of the basic cytokinetic mechanisms future studies should try to determine whether a glycosyltransferase similar to Chs2 plays a key role during cytokinesis in human cells.

Actomyosin ring driven cytokinesis in budding yeast

Cytokinesis is the final process in the cell cycle that physically divides one cell into two. In budding yeast, cytokinesis is driven by a contractile actomyosin ring (AMR) and the simultaneous formation of a primary septum, which serves as template for cell wall deposition. AMR assembly, constriction, primary septum formation and cell wall deposition are successive processes and tightly coupled to cell cycle progression to ensure the correct distribution of genetic material and cell organelles among the two rising cells prior to cell division. The role of the AMR in cytokinesis and the molecular mechanisms that drive AMR constriction and septation are the focus of current research. This review summarizes the recent progresses in our understanding of how budding yeast cells orchestrate the multitude of molecular mechanisms that control AMR driven cytokinesis in a spatio-temporal manner to achieve an error free cell division.

Visualization of Cytokinesis Events in Budding Yeast by Transmission Electron Microscopy

In yeast cells, cytokinesis is accompanied by morphological changes due to cell wall growth during furrow ingression and abscission. The characteristics of the growing cell wall can be used as an indicator for the function of the contractile actomyosin ring, the Rho-GTPases Rho1 and Cdc42 and/or other factors that drive cytokinesis. The ultrastructural information of the cell wall can be easily acquired by transmission electron microscopy, which makes this technique an invaluable tool to analyze cell division in yeast cells. Here, we describe the process of embedding and staining budding yeast cells for transmission electron microscopic analysis of cytokinetic events.

Dephosphorylation of Iqg1 by Cdc14 regulates cytokinesis in budding yeast

Cytokinesis separates cells by contraction of a ring composed of filamentous actin (F-actin) and type II myosin. Iqg1, an IQGAP family member, is an essential protein in Saccharomyces cerevisiae required for assembly and contraction of the actomyosin ring. Localization of F-actin to the ring occurs only after anaphase and is mediated by the calponin homology domain (CHD) of Iqg1, but the regulatory mechanisms that temporally restrict actin ring assembly are not well defined. We tested the hypothesis that dephosphorylation of four perfect cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) sites flanking the CHD promotes actin ring formation, using site-specific alanine mutants. Cells expressing the nonphosphorylatable iqg1-4A allele formed actin rings before anaphase and exhibited defects in myosin contraction and cytokinesis. The Cdc14 phosphatase is required for normal cytokinesis and acts on specific Cdk phosphorylation sites. Overexpression of Cdc14 resulted in premature actin ring assembly, whereas inhibition of Cdc14 function prevented actin ring formation. Cdc14 associated with Iqg1, dependent on several CHD-flanking Cdk sites, and efficiently dephosphorylated these sites in vitro. Of importance, the iqg1-4A mutant rescued the inability of cdc14-1 cells to form actin rings. Our data support a model in which dephosphorylation of Cdk sites around the Iqg1 CHD by Cdc14 is both necessary and sufficient to promote actin ring formation. Temporal control of actin ring assembly by Cdk and Cdc14 may help to ensure that cytokinesis onset occurs after nuclear division is complete.

Genetic instability in budding and fission yeast-sources and mechanisms

Cells are constantly confronted with endogenous and exogenous factors that affect their genomes. Eons of evolution have allowed the cellular mechanisms responsible for preserving the genome to adjust for achieving contradictory objectives: to maintain the genome unchanged and to acquire mutations that allow adaptation to environmental changes. One evolutionary mechanism that has been refined for survival is genetic variation. In this review, we describe the mechanisms responsible for two biological processes: genome maintenance and mutation tolerance involved in generations of genetic variations in mitotic cells of both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. These processes encompass mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of replication, DNA lesion sensing and DNA damage response pathways, as well as mechanisms that ensure precision in chromosome segregation during cell division. We discuss various factors that may influence genome stability, such as cellular ploidy, the phase of the cell cycle, transcriptional activity of a particular region of DNA, the proficiency of DNA quality control systems, the metabolic stage of the cell and its respiratory potential, and finally potential exposure to endogenous or environmental stress.

The stability of budding and fission yeast genomes is influenced by two contradictory factors: (1) the need to be fully functional, which is ensured through the replication fidelity pathways of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes through sensing and repairing DNA damage, through precise chromosome segregation during cell division; and (2) the need to acquire changes for adaptation to environmental challenges.

Cdc14 Early Anaphase Release, FEAR, Is Limited to the Nucleus and Dispensable for Efficient Mitotic Exit

Cdc14 phosphatase is a key regulator of exit from mitosis, acting primarily through antagonism of cyclin-dependent kinase, and is also thought to be important for meiosis. Cdc14 is released from its sequestration site in the nucleolus in two stages, first by the non-essential Cdc Fourteen Early Anaphase Release (FEAR) pathway and later by the essential Mitotic Exit Network (MEN), which drives efficient export of Cdc14 to the cytoplasm. We find that Cdc14 is confined to the nucleus during early mitotic anaphase release, and during its meiosis I release. Proteins whose degradation is directed by Cdc14 as a requirement for mitotic exit (e.g. the B-type cyclin, Clb2), remain stable during mitotic FEAR, a result consistent with Cdc14 being restricted to the nucleus and not participating directly in mitotic exit. Cdc14 released by the FEAR pathway has been proposed to have a wide variety of activities, all of which are thought to promote passage through anaphase. Proposed functions of FEAR include stabilization of anaphase spindles, resolution of the rDNA to allow its segregation, and priming of the MEN so that mitotic exit can occur promptly and efficiently. We tested the model for FEAR functions using the FEAR-deficient mutation net1-6cdk. Our cytological observations indicate that, contrary to the current model, FEAR is fully dispensable for timely progression through a series of anaphase landmarks and mitotic exit, although it is required for timely rDNA segregation. The net1-6cdk mutation suppresses temperature-sensitive mutations in MEN genes, suggesting that rather than activating mitotic exit, FEAR either inhibits the MEN or has no direct effect upon it. One interpretation of this result is that FEAR delays MEN activation to ensure that rDNA segregation occurs before mitotic exit. Our findings clarify the distinction between FEAR and MEN-dependent Cdc14 activities and will help guide emerging quantitative models of this cell cycle transition.

Myosin‑II heavy chain and formin mediate the targeting of myosin essential light chain to the division site before and during cytokinesis

MLC1 is a haploinsufficient gene encoding the essential light chain for Myo1, the sole myosin‑II heavy chain in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mlc1 defines an essential hub that coordinates actomyosin ring function, membrane trafficking, and septum formation during cytokinesis by binding to IQGAP, myosin‑II, and myosin‑V. However, the mechanism of how Mlc1 is targeted to the division site during the cell cycle remains unsolved. By constructing a GFP‑tagged MLC1 under its own promoter control and using quantitative live‑cell imaging coupled with yeast mutants, we found that septin ring and actin filaments mediate the targeting of Mlc1 to the division site before and during cytokinesis, respectively. Both mechanisms contribute to and are collectively required for the accumulation of Mlc1 at the division site during cytokinesis. We also found that Myo1 plays a major role in the septin‑dependent Mlc1 localization before cytokinesis, whereas the formin Bni1 plays a major role in the actin filament-dependent Mlc1 localization during cytokinesis. Such a two‑tiered mechanism for Mlc1 localization is presumably required for the ordered assembly and robustness of cytokinesis machinery and is likely conserved across species.

Identification of Cdk targets that control cytokinesis

The final event of the eukaryotic cell cycle is cytokinesis, when two new daughter cells are born. How the timing and execution of cytokinesis is controlled is poorly understood. Here, we show that downregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) activity, together with upregulation of its counteracting phosphatase Cdc14, controls each of the sequential steps of cytokinesis, including furrow ingression, membrane resolution and cell separation in budding yeast. We use phosphoproteome analysis of mitotic exit to identify Cdk targets that are dephosphorylated at the time of cytokinesis. We then apply a new and widely applicable tool to generate conditionally phosphorylated proteins to identify those whose dephosphorylation is required for cytokinesis. This approach identifies Aip1, Ede1 and Inn1 as cytokinetic regulators. Our results suggest that cytokinesis is coordinately controlled by the master cell cycle regulator Cdk together with its counteracting phosphatase and that it is executed by concerted dephosphorylation of Cdk targets involved in several cell biological processes.

Regulation of cytokinesis in the milk yeast Kluyveromyces lactis

Cytokinesis in yeast and mammalian cells is a highly coordinated process mediated by the constriction of an actomyosin ring. In yeasts, it is accompanied by the formation of a chitinous primary septum. Although much is known about the regulation of cytokinesis in budding yeast, overlapping functions of redundant genes complicates genetic analyses. Here, we investigated the effects of various deletion mutants on cytokinesis in the milk yeast Kluyveromyces lactis. To determine the spatiotemporal parameters of cytokinesis components, live-cell imaging of fluorophor-tagged KlMyo1 and a new Lifeact probe for KlAct1 was employed. In contrast to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, where deletion of ScMYO1 is lethal, Klmyo1 deletion was temperature-sensitive. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that the Klmyo1 deletion cells had a defect in the formation of the primary septum and in cell separation; this result was confirmed by FACS analyses. Deletion of KlCYK3 was lethal, whereas in S. cerevisiae a cyk3 deletion is synthetically lethal with hof1 deletion. Growth of Klhof1 mutants was osmoremedial at 25°C, as it is in S. cerevisiae. CYK3 and HOF1 genes cross-complemented in both species, suggesting that they are functional homologs. Inn1, a common interactor for these two regulators, was essential in both yeasts and the encoding genes did not cross-complement. The C2 domain of the Inn1 homologs conferred species specificity. Thus, our work establishes K. lactis as a model yeast to study cytokinesis with less genetic redundancy than S. cerevisiae. The viability of Klmyo1 deletions provides an advantage over budding yeast to study actomyosin-independent cytokinesis. Moreover, the lethality of Klcyk3 null mutants suggests that there are fewer functional redundancies with KlHof1 in K. lactis.

Stepwise and cooperative assembly of a cytokinetic core complex in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Actomyosin ring (AMR) contraction and the synthesis of an extracellular septum are interdependent pathways that mediate cytokinesis in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other eukaryotes. How these interdependent pathways are physically connected is central for understanding cytokinesis. The yeast IQGAP (Iqg1p) belongs to the conserved AMR. The F-BAR-domain-containing protein Hof1p is a member of a complex that stimulates cell wall synthesis. We report here on the stepwise formation of a physical connection between both proteins. The C-terminal IQ-repeats of Iqg1p first bind to the essential myosin light chain before both proteins assemble with Hof1p into the Mlc1p-Iqg1p-Hof1p (MIH) bridge. Mutations in Iqg1p that disrupt the MIH complex alter Hof1p targeting to the AMR and impair AMR contraction. Epistasis analyses of two IQG1 alleles that are incompatible with formation of the MIH complex support the existence and functional significance of a large cytokinetic core complex. We propose that the MIH complex acts as hinge between the AMR and the proteins involved in cell wall synthesis and membrane attachment.

The budding yeast amphiphysin complex is required for contractile actin ring (CAR) assembly and post-contraction GEF-independent accumulation of Rho1-GTP

The late events of the budding yeast cell division cycle, cytokinesis and cell separation, require the assembly of a contractile actomyosin ring (CAR), primary and secondary septum formation followed by enzymatic degradation of the primary septum. Here we present evidence that demonstrates a role for the budding yeast amphiphysin complex, a heterodimer comprising Rvs167 and Rvs161, in CAR assembly and cell separation. The iqg1-1 allele is synthetically lethal with both rvs167 and rvs161 null mutations. We show that both Iqg1 and the amphiphysin complex are required for CAR assembly in early anaphase but cells are able to complete assembly in late anaphase when these activities are, respectively, either compromised or absent. Amphiphysin dependent CAR assembly is dependent upon the Rvs167 SH3 domain, but this function is insufficient to explain the observed synthetic lethality. Dosage suppression of the iqg1-1 allele demonstrates that endocytosis is required for the default cell separation pathway in the absence of CAR contraction but is unlikely to be required to maintain viability. The amphiphysin complex is required for normal, post-mitotic, localization of Chs3 and the Rho1 GEF, Rom2, which are responsible for secondary septum deposition and the accumulation of GTP bound Rho1 at the bud neck. It is concluded that a failure of polarity establishment in the absence of CAR contraction and amphiphysin function leads to loss of viability as a result of the consequent cell separation defect.

Vhs2 is a novel regulator of septin dynamics in budding yeast

In budding yeast, septins are assembled into structures that undergo dramatic changes during the cell cycle. The molecular mechanisms that drive these remodelings are not fully uncovered. In this study, we describe a characterization of Vhs2, a nonessential protein that revealed to be a new player in septin dynamics. In particular, we report that Vhs2 is important to maintain the stability of the double septin ring structure until telophase. In addition, we show that Vhs2 undergoes multiple phosphorylations during the cell cycle, being phosphorylated during S phase until nuclear division and dephosphorylated just before cell division. Importantly we report that cyclin-dependent protein kinase Cdk1 and protein phosphatase Cdc14 control these Vhs2 post-translational modifications. These results reveal that Vhs2 is a novel Cdc14 substrate that is involved in the control of septin organization.

Cdk1-dependent phosphorylation of Iqg1 governs actomyosin ring assembly prior to cytokinesis

Contraction of the actomyosin ring (AMR) provides the centripetal force that drives cytokinesis. In budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), assembly and contraction of the AMR is coordinated with membrane deposition and septum formation at the bud neck. A central player in this process is Iqg1, which promotes recruitment of actin to the myosin ring and links AMR assembly with that of septum-forming components. We observed early actin recruitment in response to inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) activity, and we find that the Cdk1-dependent phosphorylation state of Iqg1 is a determining factor in the timing of bud neck localization of both Iqg1 and actin, with both proteins accumulating prematurely in cells expressing nonphosphorylatable Iqg1 mutants. We also identified the primary septum regulator Hof1 as a binding partner of Iqg1, providing a regulatory link between the septation and contractile pathways that cooperate to complete cytokinesis.

Dual Regulation of the mitotic exit network (MEN) by PP2A-Cdc55 phosphatase

Exit from mitosis in budding yeast is triggered by activation of the key mitotic phosphatase Cdc14. At anaphase onset, the protease separase and Zds1 promote the downregulation of PP2A^Cdc55 phosphatase, which facilitates Cdk1-dependent phosphorylation of Net1 and provides the first wave of Cdc14 activity. Once Cdk1 activity starts to decline, the mitotic exit network (MEN) is activated to achieve full Cdc14 activation. Here we describe how the PP2A^Cdc55 phosphatase could act as a functional link between FEAR and MEN due to its action on Bfa1 and Mob1. We demonstrate that PP2A^Cdc55 regulates MEN activation by facilitating Cdc5- and Cdk1-dependent phosphorylation of Bfa1 and Mob1, respectively. Downregulation of PP2A^Cdc55 initiates MEN activity up to Cdc15 by Bfa1 inactivation. Surprisingly, the premature Bfa1 inactivation observed does not entail premature MEN activation, since an additional Cdk1-Clb2 inhibitory signal acting towards Dbf2-Mob1 activity restrains MEN activity until anaphase. In conclusion, we propose a clear picture of how PP2A^Cdc55 functions affect the regulation of various MEN components, contributing to mitotic exit.

Cell cycle studies over the years have tried to elucidate the molecular mechanisms behind cell division, one of the most highly regulated of all cell processes, which ensures life in all organisms. Protein phosphorylation emerged as a key regulatory mechanism in the cell cycle. The highly conserved family of cyclin-dependent kinases, the Cdks, are considered the main component of the cell cycle control system. However, it has become clear that opposing phosphatases also play a key role in determining the phosphorylation state of the proteins. Cells enter mitosis when mitotic Cdk activity increases, having its pick of activity during metaphase. To exit mitosis, cells must coordinate chromosome segregation with Cdk inactivation processes involving the activation of protein phosphatases. Here we show that the phosphatase PP2A regulates the mitotic exit network (MEN) by counteracting the phosphorylation of Bfa1 and Mob1. Our findings provide new insights into the mechanism by which PP2A-Cdc55 functions affect the regulation of various MEN components that contribute to mitotic exit. The core signalling elements of the MEN, SIN and Hippo pathways are highly conserved. Therefore, studies of MEN regulation will contribute to our understanding of MEN-related pathways in other organisms.

Inhibition of Cdc42 during mitotic exit is required for cytokinesis

A decrease in Cdc42 activation during mitotic exit is necessary to allow localization of key cytokinesis regulators and proper septum formation.

The role of Cdc42 and its regulation during cytokinesis is not well understood. Using biochemical and imaging approaches in budding yeast, we demonstrate that Cdc42 activation peaks during the G₁/S transition and during anaphase but drops during mitotic exit and cytokinesis. Cdc5/Polo kinase is an important upstream cell cycle regulator that suppresses Cdc42 activity. Failure to down-regulate Cdc42 during mitotic exit impairs the normal localization of key cytokinesis regulators—Iqg1 and Inn1—at the division site, and results in an abnormal septum. The effects of Cdc42 hyperactivation are largely mediated by the Cdc42 effector p21-activated kinase Ste20. Inhibition of Cdc42 and related Rho guanosine triphosphatases may be a general feature of cytokinesis in eukaryotes.

Lre1 directly inhibits the NDR/Lats kinase Cbk1 at the cell division site in a phosphorylation-dependent manner

BACKGROUND

The nuclear Dbf2 related (NDR) family of protein kinases play important roles in cell-cycle regulation, apoptosis, cell morphogenesis, and development in a variety of organisms. In budding yeast, the NDR kinase complex composed of Cbk1 and its regulatory subunit, Mob2, have an established role in the control of cell separation/abscission that follows cytokinesis. Whereas the activators of Cbk1-Mob2 have been more extensively described, the mechanisms that restrict or inhibit Cbk1-Mob2 catalytic activity remain largely unknown.

RESULTS

We identified the protein Lre1 as a direct inhibitor of Cbk1-Mob2 catalytic activity. We show that Lre1 accumulates at the cell division site in late anaphase and associates with both Mob2 and Cbk1 in vivo and in vitro. Biochemical and functional analysis established that the ability of Lre1 to associate with Cbk1-Mob2 was reduced by mitotic Cdk1 activity and promoted by Cdc14 phosphatase at the end of mitosis. The inhibition of Cbk1-Mob2 by Lre1 was critical to promote the survival of cells lacking the actomyosin driven pathway of cytokinesis.

CONCLUSIONS

We established Lre1 as a direct inhibitor of the NDR kinase Cbk1-Mob2, which is regulated in a cell-cycle-dependent manner. We propose that similar inhibitory proteins may also provide fine tuning for the activity of NDR kinases in other organisms.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Dma proteins participate in cytokinesis by controlling two different pathways

Cytokinesis completion in the budding yeast S. cerevisiae is driven by tightly regulated pathways, leading to actomyosin ring contraction coupled to plasma membrane constriction and to centripetal growth of the primary septum, respectively. These pathways can partially substitute for each other, but their concomitant inactivation leads to cytokinesis block and cell death. Here we show that both the lack of the functionally redundant FHA-RING ubiquitin ligases Dma1 and Dma2 and moderate Dma2 overproduction affect actomyosin ring contraction as well as primary septum deposition, although they do not apparently alter cell cycle progression of otherwise wild-type cells. In addition, overproduction of Dma2 impairs the interaction between Tem1 and Iqg1, which is thought to be required for AMR contraction, and causes asymmetric primary septum deposition as well as mislocalization of the Cyk3-positive regulator of this process. In agreement with these multiple inhibitory effects, a Dma2 excess that does not cause any apparent defect in wild-type cells leads to lethal cytokinesis block in cells lacking the Hof1 protein, which is essential for primary septum formation in the absence of Cyk3. Altogether, these findings suggest that the Dma proteins act as negative regulators of cytokinesis.

Distinct roles of Rho1, Cdc42, and Cyk3 in septum formation and abscission during yeast cytokinesis

In yeast and animal cytokinesis, the small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) Rho1/RhoA has an established role in formation of the contractile actomyosin ring, but its role, if any, during cleavage-furrow ingression and abscission is poorly understood. Through genetic screens in yeast, we found that either activation of Rho1 or inactivation of another small GTPase, Cdc42, promoted secondary septum (SS) formation, which appeared to be responsible for abscission. Consistent with this hypothesis, a dominant-negative Rho1 inhibited SS formation but not cleavage-furrow ingression or the concomitant actomyosin ring constriction. Moreover, Rho1 is temporarily inactivated during cleavage-furrow ingression; this inactivation requires the protein Cyk3, which binds Rho1-guanosine diphosphate via its catalytically inactive transglutaminase-like domain. Thus, unlike the active transglutaminases that activate RhoA, the multidomain protein Cyk3 appears to inhibit activation of Rho1 (and thus SS formation), while simultaneously promoting cleavage-furrow ingression through primary septum formation. This work suggests a general role for the catalytically inactive transglutaminases of fungi and animals, some of which have previously been implicated in cytokinesis.

Mitotic exit and separation of mother and daughter cells

Productive cell proliferation involves efficient and accurate splitting of the dividing cell into two separate entities. This orderly process reflects coordination of diverse cytological events by regulatory systems that drive the cell from mitosis into G1. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, separation of mother and daughter cells involves coordinated actomyosin ring contraction and septum synthesis, followed by septum destruction. These events occur in precise and rapid sequence once chromosomes are segregated and are linked with spindle organization and mitotic progress by intricate cell cycle control machinery. Additionally, critical paarts of the mother/daughter separation process are asymmetric, reflecting a form of fate specification that occurs in every cell division. This chapter describes central events of budding yeast cell separation, as well as the control pathways that integrate them and link them with the cell cycle.

Cell wall stress induces alternative fungal cytokinesis and septation strategies

In fungi, as with all walled organisms, cytokinesis followed by septation marks the end of the cell cycle and is essential for cell division and viability. For yeasts, the septal cross-wall comprises a ring and primary septal plate composed of chitin, and a secondary septum thickened with β(1,3)-glucan. In the human pathogen Candida albicans, chitin synthase enzyme Chs1 builds the primary septum that is surrounded by a chitin ring made by Chs3. Here we show that the lethal phenotype induced by repression of CHS1 was abrogated by stress-induced synthesis of alternative and novel septal types synthesized by other chitin synthase enzymes that have never before been implicated in septation. Chs2 and Chs8 formed a functional salvage septum, even in the absence of both Chs1 and Chs3. A second type of salvage septum formed by Chs2 in combination with Chs3 or Chs8 was proximally offset in the mother-bud neck. Chs3 alone or in combination with Chs8 formed a greatly thickened third type of salvage septum. Therefore, cell wall stress induced alternative forms of septation that rescued cell division in the absence of Chs1, demonstrating that fungi have previously unsuspected redundant strategies to enable septation and cell division to be maintained, even under potentially lethal environmental conditions.

Phosphorylation of Chs2p regulates interaction with COPII

Trafficking of the chitin synthase Chs2p from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the bud-neck in late mitosis is tightly regulated by the cell cycle via phosphorylation of serine residues in the N-terminus of the protein. Here, we describe the effects of Chs2p phosphorylation on the interaction with coat protein complex II (COPII). Identification of a cdc5(ts) mutant, which fails to transport Chs2p-3xGFP to the bud-neck and instead accumulates the protein in intracellular puncta, led us to discover that Chs2p-3xGFP accumulates at ER exit sites in metaphase-arrested wild-type cells. Using an in vitro ER vesicle formation assay we showed that phosphorylation of Chs2p by the cyclin-dependent kinase CDK1 prevents packaging into COPII vesicles, whereas dephosphorylation of Chs2p by the phosphatase Cdc14p stimulates selection into the vesicles. We found that the cytoplasmic N-terminal domain of Chs2p, which contains the CDK1 phosphorylation sites, interacts with the COPII component Sec24p in a yeast two-hybrid assay and that phosphomimetic substitutions of serines at the CDK1 consensus sites reduces the interaction. Our data suggest that dephosphorylation functions as a molecular switch for regulated ER exit of Chs2p.

Targeting and functional mechanisms of the cytokinesis-related F-BAR protein Hof1 during the cell cycle

Hof1 targets to the division site by interacting with septins and myosin II sequentially during the cell cycle. It plays a role in cytokinesis by coupling actomyosin ring constriction to primary septum formation through interactions with Myo1 and Chs2.

F-BAR proteins are membrane‑associated proteins believed to link the plasma membrane to the actin cytoskeleton in cellular processes such as cytokinesis and endocytosis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the F‑BAR protein Hof1 localizes to the division site in a complex pattern during the cell cycle and plays an important role in cytokinesis. However, the mechanisms underlying its localization and function are poorly understood. Here we show that Hof1 contains three distinct targeting domains that contribute to cytokinesis differentially. The N‑terminal half of Hof1 localizes to the bud neck and the sites of polarized growth during the cell cycle. The neck localization is mediated mainly by an interaction between the second coiled‑coil region in the N‑terminus and the septin Cdc10, whereas the localization to the sites of polarized growth is mediated entirely by the F‑BAR domain. In contrast, the C‑terminal half of Hof1 interacts with Myo1, the sole myosin‑II heavy chain in budding yeast, and localizes to the bud neck in a Myo1‑dependent manner from the onset to the completion of cytokinesis. We also show that the SH3 domain in the C‑terminus plays an important role in maintaining the symmetry of Myo1 ring constriction during cytokinesis and that Hof1 interacts with Chs2, a chitin synthase that is required for primary septum formation. Together these data define a mechanism that accounts for the localization of Hof1 during the cell cycle and suggest that Hof1 may function in cytokinesis by coupling actomyosin ring constriction to primary septum formation through interactions with Myo1 and Chs2.

Dual function of the NDR-kinase Dbf2 in the regulation of the F-BAR protein Hof1 during cytokinesis

The conserved NDR-kinase Dbf2 plays a critical role in cytokinesis in budding yeast. Among its cytokinesis-related substrates is the F-BAR protein Hof1. Hof1 colocalizes at the cell division site with the septin complex and, as mitotic exit progresses, moves to the actomyosin ring (AMR). Neither the function of Hof1 at the septin complex nor the mechanism by which Hof1 supports AMR constriction is understood. Here we establish that Dbf2 has a dual function in Hof1 regulation. First, we show that the coiled-coil region, which is adjacent to the conserved F-BAR domain, is required for the binding of Hof1 to septins. The Dbf2-dependent phosphorylation of Hof1 at a single serine residue (serine 313) in this region diminishes the recruitment of Hof1 to septins both in vitro and in vivo. Genetic and functional analysis indicates that the binding of Hof1 to septins is important for septin rearrangement and integrity during cytokinesis. Furthermore, Dbf2 phosphorylation of Hof1 at serines 533 and 563 promotes AMR constriction most likely by inhibiting the SH3-domain-dependent interactions of Hof1. Thus our data show that Dbf2 coordinates septin and AMR functions during cytokinesis through the regulation/control of Hof1.

A safeguard mechanism regulates Rho GTPases to coordinate cytokinesis with the establishment of cell polarity

Gps1 provides a novel molecular polarity cue at the cell division site that guides Rho1- and Cdc42-dependent polarization during and after cytokinesis in budding yeast.

The spatiotemporal control of cell polarity is crucial for the development of multicellular organisms and for reliable polarity switches during cell cycle progression in unicellular systems. A tight control of cell polarity is especially important in haploid budding yeast, where the new polarity site (bud site) is established next to the cell division site after cell separation. How cells coordinate the temporal establishment of two adjacent polarity sites remains elusive. Here, we report that the bud neck associated protein Gps1 (GTPase-mediated polarity switch 1) establishes a novel polarity cue that concomitantly sustains Rho1-dependent polarization and inhibits premature Cdc42 activation at the site of cytokinesis. Failure of Gps1 regulation leads to daughter cell death due to rebudding inside the old bud site. Our findings provide unexpected insights into the temporal control of cytokinesis and describe the importance of a Gps1-dependent mechanism for highly accurate polarity switching between two closely connected locations.

In budding yeast, cell polarization (or the asymmetric distribution of subcellular components) ensures the targeted transport of proteins and membrane material to the sites of cell growth or cell division in late mitosis. Two conserved members of the Rho-GTPase family, Rho1 and Cdc42, are master regulators of cell polarity. While Rho1 has a well-established role in cytokinesis and cell separation, Cdc42 helps to establish the new polarity site from which the future daughter cell will grow after cytokinesis. Interestingly, despite the fact that Cdc42 is recruited to the site of cell division at the same time as Rho1, the new daughter cell never emerges from the site previously used for cytokinesis during the preceding cell cycle, and it remains elusive how cells coordinate the distinct functions of Rho1 and Cdc42 during cytokinesis. Here, we show that the novel protein Gps1 marks the cell division site, where it maintains Rho1-dependent polarity until cell separation is completed. We also demonstrate that Gps1 prevents activation of Cdc42 at the site of cell division during cytokinesis. We propose that Gps1 provides a novel polarity cue that guides the establishment of a new polarity site, away from the old site of cell division, where the new daughter cell then emerges.

The NADPH oxidase complexes in Botrytis cinerea: evidence for a close association with the ER and the tetraspanin Pls1

NADPH oxidases (Nox) are major enzymatic systems that generate reactive-oxygen species (ROS) in multicellular eukaryotes. In several fungi they have been shown to be involved in sexual differentiation and pathogenicity. However, in contrast to the well characterized mammalian systems, basic information on the composition, recruitment, and localization of fungal Nox complexes and on the molecular mechanisms of their cellular effects are still lacking. Here we give a detailed analysis of components of the Nox complexes in the gray mold fungus Botrytis cinerea. It had previously been shown that the two catalytic transmembrane subunits BcNoxA and B are important for development of sclerotia and for full virulence, with BcNoxA being involved in spreading of lesions and BcNoxB in penetration; BcNoxR functions as a regulator of both subunits. Here we present evidence (using for the first time a functional GFP fusion able to complement the ΔbcnoxA mutant) that BcNoxA localizes mainly to the ER and at the plasma membrane; BcNoxB shows a similar localization pattern, while the regulator BcNoxR is found in vesicles throughout the hyphae and at the hyphal tip. To identify possible interaction partners, which could be involved in the localization or recruitment of the Nox complexes, we functionally characterized the tetraspanin Pls1, a transmembrane protein, which had been suggested to be a NoxB-interacting partner in the saprophyte Podospora anserina. Knock-out experiments and GFP fusions substantiate a link between BcNoxB and BcPls1 because both deletion mutants have overlapping phenotypes (especially a defect in penetration), and the proteins show a similar localization pattern (ER). However, in contrast to the corresponding protein in P. anserina BcPls1 is important for female fertility, but not for ascospore germination.