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Huang J, Yang Y, Zhao F, Zhang Z, Deng J, Lu W, Jiang X. LncRNA SATB2-AS1 overexpression represses the development of hepatocellular carcinoma through regulating the miR-3678-3p/GRIM-19 axis. Cancer Cell Int 2023; 23:82. [PMID: 37118800 PMCID: PMC10148439 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-023-02901-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignancy worldwide with one of the worst prognoses. Emerging studies have revealed that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) contribute to HCC progression. This research probes the expression and regulatory effect of lncRNA SATB2-AS1 on HCC development. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was applied to measure the SATB2-AS1 profile in HCC tissues and adjacent non-tumor tissues. The impact of SATB2-AS1, miR-3678-3p, or GRIM-19 on HCC cell proliferation, growth, migration, invasion, and apoptosis was determined by gain- and loss-of-function experiments. The results revealed that SATB2-AS1 was downregulated in HCC tissues, and its lower levels were related to higher tumor staging and poorer prognosis of HCC patients. SATB2-AS1 overexpression repressed HCC cell proliferation, induced G1 arrest, and apoptosis, and inhibited migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Mechanistically, SATB2-AS1 inactivated STAT3/HIF-1α and strengthened GRIM-19 expression. After knocking down GRIM-19 with small interfering RNA (siRNA), the malignant phenotypes of HCC cells were enhanced. Further bioinformatics analysis showed that miR-3678-3p was targeted by SATB2-AS1. The dual-luciferase reporter assay, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) experiment, and Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) test confirmed that SATB2-AS1 sponged miR-3678-3p and the latter targeted GRIM-19. The rescue experiments showed that miR-3678-3p aggravated the malignant behaviors of HCC cells, whereas SATB2-AS1 overexpression reversed miR-3678-3p-mediated effects. Inhibition STAT3 promoted SATB2-AS1 and GRIM-19 expression, and reduced miR-3678-3p level. Activation STAT3 exerted opposite effects. Overall, this study confirmed that SATB2-AS1 is a potential prognostic biomarker for HCC and regulates HCC devolvement by regulating the miR-3678-3p/GRIM-19/STAT3/HIF-1α pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Huang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Yunfang Yang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Fulan Zhao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhuo Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Jian Deng
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Wei Lu
- Department of Emergency, Luzhou People's Hospital, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China
| | - Xian Jiang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Luzhou People's Hospital, No. 316, Jiugu Avenue 2, Jiangyang District, Luzhou, 646000, Sichuan, China.
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Liu H, Xie S, Fang F, Kalvakolanu DV, Xiao W. SHQ1 is an ER stress response gene that facilitates chemotherapeutics-induced apoptosis via sensitizing ER-stress response. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:445. [PMID: 32522979 PMCID: PMC7286909 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2656-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
SHQ1 was reported to control the biogenesis and assembly of H/ACA ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs). It was independently isolated as a growth suppressor, GRIM1, in a genetic screen. Recent studies have indicated that SHQ1 inhibits prostate cancer growth and metastasis. SHQ1 facilitates MYC RNA splicing to promote T-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) development. Thus, the mechanisms of SHQ1 in cancers remain largely unknown. We report here that SHQ1 promotes tumor apoptosis and chemo-sensitivity in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. In HCC tissues from patients, expression of SHQ1 was significantly decreased in the tumor compared to adjacent tissues. Experiments with HCC xenograft models revealed that restoring SHQ1 levels enhanced the anti-tumor activity of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress inducer tunicamycin (TM) and common chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (PTX). Mechanistically, SHQ1 is an ER-stress response gene which is regulated by p50ATF6 and XBP1s through an ER stress response like element located on the SHQ1 promoter. SHQ1 interacts with the ER chaperone GRP78 to release ER sensors PERK/IRE1α/ATF6 from GRP78/ER-sensor complexes, leading to hyper-activation of unfolded protein response (UPR). In the persistent ER stress conditions of a HepG2 xenograft tumor model, SHQ1-mediated hyper-activation of ER-sensor signaling induces apoptosis. Our study thus demonstrates a SHQ1-mediated ER-stress response feedback loop that promotes tumor sensitivity to chemotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Liu
- Department of Oncology of the First Affiliated Hospital, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Institute of Immunology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs Anhui, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China
| | - Siqi Xie
- Department of Oncology of the First Affiliated Hospital, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China.,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Institute of Immunology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.,Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs Anhui, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China
| | - Fang Fang
- Department of Oncology of the First Affiliated Hospital, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China. .,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Institute of Immunology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs Anhui, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China.
| | - Dhananjaya V Kalvakolanu
- Department of Microbiology and Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
| | - Weihua Xiao
- Department of Oncology of the First Affiliated Hospital, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China. .,Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Institute of Immunology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China. .,Engineering Technology Research Center of Biotechnology Drugs Anhui, University of Science and Technology of China, 230027, Anhui, Hefei, China.
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3
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Nallar SC, Kalvakolanu DV. GRIM-19: A master regulator of cytokine induced tumor suppression, metastasis and energy metabolism. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2016; 33:1-18. [PMID: 27659873 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines induce cell proliferation or growth suppression depending on the context. It is increasingly becoming clear that success of standard radiotherapy and/or chemotherapeutics to eradicate solid tumors is dependent on IFN signaling. In this review we discuss the molecular mechanisms of tumor growth suppression by a gene product isolated in our laboratory using a genome-wide expression knock-down strategy. Gene associated with retinoid-IFN-induced mortality -19 (GRIM-19) functions as non-canonical tumor suppressor by antagonizing oncoproteins. As a component of mitochondrial respiratory chain, GRIM-19 influences the degree of "Warburg effect" in cancer cells as many advanced and/or aggressive tumors show severely down-regulated GRIM-19 levels. In addition, GRIM-19 appears to regulate innate and acquired immune responses in mouse models. Thus, GRIM-19 is positioned at nodes that favor cell protection and/or prevent aberrant cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreeram C Nallar
- Department of Microbiology and Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Dhan V Kalvakolanu
- Department of Microbiology and Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Nallar SC, Kalvakolanu DV. Interferons, signal transduction pathways, and the central nervous system. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2015; 34:559-76. [PMID: 25084173 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2014.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interferon (IFN) family of cytokines participates in the development of innate and acquired immune defenses against various pathogens and pathogenic stimuli. Discovered originally as a proteinaceous substance secreted from virus-infected cells that afforded immunity to neighboring cells from virus infection, these cytokines are now implicated in various human pathologies, including control of tumor development, cell differentiation, and autoimmunity. It is now believed that the IFN system (IFN genes and the genes induced by them, and the factors that regulate these processes) is a generalized alarm of cellular stress, including DNA damage. IFNs exert both beneficial and deleterious effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Our knowledge of the IFN-regulated processes in the CNS is far from being clear. In this article, we reviewed the current understanding of IFN signal transduction pathways and gene products that might have potential relevance to diseases of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreeram C Nallar
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Program in Oncology, Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
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Wu HM, Jiang ZF, Fan XY, Wang T, Ke-Xu, Yan XB, Ma Y, Xiao WH, Liu RY. Reversed expression of GRIM-1 and GRP78 in human non-small cell lung cancer. Hum Pathol 2014; 45:1936-43. [PMID: 25081541 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2014.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Gene associated with retinoid and interferon-induced mortality 1 (GRIM-1) acts as a tumor growth suppressor via apoptosis induction. However, GRIM-1 expression in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and its potential interaction with another apoptosis-associated protein-glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78)-are as yet unknown. Using 40 surgical specimens, we showed significantly lower expression of GRIM-1 in NSCLC at both protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels compared with that in normal tissues (P < .01 and P < .001, respectively). Interestingly, these tumors tended to express higher basal amounts of GRP78 protein and mRNA (P < .05 and P < .001, respectively). Similarly, in the NSCLC tissues, weaker staining for GRIM-1 (main intensity + to ++) but stronger staining for GRP78 (main intensity +++ to ++++) was observed. Correlation analysis showed that protein and mRNA expression or the percentage of cells immunoreactive for GRIM-1 was negatively correlated with that of GRP78 (r = -0.279, r = -0.326, or r = -0.571, respectively). Coimmunoprecipitation and transient transfection revealed that GRIM-1 interacted with GRP78 and suppressed GRP78 protein expression. In addition, there was no correlation between GRIM-1 expression and clinical characteristics, whereas GRP78 expression was significantly correlated with tumor-nodes-metastasis (TNM) stage (stage 3 + 4 versus stage 1 + 2). In conclusion, the expression of GRIM-1 and GRP78 was negatively correlated in human NSCLC tissues, and the down-regulation of GRP78 by GRIM-1 provides a possible mechanism for their interaction. This study suggests a novel potential molecular pathway inactivated during the development of NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Mei Wu
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China
| | - Zi-Feng Jiang
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China
| | - Xiao-Yun Fan
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China
| | - Tong Wang
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China
| | - Ke-Xu
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China
| | - Xue-Bo Yan
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China
| | - Yang Ma
- School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, Anhui, PR China
| | - Wei-Hua Xiao
- School of Life Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, Anhui, PR China
| | - Rong-Yu Liu
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Anhui Geriatric Institute, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230022, Anhui, PR China.
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Acute dyskerin depletion triggers cellular senescence and renders osteosarcoma cells resistant to genotoxic stress-induced apoptosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 446:1268-75. [PMID: 24690175 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.03.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Dyskerin is a conserved, nucleolar RNA-binding protein implicated in an increasing array of fundamental cellular processes. Germline mutation in the dyskerin gene (DKC1) is the cause of X-linked dyskeratosis congenita (DC). Conversely, wild-type dyskerin is overexpressed in sporadic cancers, and high-levels may be associated with poor prognosis. It was previously reported that acute loss of dyskerin function via siRNA-mediated depletion slowed the proliferation of transformed cell lines. However, the mechanisms remained unclear. Using human U2OS osteosarcoma cells, we show that siRNA-mediated dyskerin depletion induced cellular senescence as evidenced by proliferative arrest, senescence-associated heterochromatinization and a senescence-associated molecular profile. Senescence can render cells resistant to apoptosis. Conversely, chromatin relaxation can reverse the repressive effects of senescence-associated heterochromatinization on apoptosis. To this end, genotoxic stress-induced apoptosis was suppressed in dyskerin-depleted cells. In contrast, agents that induce chromatin relaxation, including histone deacetylase inhibitors and the DNA intercalator chloroquine, sensitized dyskerin-depleted cells to apoptosis. Dyskerin is a core component of the telomerase complex and plays an important role in telomere homeostasis. Defective telomere maintenance resulting in premature senescence is thought to primarily underlie the pathogenesis of X-linked DC. Since U2OS cells are telomerase-negative, this leads us to conclude that loss of dyskerin function can also induce cellular senescence via mechanisms independent of telomere shortening.
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Yu YT, Meier UT. RNA-guided isomerization of uridine to pseudouridine--pseudouridylation. RNA Biol 2014; 11:1483-94. [PMID: 25590339 PMCID: PMC4615163 DOI: 10.4161/15476286.2014.972855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Box H/ACA ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), each consisting of one unique guide RNA and 4 common core proteins, constitute a family of complex enzymes that catalyze, in an RNA-guided manner, the isomerization of uridines to pseudouridines (Ψs) in RNAs, a reaction known as pseudouridylation. Over the years, box H/ACA RNPs have been extensively studied revealing many important aspects of these RNA modifying machines. In this review, we focus on the composition, structure, and biogenesis of H/ACA RNPs. We explain the mechanism of how this enzyme family recognizes and specifies its target uridine in a substrate RNA. We discuss the substrates of box H/ACA RNPs, focusing on rRNA (rRNA) and spliceosomal small nuclear RNA (snRNA). We describe the modification product Ψ and its contribution to RNA function. Finally, we consider possible mechanisms of the bone marrow failure syndrome dyskeratosis congenita and of prostate and other cancers linked to mutations in H/ACA RNPs.
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Key Words
- DC, dyskeratosis congenita
- H/ACA
- HH, hoyeraal-hreidarsson syndrome
- PIKK, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase
- PUA, pseudouridylase and archaeosine transglycosylase
- RNA modification
- RNA-guided
- RNP, ribonucleoprotein
- SMN, survival of motor neuron protein
- SSD, SHQ1 specific domain
- U, uridine
- X-DC, X-linked dyskeratosis congenita
- dyskeratosis congenita
- prostate cancer
- pseudouridine
- rRNA
- rRNA, ribosomal RNA
- ribonucleoproteins
- sca, small Cajal body
- snRNA, small nuclear RNA
- sno, small nucleolar
- snoRNA
- snoRNA, small nucleolar RNA
- spliceosomal small nuclear RNA
- tRNA, transfer RNA
- ψ, pseudouridine, 5-ribosyluracil
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MESH Headings
- Dyskeratosis Congenita/genetics
- Dyskeratosis Congenita/metabolism
- Dyskeratosis Congenita/pathology
- Humans
- Isomerism
- Male
- Mutation
- Nucleic Acid Conformation
- Prostatic Neoplasms/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Prostatic Neoplasms/pathology
- Pseudouridine/metabolism
- RNA Processing, Post-Transcriptional
- RNA, Ribosomal/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal/metabolism
- RNA, Small Nuclear/genetics
- RNA, Small Nuclear/metabolism
- RNA, Transfer, Amino Acid-Specific/genetics
- RNA, Transfer, Amino Acid-Specific/metabolism
- Ribonucleoproteins, Small Nuclear/genetics
- Ribonucleoproteins, Small Nuclear/metabolism
- Uridine/metabolism
- RNA, Guide, CRISPR-Cas Systems
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Tao Yu
- University of Rochester Medical Center; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Center for RNA Biology; Rochester, NY USA
| | - U Thomas Meier
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology; Bronx, NY USA
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Nallar SC, Kalvakolanu DV. Regulation of snoRNAs in cancer: close encounters with interferon. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2013; 33:189-98. [PMID: 23570385 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2012.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The interferon (IFN) family of cytokines regulates many cellular processes, such as transcription, translation, post-translational modifications, and protein degradation. IFNs induce growth inhibition and/or cell death, depending on the cell type, by employing different proteins. This review describes a novel growth-suppressive pathway employed by IFNs that affects rRNA levels. Maturation of rRNA involves numerous noncoding small regulatory RNA-guided processes. These regulatory RNAs, called small nucleolar RNA (snoRNAs), function as a ribonucleoprotein particle (RNP) in the nucleolus. The biogenesis of snoRNPs is dependent on core protein and assembly factors. Our laboratory recently isolated a growth-suppressive protein gene associated with retinoid-IFN-induced mortality (GRIM)-1 using a genetic screen. IFN-inducible GRIM-1 (SHQ1) is an assembly factor that controls one arm of the snoRNP machinery. GRIM-1 inhibits sno/scaRNP formation to induce growth suppression via reduction in mature rRNA levels. Loss of GRIM-1 observed in certain cancers implicates it to be a novel tumor suppressor. Certain snoRNAs have been reported to act as either oncogenes or tumor suppressors in vitro. Recent studies have shown that certain sno/scaRNAs are further processed into micro RNA-like molecules to control translation of protein-coding RNAs. We present a model as to how these small regulatory RNAs influence cell growth and a potential role for GRIM-1 in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreeram C Nallar
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine , Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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GRIM-1, a novel growth suppressor, inhibits rRNA maturation by suppressing small nucleolar RNAs. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24082. [PMID: 21931644 PMCID: PMC3169572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
We have recently isolated novel IFN-inducible gene, Gene associated with Retinoid-Interferon-induced Mortality-1 (GRIM-1), using a genetic technique. Moderate ectopic expression of GRIM-1 caused growth inhibition and sensitized cells to retinoic acid (RA)/IFN-induced cell death while high expression caused apoptosis. GRIM-1 depletion, using RNAi, conferred a growth advantage. Three protein isoforms (1α, 1β and 1γ) with identical C-termini are produced from GRIM-1 mRNA. We show that GRIM-1 isoforms interact with NAF1 and DKC1, two essential proteins required for box H/ACA sno/sca RNP biogenesis and suppresses box H/ACA RNA levels in mammalian cells by delocalizing NAF1. Suppression of these small RNAs manifests as inefficient rRNA maturation and growth suppression. Interestingly, yeast Shq1p also caused growth suppression in mammalian cells. Consistent with its growth-suppressive property, GRIM-1 expression is lost in a number of human primary prostate tumors. Our observations support a recent study that GRIM-1 might act as a co-tumor suppressor in the prostate.
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