Nuclear proteostasis imbalance in laminopathy-associated premature aging diseases

Laminopathies are a group of rare genetic disorders with heterogeneous clinical phenotypes such as premature aging, cardiomyopathy, lipodystrophy, muscular dystrophy, microcephaly, epilepsy, and so on. The cellular phenomena associated with laminopathy invariably show disruption of nucleoskeleton of lamina due to deregulated expression, localization, function, and interaction of mutant lamin proteins. Impaired spatial and temporal tethering of lamin proteins to the lamina or nucleoplasmic aggregation of lamins are the primary molecular events that can trigger nuclear proteotoxicity by modulating differential protein-protein interactions, sequestering quality control proteins, and initiating a cascade of abnormal post-translational modifications. Clearly, laminopathic cells exhibit moderate to high nuclear proteotoxicity, raising the question of whether an imbalance in nuclear proteostasis is involved in laminopathic diseases, particularly in diseases of early aging such as HGPS and laminopathy-associated premature aging. Here, we review nuclear proteostasis and its deregulation in the context of lamin proteins and laminopathies.

Nucleoplasmic lamin C rapidly accumulates at sites of nuclear envelope rupture with BAF and cGAS

In mammalian cell nuclei, the nuclear lamina (NL) underlies the nuclear envelope (NE) to maintain nuclear structure. The nuclear lamins, the major structural components of the NL, are involved in the protection against NE rupture induced by mechanical stress. However, the specific role of the lamins in repair of NE ruptures has not been fully determined. Our analyses using immunofluorescence and live-cell imaging revealed that the nucleoplasmic pool of lamin C rapidly accumulated at sites of NE rupture induced by laser microirradiation in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. The accumulation of lamin C at the rupture sites required both the immunoglobulin-like fold domain that binds to barrier-to-autointegration factor (BAF) and a nuclear localization signal. The accumulation of nuclear BAF and cytoplasmic cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) at the rupture sites was in part dependent on lamin A/C. These results suggest that nucleoplasmic lamin C, BAF, and cGAS concertedly accumulate at sites of NE rupture for rapid repair.

Phosphorylation of Lamin A/C at serine 22 modulates Nav 1.5 function

Variants in the LMNA gene, which encodes for Lamin A/C, are associated with cardiac conduction disease (CCD). We previously reported that Lamin A/C variants p.R545H and p.A287Lfs*193, which were identified in CCD patients, decreased peak INa in HEK-293 cells expressing Nav 1.5. Decreased peak INa in the cardiac conduction system could account for patients' atrioventricular block. We found that serine 22 (Ser 22) phosphorylation of Lamin A/C was decreased in the p.R545H variant and hypothesized that lamin phosphorylation modulated Nav 1.5 activity. To test this hypothesis, we assessed Nav 1.5 function in HEK-293 cells co-transfected with LMNA variants or treated with the small molecule LBL1 (lamin-binding ligand 1). LBL1 decreased Ser 22 phosphorylation by 65% but did not affect Nav 1.5 function. To test the complete loss of phosphorylation, we generated a version of LMNA with serine 22 converted to alanine 22 (S22A-LMNA); and a version of mutant R545H-LMNA that mimics phosphorylation via serine 22 to aspartic acid 22 substitution (S22D-R545H-LMNA). We found that S22A-LMNA inhibited Lamin-mediated activation of peak INa by 63% and shifted voltage-dependency of steady-state inactivation of Nav 1.5. Conversely, S22D-R545H-LMNA abolished the effects of mutant R545H-LMNA on voltage-dependency but not peak INa . We conclude that Lamin A/C Ser 22 phosphorylation can modulate Nav 1.5 function and contributes to the mechanism by which R545H-LMNA alters Nav 1.5 function. The differential impact of complete versus partial loss of Ser 22 phosphorylation suggests a threshold of phosphorylation that is required for full Nav 1.5 modulation. This is the first study to link Lamin A/C phosphorylation to Nav 1.5 function.

Lamin post-translational modifications: emerging toggles of nuclear organization and function

Nuclear lamins are ancient type V intermediate filaments with diverse functions that include maintaining nuclear shape, mechanosignaling, tethering and stabilizing chromatin, regulating gene expression, and contributing to cell cycle progression. Despite these numerous roles, an outstanding question has been how lamins are regulated. Accumulating work indicates that a range of lamin post-translational modifications (PTMs) control their functions both in homeostatic cells and in disease states such as progeria, muscular dystrophy, and viral infection. Here, we review the current knowledge of the diverse types of PTMs that regulate lamins in a site-specific manner. We highlight methods that can be used to characterize lamin PTMs whose functions are currently unknown and provide a perspective on the future of the lamin PTM field.

Nuclear lamin phosphorylation: an emerging role in gene regulation and pathogenesis of laminopathies

Decades of studies have established that nuclear lamin polymers form the nuclear lamina, a protein meshwork that supports the nuclear envelope structure and tethers heterochromatin to the nuclear periphery. Much less is known about unpolymerized nuclear lamins in the nuclear interior, some of which are now known to undergo specific phosphorylation. A recent finding that phosphorylated lamins bind gene enhancer regions offers a new hypothesis that lamin phosphorylation may influence transcriptional regulation in the nuclear interior. In this review, we discuss the regulation, localization, and functions of phosphorylated lamins. We summarize kinases that phosphorylate lamins in a variety of biological contexts. Our discussion extends to laminopathies, a spectrum of degenerative disorders caused by lamin gene mutations, such as cardiomyopathies and progeria. We compare the prevailing hypothesis for laminopathy pathogenesis based on lamins’ function at the nuclear lamina with an emerging hypothesis based on phosphorylated lamins’ function in the nuclear interior.

Floppy infant syndrome as a first manifestation of LMNA-related congenital muscular dystrophy

LMNA-related congenital muscular dystrophy (L-CMD) is the most severe phenotypic form of skeletal muscle laminopathies. This paper reports clinical presentation of the disease in 15 Polish patients from 13 families with genetically confirmed skeletal muscle laminopathy. In all these patients floppy infant syndrome was the first manifestation of the disease. The genetic diagnosis was established by next generation sequencing (targeted panel or exome; 11 patients) or classic Sanger sequencing (4 patients). In addition to known pathogenic LMNA variants: c.116A > G (p.Asn39Ser), c.745C > T (p.Arg249Trp), c.746G > A (p.Arg249Gln), c.1072G > A (p.Glu358Lys), c.1147G > A (p.Glu383Lys), c.1163G > C (p.Arg388Pro), c.1357C > T (p.Arg453Trp), c.1583C > G (p.Thr528Arg), we have identified three novel ones: c.121C > G (p.Arg41Gly), c.1127A > G (p.Tyr376Cys) and c.1160T > C (p.Leu387Pro). Eleven patients had de novo mutations, 4 - familial. In one family we observed intrafamilial variability of clinical course: severe L-CMD in the male proband, intermediate form in his sister and asymptomatic in their mother. One asymptomatic father had somatic mosaicism. L-CMD should be suspected in children with hypotonia in infancy and delayed motor development, who have poor head control, severe hyperlordosis and unstable and awkward gait. Serum creatine kinase may be high (~1000IU/l). Progression of muscle weakness is fast, leading to early immobilization. In some patients with L-CMD joint contractures can develop with time. MRI shows that the most frequently affected muscles are the serratus anterior, lumbar paraspinal, gluteus, vastus, adductor magnus, hamstrings, medial head of gastrocnemius and soleus. Ultra-rare laminopathies can be a relatively common cause of generalized hypotonia in children. Introduction of wide genome sequencing methods was a breakthrough in diagnostics of diseases with great clinical and genetic variability and allowed approach "from genotype do phenotype". However target sequencing of LMNA gene could be considered in selected patients with clinical picture suggestive for laminopathy.

Genetic cause of heterogeneous inherited myopathies in a cohort of Greek patients

Inherited muscle disorders are caused by pathogenic changes in numerous genes. Herein, we aimed to investigate the etiology of muscle disease in 24 consecutive Greek patients with myopathy suspected to be genetic in origin, based on clinical presentation and laboratory and electrophysiological findings and absence of known acquired causes of myopathy. Of these, 16 patients (8 females, median 24 years-old, range 7 to 67 years-old) were diagnosed by Whole Exome Sequencing as suffering from a specific type of inherited muscle disorder. Specifically, we have identified causative variants in 6 limb-girdle muscular dystrophy genes (6 patients; ANO5, CAPN3, DYSF, ISPD, LAMA2, SGCA), 3 metabolic myopathy genes (4 patients; CPT2, ETFDH, GAA), 1 congenital myotonia gene (1 patient; CLCN1), 1 mitochondrial myopathy gene (1 patient; MT-TE) and 3 other myopathy-associated genes (4 patients; CAV3, LMNA, MYOT). In 6 additional family members affected by myopathy, we reached genetic diagnosis following identification of a causative variant in an index patient. In our patients, genetic diagnosis ended a lengthy diagnostic process and, in the case of Multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency and Pompe's disease, it enabled specific treatment to be initiated. These results further expand the genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of inherited myopathies.

Genotype-phenotype analysis of LMNA-related diseases predicts phenotype-selective alterations in lamin phosphorylation

Laminopathies are rare diseases associated with mutations in LMNA, which encodes nuclear lamin A/C. LMNA variants lead to diverse tissue-specific phenotypes including cardiomyopathy, lipodystrophy, myopathy, neuropathy, progeria, bone/skin disorders, and overlap syndromes. The mechanisms underlying these heterogeneous phenotypes remain poorly understood, although post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation, are postulated as regulators of lamin function. We catalogued all known lamin A/C human mutations and their associated phenotypes, and systematically examined the putative role of phosphorylation in laminopathies. In silico prediction of specific LMNA mutant-driven changes to lamin A phosphorylation and protein structure was performed using machine learning methods. Some of the predictions we generated were validated via assessment of ectopically expressed wild-type and mutant LMNA. Our findings indicate phenotype- and mutant-specific alterations in lamin phosphorylation, and that some changes in phosphorylation may occur independently of predicted changes in lamin protein structure. Therefore, therapeutic targeting of phosphorylation in the context of laminopathies will likely require mutant- and kinase-specific approaches.

Lamin A/C Mechanotransduction in Laminopathies

Mechanotransduction translates forces into biological responses and regulates cell functionalities. It is implicated in several diseases, including laminopathies which are pathologies associated with mutations in lamins and lamin-associated proteins. These pathologies affect muscle, adipose, bone, nerve, and skin cells and range from muscular dystrophies to accelerated aging. Although the exact mechanisms governing laminopathies and gene expression are still not clear, a strong correlation has been found between cell functionality and nuclear behavior. New theories base on the direct effect of external force on the genome, which is indeed sensitive to the force transduced by the nuclear lamina. Nuclear lamina performs two essential functions in mechanotransduction pathway modulating the nuclear stiffness and governing the chromatin remodeling. Indeed, A-type lamin mutation and deregulation has been found to affect the nuclear response, altering several downstream cellular processes such as mitosis, chromatin organization, DNA replication-transcription, and nuclear structural integrity. In this review, we summarize the recent findings on the molecular composition and architecture of the nuclear lamina, its role in healthy cells and disease regulation. We focus on A-type lamins since this protein family is the most involved in mechanotransduction and laminopathies.

Intact-Mass Analysis Facilitating the Identification of Large Human Heart Proteoforms

Proteoforms, the primary effectors of biological processes, are the different forms of proteins that arise from molecular processing events such as alternative splicing and post-translational modifications. Heart diseases exhibit changes in proteoform levels, motivating the development of a deeper understanding of the heart proteoform landscape. Our recently developed two-dimensional top-down proteomics platform coupling serial size exclusion chromatography (sSEC) to reversed-phase chromatography (RPC) expanded coverage of the human heart proteome and allowed observation of high-molecular weight proteoforms. However, most of these observed proteoforms were not identified due to the difficulty in obtaining quality tandem mass spectrometry (MS2) fragmentation data for large proteoforms from complex biological mixtures on a chromatographic time scale. Herein, we sought to identify human heart proteoforms in this data set using an enhanced version of Proteoform Suite, which identifies proteoforms by intact mass alone. Specifically, we added a new feature to Proteoform Suite to determine candidate identifications for isotopically unresolved proteoforms larger than 50 kDa, enabling subsequent MS2 identification of important high-molecular weight human heart proteoforms such as lamin A (72 kDa) and trifunctional enzyme subunit α (79 kDa). With this new workflow for large proteoform identification, endogenous human cardiac myosin binding protein C (140 kDa) was identified for the first time. This study demonstrates the integration of our sSEC-RPC-MS proteomics platform with intact-mass analysis through Proteoform Suite to create a catalog of human heart proteoforms and facilitate the identification of large proteoforms in complex systems.

Cellular and Animal Models of Striated Muscle Laminopathies

The lamin A/C (LMNA) gene codes for nuclear intermediate filaments constitutive of the nuclear lamina. LMNA has 12 exons and alternative splicing of exon 10 results in two major isoforms—lamins A and C. Mutations found throughout the LMNA gene cause a group of diseases collectively known as laminopathies, of which the type, diversity, penetrance and severity of phenotypes can vary from one individual to the other, even between individuals carrying the same mutation. The majority of the laminopathies affect cardiac and/or skeletal muscles. The underlying molecular mechanisms contributing to such tissue-specific phenotypes caused by mutations in a ubiquitously expressed gene are not yet well elucidated. This review will explore the different phenotypes observed in established models of striated muscle laminopathies and their respective contributions to advancing our understanding of cardiac and skeletal muscle-related laminopathies. Potential future directions for developing effective treatments for patients with lamin A/C mutation-associated cardiac and/or skeletal muscle conditions will be discussed.

Structural instability of lamin A tail domain modulates its assembly and higher order function in Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy

The C-terminal Ig-domain of lamin A plays critical roles in cell function via interaction with proteins, DNA, and chromatin. Mutations in this domain are known to cause various diseases including Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) and familial partial lipodystrophy (FPLD). Here we examined the biophysical and biochemical properties of mutant Ig-domains identified in patients with EDMD and FPLD. EDMD-related mutant Ig-domain showed decreased stability to heat and denaturant. This result was also confirmed by experiments using full-length mutant lamin A, although the decrease in melting temperature was much less than that of the mutant Ig-domain alone. The unstable EDMD Ig-domain disrupted the proper assembly of lamin A, resulting in abnormal paracrystal formation and decreased viscosity. In contrast, FPLD-related mutant Ig-domains were thermally stable, although they lost DNA binding function. Alanine substitution experiments revealed a functional domain of DNA binding in the Ig-domain. Thus, the overall biophysical property of Ig-domains is closely associated with clinical phenotype.

A novel LMNA mutation identified in a Japanese patient with LMNA-associated congenital muscular dystrophy

LMNA-associated congenital muscular dystrophy (L-CMD) is a severe form of muscle laminopathy. LMNA encodes lamin A, which an intermediate filament protein that attaches to the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope. We performed sequence analysis based on our original targeted gene panel system for muscle diseases to obtain a molecular diagnosis in a Japanese girl with L-CMD. A novel heterozygous missense mutation, c.115A>C (p.Asn39His), in LMNA is reported.

Targeted mass spectrometry: An emerging powerful approach to unblock the bottleneck in phosphoproteomics

Following the rapid expansion of the proteomics field, the investigation of post translational modifications (PTM) has become extremely popular changing our perspective of how proteins constantly fine tune cellular functions. Reversible protein phosphorylation plays a pivotal role in virtually all biological processes in the cell and it is one the most characterized PTM up to date. During the last decade, the development of phosphoprotein/phosphopeptide enrichment strategies and mass spectrometry (MS) technology has revolutionized the field of phosphoproteomics discovering thousands of new site-specific phosphorylations and unveiling unprecedented evidence about their modulation under distinct cellular conditions. The field has expanded so rapidly that the use of traditional methods to validate and characterize the biological role of the phosphosites is not feasible any longer. Targeted MS holds great promise for becoming the method of choice to study with high precision and sensitivity already known site-specific phosphorylation events. This review summarizes the contribution of large-scale unbiased MS analyses and highlights the need of targeted MS-based approaches for follow-up investigation. Additionally, the article illustrates the biological relevance of protein phosphorylation by providing examples of disease-related phosphorylation events and emphasizes the benefits of applying targeted MS in clinics for disease diagnosis, prognosis and drug-response evaluation.

A Novel Lamin A Mutant Responsible for Congenital Muscular Dystrophy Causes Distinct Abnormalities of the Cell Nucleus

A-type lamins, the intermediate filament proteins participating in nuclear structure and function, are encoded by LMNA. LMNA mutations can lead to laminopathies such as lipodystrophies, premature aging syndromes (progeria) and muscular dystrophies. Here, we identified a novel heterozygous LMNA p.R388P de novo mutation in a patient with a non-previously described severe phenotype comprising congenital muscular dystrophy (L-CMD) and lipodystrophy. In culture, the patient’s skin fibroblasts entered prematurely into senescence, and some nuclei showed a lamina honeycomb pattern. C2C12 myoblasts were transfected with a construct carrying the patient’s mutation; R388P-lamin A (LA) predominantly accumulated within the nucleoplasm and was depleted at the nuclear periphery, altering the anchorage of the inner nuclear membrane protein emerin and the nucleoplasmic protein LAP2-alpha. The mutant LA triggered a frequent and severe nuclear dysmorphy that occurred independently of prelamin A processing, as well as increased histone H3K9 acetylation. Nuclear dysmorphy was not significantly improved when transfected cells were treated with drugs disrupting microtubules or actin filaments or modifying the global histone acetylation pattern. Therefore, releasing any force exerted at the nuclear envelope by the cytoskeleton or chromatin did not rescue nuclear shape, in contrast to what was previously shown in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria due to other LMNA mutations. Our results point to the specific cytotoxic effect of the R388P-lamin A mutant, which is clinically related to a rare and severe multisystemic laminopathy phenotype.

Regulation of lamin properties and functions: does phosphorylation do it all?

The main functions of lamins are their mechanical and structural roles as major building blocks of the karyoskeleton. They are also involved in chromatin structure regulation, gene expression, intracellular signalling pathway modulation and development. All essential lamin functions seem to depend on their capacity for assembly or disassembly after the receipt of specific signals, and after specific, selective and precisely regulated interactions through their various domains. Reversible phosphorylation of lamins is crucial for their functions, so it is important to understand how lamin polymerization and interactions are modulated, and which sequences may undergo such modifications. This review combines experimental data with results of our in silico analyses focused on lamin phosphorylation in model organisms to show the presence of evolutionarily conserved sequences and to indicate specific in vivo phosphorylations that affect particular functions.

Order and disorder in intermediate filament proteins

Intermediate filaments (IFs), important components of the cytoskeleton, provide a versatile, tunable network of self-assembled proteins. IF proteins contain three distinct domains: an α-helical structured rod domain, flanked by intrinsically disordered head and tail domains. Recent studies demonstrated the functional importance of the disordered domains, which differ in length and amino-acid sequence among the 70 different human IF genes. Here, we investigate the biophysical properties of the disordered domains, and review recent findings on the interactions between them. Our analysis highlights key components governing IF functional roles in the cytoskeleton, where the intrinsically disordered domains dictate protein-protein interactions, supramolecular assembly, and macro-scale order.

Phosphorylation of lamins determine their structural properties and signaling functions

Lamin A/C is part of the nuclear lamina, a meshwork of intermediate filaments underlying the inner nuclear membrane. The lamin network is anchoring a complex set of structural and linker proteins and is either directly or through partner proteins also associated or interacting with a number of signaling protein and transcription factors. During mitosis the nuclear lamina is dissociated by well established phosphorylation- dependent mechanisms. A-type lamins are, however, also phosphorylated during interphase. A recent study identified 20 interphase phosphorylation sites on lamin A/C and explored their functions related to lamin dynamics; movements, localization and solubility. Here we discuss these findings in the light of lamin functions in health and disease.

Lamins at the crossroads of mechanosignaling

The intermediate filament proteins, A- and B-type lamins, form the nuclear lamina scaffold adjacent to the inner nuclear membrane. Lamins also contribute to chromatin regulation and various signaling pathways affecting gene expression. In this review, Osmanagic-Myers et al. focus on the role of nuclear lamins in mechanosensing and also discuss how disease-linked lamin mutants may impair the response of cells to mechanical stimuli and influence the properties of the extracellular matrix.

The intermediate filament proteins, A- and B-type lamins, form the nuclear lamina scaffold adjacent to the inner nuclear membrane. B-type lamins confer elasticity, while A-type lamins lend viscosity and stiffness to nuclei. Lamins also contribute to chromatin regulation and various signaling pathways affecting gene expression. The mechanical roles of lamins and their functions in gene regulation are often viewed as independent activities, but recent findings suggest a highly cross-linked and interdependent regulation of these different functions, particularly in mechanosignaling. In this newly emerging concept, lamins act as a “mechanostat” that senses forces from outside and responds to tension by reinforcing the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. A-type lamins, emerin, and the linker of the nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex directly transmit forces from the extracellular matrix into the nucleus. These mechanical forces lead to changes in the molecular structure, modification, and assembly state of A-type lamins. This in turn activates a tension-induced “inside-out signaling” through which the nucleus feeds back to the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix to balance outside and inside forces. These functions regulate differentiation and may be impaired in lamin-linked diseases, leading to cellular phenotypes, particularly in mechanical load-bearing tissues.

Post-translational modifications of intermediate filament proteins: mechanisms and functions

Intermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal and nucleoskeletal structures that provide mechanical and stress-coping resilience to cells, contribute to subcellular and tissue-specific biological functions, and facilitate intracellular communication. IFs, including nuclear lamins and those in the cytoplasm (keratins, vimentin, desmin, neurofilaments and glial fibrillary acidic protein, among others), are functionally regulated by post-translational modifications (PTMs). Proteomic advances highlight the enormous complexity and regulatory potential of IF protein PTMs, which include phosphorylation, glycosylation, sumoylation, acetylation and prenylation, with novel modifications becoming increasingly appreciated. Future studies will need to characterize their on-off mechanisms, crosstalk and utility as biomarkers and targets for diseases involving the IF cytoskeleton.

Open access integrated therapeutic and diagnostic platforms for personalized cardiovascular medicine

It is undeniable that the increasing costs in healthcare are a concern. Although technological advancements have been made in healthcare systems, the return on investment made by governments and payers has been poor. The current model of care is unsustainable and is due for an upgrade. In developed nations, a law of diminishing returns has been noted in population health standards, whilst in the developing world, westernized chronic illnesses, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease have become emerging problems. The reasons for these trends are complex, multifactorial and not easily reversed. Personalized medicine has the potential to have a significant impact on these issues, but for it to be truly successful, interdisciplinary mass collaboration is required. We propose here a vision for open-access advanced analytics for personalized cardiac diagnostics using imaging, electrocardiography and genomics.

Identification of the lamin A/C phosphoepitope recognized by the antibody P-STM in mitotic HeLa S3 cells

Background

Lamins A and C, two major structural components of the nuclear lamina that determine nuclear shape and size, are phosphoproteins. Phosphorylation of lamin A/C is cell cycle-dependent and is involved in regulating the assembly–disassembly of lamin filaments during mitosis. We previously reported that P-STM, a phosphoepitope-specific antibody raised against the autophosphorylation site of p21-activated kinase 2, recognizes a number of phosphoproteins, including lamins A and C, in mitotic HeLa cells.

Results

Here, using recombinant proteins and synthetic phosphopeptides containing potential lamin A/C phosphorylation sites in conjunction with in vitro phosphorylation assays, we determined the lamin A/C phosphoepitope(s) recognized by P-STM. We found that phosphorylation of Thr-19 is required for generating the P-STM phosphoepitope in lamin A/C and showed that it could be created in vitro by p34^cdc2/cyclin B kinase (CDK1)-catalyzed phosphorylation of lamin A/C immunoprecipitated from unsynchronized HeLa S3 cells. To further explore changes in lamin A/C phosphorylation in living cells, we precisely quantified the phosphorylation levels of Thr-19 and other sites in lamin A/C isolated from HeLa S3 cells at interphase and mitosis using the SILAC method and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results showed that the levels of phosphorylated Thr-19, Ser-22 and Ser-392 in both lamins A and C, and Ser-636 in lamin A only, increased ~2- to 6-fold in mitotic HeLa S3 cells.

Conclusions

Collectively, our results demonstrate that P-STM is a useful tool for detecting Thr-19-phosphorylated lamin A/C in cells and reveal quantitative changes in the phosphorylation status of major lamin A/C phosphorylation sites during mitosis.

Partners and post-translational modifications of nuclear lamins

Nuclear intermediate filament networks formed by A- and B-type lamins are major components of the nucleoskeleton that are required for nuclear structure and function, with many links to human physiology. Mutations in lamins cause diverse human diseases ('laminopathies'). At least 54 partners interact with human A-type lamins directly or indirectly. The less studied human lamins B1 and B2 have 23 and seven reported partners, respectively. These interactions are likely to be regulated at least in part by lamin post-translational modifications. This review summarizes the binding partners and post-translational modifications of human lamins and discusses their known or potential implications for lamin function.

Potential therapeutic approaches for modulating expression and accumulation of defective lamin A in laminopathies and age-related diseases

Scientific understanding of the genetic components of aging has increased in recent years, with several genes being identified as playing roles in the aging process and, potentially, longevity. In particular, genes encoding components of the nuclear lamina in eukaryotes have been increasingly well characterized, owing in part to their clinical significance in age-related diseases. This review focuses on one such gene, which encodes lamin A, a key component of the nuclear lamina. Genetic variation in this gene can give rise to lethal, early-onset diseases known as laminopathies. Here, we analyze the literature and conduct computational analyses of lamin A signaling and intracellular interactions in order to examine potential mechanisms for altering or slowing down aberrant Lamin A expression and/or for restoring the ratio of normal to aberrant lamin A. The ultimate goal of such studies is to ameliorate or combat laminopathies and related diseases of aging, and we provide a discussion of current approaches in this review.

Laminopathies and lamin-associated signaling pathways

Laminopathies are genetic diseases due to mutations or altered post-translational processing of nuclear envelope/lamina proteins. The majority of laminopathies are caused by mutations in the LMNA gene, encoding lamin A/C, but manifest as diverse pathologies including muscular dystrophy, lipodystrophy, neuropathy, and progeroid syndromes. Lamin-binding proteins implicated in laminopathies include lamin B2, nuclear envelope proteins such as emerin, MAN1, LBR, and nesprins, the nuclear matrix protein matrin 3, the lamina-associated polypeptide, LAP2alpha and the transcriptional regulator FHL1. Thus, the altered functionality of a nuclear proteins network appears to be involved in the onset of laminopathic diseases. The functional interplay among different proteins involved in this network implies signaling partners. The signaling effectors may either modify nuclear envelope proteins and their binding properties, or use nuclear envelope/lamina proteins as platforms to regulate signal transduction. In this review, both aspects of lamin-linked signaling are presented and the major pathways so far implicated in laminopathies are summarized.