Uses and abuses of macropinocytosis

A Transdermal Prion-Bionics Supermolecule as a RAB3A Antagonist for Enhancing Facial Youthfulness

The mechanism research of skin wrinkles, conducted on volunteers underwent high-intensity desk work and mice subjected to partial sleep deprivation, revealed a significant reduction in dermal thickness associated with the presence of wrinkles. This can be attributed to the activation of facial nerves in a state of hysteria due to an abnormally elevated interaction between SNAP25 and RAB3A proteins involved in the synaptic vesicle cycle (SVC). Facilitated by AI-assisted structural design, a refined peptide called RSIpep is developed to modulate this interaction and normalize SVC. Drawing inspiration from prions, which possess the ability to protect themselves against proteolysis and invade neighboring nerve cells through macropinocytosis, RSIpep is engineered to demonstrate a GSH-responsive reversible self-assembly into a prion-like supermolecule (RSIprion). RSIprion showcases protease resistance, micropinocytosis-dependent cellular internalization, and low adhesion with constituent molecules in the cuticle, thereby endowing it with the transdermic absorption and subsequent biofunction in redressing the frenzied SVC. As a facial mud mask, it effectively reduces periorbital and perinasal wrinkles in the human face. Collectively, RSIprion not only presents a clinical potential as an anti-wrinkle prion-like supermolecule, but also exemplifies a reproducible instance of bionic strategy-guided drug development that bestows transdermal ability upon the pharmaceutical molecule.

ATP2B4 is an essential gene for epidermal growth factor-induced macropinocytosis in A431 cells

Macropinocytosis (MPC) is a large-scale endocytosis pathway that involves actin-dependent membrane ruffle formation and subsequent ruffle closure to generate macropinosomes for the uptake of fluid-phase cargos. MPC is categorized into two types: constitutive and stimuli-induced. Constitutive MPC in macrophages relies on extracellular Ca2+ sensing by a calcium-sensing receptor. However, the link between stimuli-induced MPC and Ca2+ remains unclear. Here, we find that both intracellular and extracellular Ca2+ are required for epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced MPC in A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells. Through investigation of mammalian homologs of coelomocyte uptake defective (CUP) genes, we identify ATP2B4, encoding for a Ca2+ pump called the plasma membrane calcium ATPase 4 (PMCA4), as a Ca2+-related regulator of EGF-induced MPC. Knockout (KO) of ATP2B4, as well as depletion of extracellular/intracellular Ca2+, inhibited ruffle closure and macropinosome formation, without affecting ruffle formation. We demonstrate the importance of PMCA4 activity itself, independent of interactions with other proteins via its C-terminus known as a PDZ domain-binding motif. Additionally, we show that ATP2B4-KO reduces EGF-stimulated Ca2+ oscillation during MPC. Our findings suggest that EGF-induced MPC requires ATP2B4-dependent Ca2+ dynamics.

Genomic insights into the cellular specialization of predation in raptorial protists

BACKGROUND

Predation is a fundamental mechanism for organisms to acquire energy, and various species have evolved diverse tools to enhance their hunting abilities. Among protozoan predators, raptorial Haptorian ciliates are particularly fascinating as they possess offensive extrusomes known as toxicysts, which are rapidly discharged upon prey contact. However, our understanding of the genetic processes and specific toxins involved in toxicyst formation and discharge is still limited.

RESULTS

In this study, we investigated the predation strategies and subcellular structures of seven Haptoria ciliate species and obtained their genome sequences using single-cell sequencing technology. Comparative genomic analysis revealed distinct gene duplications related to membrane transport proteins and hydrolytic enzymes in Haptoria, which play a crucial role in the production and discharge of toxicysts. Transcriptomic analysis further confirmed the abundant expression of genes related to membrane transporters and cellular toxins in Haptoria compared to Trichostomatia. Notably, polyketide synthases (PKS) and L-amino acid oxidases (LAAO) were identified as potentially toxin genes that underwent extensive duplication events in Haptoria.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results shed light on the evolutionary and genomic adaptations of Haptorian ciliates for their predation strategies in evolution and provide insights into their toxic mechanisms.

Mechanical stretch regulates macropinocytosis in Hydra vulgaris

Cells rely on a diverse array of engulfment processes to sense, exploit, and adapt to their environments. Among these, macropinocytosis enables indiscriminate and rapid uptake of large volumes of fluid and membrane, rendering it a highly versatile engulfment strategy. Much of the molecular machinery required for macropinocytosis has been well established, yet how this process is regulated in the context of organs and organisms remains poorly understood. Here, we report the discovery of extensive macropinocytosis in the outer epithelium of the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris. Exploiting Hydra's relatively simple body plan, we developed approaches to visualize macropinocytosis over extended periods of time, revealing constitutive engulfment across the entire body axis. We show that the direct application of planar stretch leads to calcium influx and the inhibition of macropinocytosis. Finally, we establish a role for stretch-activated channels in inhibiting this process. Together, our approaches provide a platform for the mechanistic dissection of constitutive macropinocytosis in physiological contexts and highlight a potential role for macropinocytosis in responding to cell surface tension.

Cell polarity proteins promote macropinocytosis in response to metabolic stress

Macropinocytosis has emerged as a nutrient-scavenging pathway that cancer cells exploit to survive the nutrient-deprived conditions of the tumor microenvironment. Cancer cells are especially reliant on glutamine for their survival, and in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells, glutamine deficiency can enhance the stimulation of macropinocytosis, allowing the cells to escape metabolic stress through the production of extracellular-protein-derived amino acids. Here, we identify the atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) enzymes, PKCζ and PKCι as novel regulators of macropinocytosis. In normal epithelial cells, aPKCs are known to regulate cell polarity in association with the scaffold proteins Par3 and Par6, controlling the function of several targets, including the Par1 kinases. In PDAC cells, we identify that each of these cell polarity proteins are required for glutamine stress-induced macropinocytosis. Mechanistically, we find that the aPKCs are regulated by EGFR signaling or by the transcription factor CREM to promote the relocation of Par3 to microtubules, facilitating macropinocytosis in a dynein-dependent manner. Importantly, we determine that cell fitness impairment caused by aPKC depletion is rescued by the restoration of macropinocytosis and that aPKCs support PDAC growth in vivo. These results identify a previously unappreciated role for cell polarity proteins in the regulation of macropinocytosis and provide a better understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings that control macropinocytic uptake in the context of metabolic stress.

Macropinocytosis as a potential mechanism driving neurotropism of Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcus neoformans can invade the central nervous system by crossing the blood-brain barrier via a transcellular mechanism that relies on multiple host factors. In this narrative, we review the evidence that a direct interplay between C. neoformans and brain endothelial cells forms the basis for invasion and transmigration across the brain endothelium. Adherence and internalization of C. neoformans is dependent on transmembrane proteins, including a hyaluronic acid receptor and an ephrin receptor tyrosine kinase. We consider the role of EphA2 in facilitating the invasion of the central nervous system by C. neoformans and highlight experimental evidence supporting macropinocytosis as a potential mechanism of internalization and transcytosis. How macropinocytosis might be conclusively demonstrated in the context of C. neoformans is also discussed.

A Comparison of Cellular Uptake Mechanisms, Delivery Efficacy, and Intracellular Fate between Liposomes and Extracellular Vesicles

A key aspect for successful drug delivery via lipid-based nanoparticles is their internalization in target cells. Two prominent examples of such drug delivery systems are artificial phospholipid-based carriers, such as liposomes, and their biological counterparts, the extracellular vesicles (EVs). Despite a wealth of literature, it remains unclear which mechanisms precisely orchestrate nanoparticle-mediated cargo delivery to recipient cells and the subsequent intracellular fate of therapeutic cargo. In this review, internalization mechanisms involved in the uptake of liposomes and EVs by recipient cells are evaluated, also exploring their intracellular fate after intracellular trafficking. Opportunities are highlighted to tweak these internalization mechanisms and intracellular fates to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of these drug delivery systems. Overall, literature to date shows that both liposomes and EVs are predominantly internalized through classical endocytosis mechanisms, sharing a common fate: accumulation inside lysosomes. Studies tackling the differences between liposomes and EVs, with respect to cellular uptake, intracellular delivery and therapy efficacy, remain scarce, despite its importance for the selection of an appropriate drug delivery system. In addition, further exploration of functionalization strategies of both liposomes and EVs represents an important avenue to pursue in order to control internalization and fate, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy.

Extracellular vesicles biogenesis and uptake concepts: A comprehensive guide to studying host-pathogen communication

The study of host-pathogen interactions has increased considerably in recent decades. This intercellular communication has been mediated by extracellular vesicles (EVs) that play an important role during the interaction. EVs are particles of lipid bilayer and described in different types of cells, eukaryotic or prokaryotic. Depending on their biogenesis they are described as exosomes (derived from multivesicular bodies) and microvesicles (derived from the plasma membrane). The EVs carry biomolecules, including nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins that can be released or internalized by other cells in different pathways (endocytosis, macropinocytosis, phagocytosis, or membrane fusion) in the process described as uptake. The balance between biogenesis and uptake of EVs could modify physiological and pathophysiological processes of the cell. This review is focusing on the dynamic roles of release and capture of EVs during host-pathogen interaction. We also do a critical analysis of methodologies for obtaining and analyzing EVs. Finally, we draw attention to critical points to be considered in EV biogenesis and uptake studies.

Microbe-host interactions: structure and functions of Gram-negative bacterial membrane vesicles

Bacteria-host interaction is a common, relevant, and intriguing biological phenomena. The host reacts actively or passively to the bacteria themselves, their products, debris, and so on, through various defense systems containing the immune system, the bacteria communicate with the local or distal tissues of the host via their own surface antigens, secreted products, nucleic acids, etc., resulting in relationships of attack and defense, adaptation, symbiosis, and even collaboration. The significance of bacterial membrane vesicles (MVs) as a powerful vehicle for the crosstalk mechanism between the two is growing. In the recent decade, the emergence of MVs in microbial interactions and a variety of bacterial infections, with multiple adhesions to host tissues, cell invasion and evasion of host defense mechanisms, have brought MVs to the forefront of bacterial pathogenesis research. Whereas MVs are a complex combination of molecules not yet fully understood, research into its effects, targeting and pathogenic components will advance its understanding and utilization. This review will summarize structural, extraction and penetration information on several classes of MVs and emphasize the role of MVs in transport and immune response activation. Finally, the potential of MVs as a therapeutic method will be highlighted, as will future research prospects.

From actin waves to mechanism and back: How theory aids biological understanding

Actin dynamics in cell motility, division, and phagocytosis is regulated by complex factors with multiple feedback loops, often leading to emergent dynamic patterns in the form of propagating waves of actin polymerization activity that are poorly understood. Many in the actin wave community have attempted to discern the underlying mechanisms using experiments and/or mathematical models and theory. Here, we survey methods and hypotheses for actin waves based on signaling networks, mechano-chemical effects, and transport characteristics, with examples drawn from Dictyostelium discoideum, human neutrophils, Caenorhabditis elegans, and Xenopus laevis oocytes. While experimentalists focus on the details of molecular components, theorists pose a central question of universality: Are there generic, model-independent, underlying principles, or just boundless cell-specific details? We argue that mathematical methods are equally important for understanding the emergence, evolution, and persistence of actin waves and conclude with a few challenges for future studies.

Gold Nanoparticles Inhibit Macropinocytosis by Decreasing KRAS Activation

The RAS-transformed cells utilize macropinocytosis to acquire amino acids to support their uncontrolled growth. However, targeting RAS to inhibit macropinocytosis remains a challenge. Here, we report that gold nanoparticles (GNP) inhibit macropinocytosis by decreasing KRAS activation. Using surface-modified and unmodified GNP, we showed that unmodified GNP specifically sequestered both wild-type and mutant KRAS and inhibited its activation, irrespective of growth factor stimulation, while surface-passivated GNP had no effect. Alteration of KRAS activation is reflected on downstream signaling cascades, macropinocytosis and tumor cell growth in vitro, and two independent preclinical human xenograft models of pancreatic cancer in vivo. The current study demonstrates NP-mediated inhibition of macropinocytosis and KRAS activation and provides translational opportunities to inhibit tumor growth in a number of cancers where activation of KRAS plays a major role.

Amphibian pore-forming protein βγ-CAT drives extracellular nutrient scavenging under cell nutrient deficiency

Nutrient acquisition is essential for animal cells. βγ-CAT is a pore-forming protein (PFP) and trefoil factor complex assembled under tight regulation identified in toad Bombina maxima. Here, we reported that B. maxima cells secreted βγ-CAT under glucose, glutamine, and pyruvate deficiency to scavenge extracellular proteins for their nutrient supply and survival. AMPK signaling positively regulated the expression and secretion of βγ-CAT. The PFP complex selectively bound extracellular proteins and promoted proteins uptake through endolysosomal pathways. Elevated intracellular amino acids, enhanced ATP production, and eventually prolonged cell survival were observed in the presence of βγ-CAT and extracellular proteins. Liposome assays indicated that high concentration of ATP negatively regulated the opening of βγ-CAT channels. Collectively, these results uncovered that βγ-CAT is an essential element in cell nutrient scavenging under cell nutrient deficiency by driving vesicular uptake of extracellular proteins, providing a new paradigm for PFPs in cell nutrient acquisition and metabolic flexibility.

Macropinocytosis: mechanisms and regulation

Macropinocytosis is defined as an actin-dependent but coat- and dynamin-independent endocytic uptake process, which generates large intracellular vesicles (macropinosomes) containing a non-selective sampling of extracellular fluid. Macropinocytosis provides an important mechanism of immune surveillance by dendritic cells and macrophages, but also serves as an essential nutrient uptake pathway for unicellular organisms and tumor cells. This review examines the cell biological mechanisms that drive macropinocytosis, as well as the complex signaling pathways - GTPases, lipid and protein kinases and phosphatases, and actin regulatory proteins - that regulate macropinosome formation, internalization, and disposition.

C2GAP2 is a common regulator of Ras signaling for chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis

Phagocytosis, macropinocytosis, and G protein coupled receptor-mediated chemotaxis are Ras-regulated and actin-driven processes. The common regulator for Ras activity in these three processes remains unknown. Here, we show that C2GAP2, a Ras GTPase activating protein, highly expressed in the vegetative growth state in model organism Dictyostelium. C2GAP2 localizes at the leading edge of chemotaxing cells, phagosomes during phagocytosis, and macropinosomes during micropinocytosis. c2gapB- cells lacking C2GAP2 displayed increased Ras activation upon folic acid stimulation and subsequent impaired chemotaxis in the folic acid gradient. In addition, c2gaB^- cells have elevated phagocytosis and macropinocytosis, which subsequently results in faster cell growth. C2GAP2 binds multiple phospholipids on the plasma membrane and the membrane recruitment of C2GAP2 requires calcium. Taken together, we show a shared negative regulator of Ras signaling that mediates Ras signaling for chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis.

Exploration of Deformation of F-Actin during Macropinocytosis by Confocal Microscopy and 3D-Structured Illumination Microscopy

Since their invention, confocal microscopy and super-resolution microscopy have become important choices in cell biology research. Macropinocytosis is a critical form of endocytosis. Deformation of the cell membrane is thought to be closely related to the movement of F-actin during macropinocytosis. However, it is still unclear how the morphology of F-actin and the membrane change during this process. In this study, confocal microscopy was utilized for macroscopic time-series imaging of the cell membranes and F-actin in cells induced by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SIM), which can overcome the diffraction limit, was used to demonstrate the morphological characteristics of F-actin filaments. Benefiting from the advantages of SIM in terms of resolution and 3D imaging, we speculated on the regular pattern of the deformation of F-actin during macropinocytosis. The detailed visualization of structures also helped to validate the speculation regarding the role of F-actin filaments in macropinocytosis in previous studies. The results obtained in this study will provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying macropinocytosis and endocytosis.

Piezo1 activation using Yoda1 inhibits macropinocytosis in A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells

Macropinocytosis is a type of endocytosis accompanied by actin rearrangement-driven membrane deformation, such as lamellipodia formation and membrane ruffling, followed by the formation of large vesicles, macropinosomes. Ras-transformed cancer cells efficiently acquire exogenous amino acids for their survival through macropinocytosis. Thus, inhibition of macropinocytosis is a promising strategy for cancer therapy. To date, few specific agents that inhibit macropinocytosis have been developed. Here, focusing on the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1, we found that Yoda1, a Piezo1 agonist, potently inhibits macropinocytosis induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF). The inhibition of ruffle formation by Yoda1 was dependent on the extracellular Ca²⁺ influx through Piezo1 and on the activation of the calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1. This suggests that Ca²⁺ ions can regulate EGF-stimulated macropinocytosis. We propose the potential for macropinocytosis inhibition through the regulation of a mechanosensitive channel activity using chemical tools.

Macropinocytosis and Cancer: From Tumor Stress to Signaling Pathways

Macropinocytosis is an evolutionarily conserved endocytic pathway that mediates the nonselective acquisition of extracellular material via large endocytic vesicles known as macropinosomes. In addition to other functions, this uptake pathway supports cancer cell metabolism through the uptake of nutrients. Cells harboring oncogene or tumor suppressor mutations are known to display heightened macropinocytosis, which confers to the cancer cells the ability to survive and proliferate despite the nutrient-scarce conditions of the tumor microenvironment. Thus, macropinocytosis is associated with cancer malignancy. Macropinocytic uptake can be induced in cancer cells by different stress stimuli, acting as an adaptive mechanism for the cells to resist stresses in the tumor milieu. Here, we review the cellular stresses that are known to promote macropinocytosis, as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms that drive this process.

Macropinocytosis and Cell Migration: Don't Drink and Drive…

Macropinocytosis is a nonspecific mechanism by which cells compulsively "drink" the surrounding extracellular fluids in order to feed themselves or sample the molecules therein, hence gaining information about their environment. This process is cell-intrinsically incompatible with the migration of many cells, implying that the two functions are antagonistic. The migrating cell uses a molecular switch to stop and explore its surrounding fluid by macropinocytosis, after which it employs the same molecular machinery to start migrating again to examine another location. This cycle of migration/macropinocytosis allows cells to explore tissues, and it is key to a range of physiological processes. Evidence of this evolutionarily conserved antagonism between the two processes can be found in several cell types-immune cells, for example, being particularly adept-and ancient organisms (e.g., the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum). How macropinocytosis and migration are negatively coupled is the subject of this chapter.

Wnt, GSK3, and Macropinocytosis

Here we review the regulation of macropinocytosis by Wnt growth factor signaling. Canonical Wnt signaling is normally thought of as a regulator of nuclear β-catenin, but emerging results indicate that there is much more than β-catenin to the Wnt pathway. Macropinocytosis is transiently regulated by EGF-RTK-Ras-PI3K signaling. Recent studies show that Wnt signaling provides for sustained acquisition of nutrients by macropinocytosis. Endocytosis of Wnt-Lrp6-Fz receptor complexes triggers the sequestration of GSK3 and components of the cytosolic destruction complex such as Axin1 inside multivesicular bodies (MVBs) through the action of the ESCRT machinery. Wnt macropinocytosis can be induced both by the transcriptional loop of stabilized β-catenin, and by the inhibition of GSK3 even in the absence of new protein synthesis. The cell is poised for macropinocytosis, and all it requires for triggering of Pak1 and the actin machinery is the inhibition of GSK3. Striking lysosomal acidification, which requires macropinocytosis, is induced by GSK3 chemical inhibitors or Wnt protein. Wnt-induced macropinocytosis requires the ESCRT machinery that forms MVBs. In cancer cells, mutations in the tumor suppressors APC and Axin1 result in extensive macropinocytosis, which can be reversed by restoring wild-type protein. In basal cellular conditions, GSK3 functions to constitutively repress macropinocytosis.

Signaling Pathways that Regulate Macropinocytosis in Mammalian Cells

Macropinocytosis is an evolutionarily conserved endocytic pathway that mediates non-selective uptake of extracellular fluid in bulk. Macropinocytosis is initiated by localized polymerization of the actin cytoskeleton, which generates plasma membrane protrusions that enclose part of the environment into large endocytic vesicles. From amoebae to mammalian cells, the actin dynamics that drive macropinosome formation are regulated by a conserved set of intracellular signaling proteins including Ras superfamily GTPases and PI3-kinases. In mammalian cells, multiple upstream signaling pathways control activity of these core regulators in response to cell-extrinsic and cell-intrinsic stimuli. Growth factor signaling pathways play a central role in macropinocytosis induction. In addition, an increasing number of functionally diverse processes has been identified as macropinocytosis regulators, including several nutrient-sensing and developmental signaling pathways. Many of these signaling pathways have proto-oncogenic properties, and their dysregulation drives the high macropinocytic activity that is commonly observed in cancer cells. These regulatory principles illustrate how macropinocytosis is controlled by complex upstream inputs to exert diverse cellular functions in physiological and pathological contexts.

Image-based Quantification of Macropinocytosis Using Dextran Uptake into Cultured Cells

Macropinocytosis is an evolutionarily conserved process, which is characterized by the formation of membrane ruffles and the uptake of extracellular fluid. We recently demonstrated a role for CYFIP-related Rac1 Interactor (CYRI) proteins in macropinocytosis. High-molecular weight dextran (70kDa or higher) has generally been used as a marker for macropinocytosis because it is too large to fit in smaller endocytic vesicles, such as those of clathrin or caveolin-mediated endocytosis. Through the use of an image-based dextran uptake assay, we showed that cells lacking CYRI proteins internalise less dextran compared to their wild-type counterparts. Here, we will describe a step-by-step experimentation procedure to detect internalised dextran in cultured cells, and an image pipeline to analyse the acquired images, using the open-access software ImageJ/Fiji. This protocol is detailed yet simple and easily adaptable to different treatment conditions, and the analysis can also be automated for improved processing speed.

KRASG12R-Independent Macropinocytosis in Pancreatic Cancer

Macropinocytosis is a critical route of nutrient acquisition in pancreatic cancer cells. Constitutive macropinocytosis is promoted by mutant KRAS, which activates the PI3Kα lipid kinase and RAC1, to drive membrane ruffling, macropinosome uptake and processing. However, our recent study on the KRAS^G12R mutant indicated the presence of a KRAS-independent mode of macropinocytosis in pancreatic cancer cell lines, thereby increasing the complexity of this process. We found that KRAS^G12R-mutant cell lines promote macropinocytosis independent of KRAS activity using PI3Kγ and RAC1, highlighting the convergence of regulation on RAC signaling. While macropinocytosis has been proposed to be a therapeutic target for the treatment of pancreatic cancer, our studies have underscored how little we understand about the activation and regulation of this metabolic process. Therefore, this review seeks to highlight the differences in macropinocytosis regulation in the two cellular subtypes while also highlighting the features that make the KRAS^G12R mutant atypical.

The Amoebal Model for Macropinocytosis

Macropinocytosis is a relatively unexplored form of large-scale endocytosis driven by the actin cytoskeleton. Dictyostelium amoebae form macropinosomes from cups extended from the plasma membrane, then digest their contents and absorb the nutrients in the endo-lysosomal system. They use macropinocytosis for feeding, maintaining a high rate of fluid uptake that makes assay and experimentation easy. Mutants collected over the years identify cytoskeletal and signalling proteins required for macropinocytosis. Cups are organized around plasma membrane domains of intense PIP3, Ras and Rac signalling, proper formation of which also depends on the RasGAPs NF1 and RGBARG, PTEN, the PIP3-regulated protein kinases Akt and SGK and their activators PDK1 and TORC2, Rho proteins, plus other components yet to be identified. This PIP3 domain directs dendritic actin polymerization to the extending lip of macropinocytic cups by recruiting a ring of the SCAR/WAVE complex around itself and thus activating the Arp2/3 complex. The dynamics of PIP3 domains are proposed to shape macropinocytic cups from start to finish. The role of the Ras-PI3-kinase module in organizing feeding structures in unicellular organisms most likely predates its adoption into growth factor signalling, suggesting an evolutionary origin for growth factor signalling.

Extracellular ATP and Macropinocytosis: Their Interactive and Mutually Supportive Roles in Cell Growth, Drug Resistance, and EMT in Cancer

Macropinocytosis is one of the major mechanisms by which cancer cells uptake extracellular nutrients from tumor microenvironment (TME) and plays very important roles in various steps of tumorigenesis. We previously reported the unexpected finding that intratumoral and extracellular ATP (eATP), as one of the major drastically upregulated extracellular nutrients and messengers in tumors, is taken up by cancer cells through macropinocytosis in large quantities and significantly contributing to cancer cell growth, survival, and increased resistance to chemo and target drugs. Inhibition of macropinocytosis substantially reduced eATP uptake by cancer cells and slowed down tumor growth in vivo. More recently, we have found the eATP also plays a very important role in inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and that macropinocytosis is an essential facilitator in the induction. Thus, macropinocytosis and eATP, working in coordination, appear to play some previously unrecognized but very important roles in EMT and metastasis. As a result, they are likely to be interactive and communicative with each other, regulating each other's activity for various needs of host tumor cells. They are also likely to be an integral part of the future new anticancer therapeutic strategies. Moreover, it is undoubted that we have not identified all the important activities coordinated by ATP and macropinocytosis. This review describes our findings in how eATP and macropinocytosis work together to promote cancer cell growth, resistance, and EMT. We also list scientific challenges facing eATP research and propose to target macropinocytosis and eATP to reduce drug resistance and slow down metastasis.

Three-dimensional morphodynamic simulations of macropinocytic cups

Macropinocytosis refers to the non-specific uptake of extracellular fluid, which plays ubiquitous roles in cell growth, immune surveillance, and virus entry. Despite its widespread occurrence, it remains unclear how its initial cup-shaped plasma membrane extensions form without any external solid support, as opposed to the process of particle uptake during phagocytosis. Here, by developing a computational framework that describes the coupling between the bistable reaction-diffusion processes of active signaling patches and membrane deformation, we demonstrated that the protrusive force localized to the edge of the patches can give rise to a self-enclosing cup structure, without further assumptions of local bending or contraction. Efficient uptake requires a balance among the patch size, magnitude of protrusive force, and cortical tension. Furthermore, our model exhibits cyclic cup formation, coexistence of multiple cups, and cup-splitting, indicating that these complex morphologies self-organize via a common mutually-dependent process of reaction-diffusion and membrane deformation.

Uptake mechanisms of cell-internalizing nucleic acid aptamers for applications as pharmacological agents

Nucleic acid aptamers, also regarded as chemical antibodies, show potential as targeted therapeutic and delivery agents since they possess unique advantages over antibodies. Generated by an iterative selection and amplification process from oligonucleotide libraries using cultured cells, the aptamers bind to their target molecules expressed on the cell surface. Excitingly, most aptamers also demonstrate a cell-internalizing property in native living cells, allowing them to directly enter the cells via endocytosis depending on the target. In this review, we discuss selection methods in generating cell-internalizing aptamers via a cell-based selection process, along with their challenges and optimization strategies. We highlight the cellular uptake routes adopted by the aptamers and also their intracellular fate after the uptake, to give an overview of their mechanism of action for applications as promising pharmacological agents.

CYRI-A limits invasive migration through macropinosome formation and integrin uptake regulation

The Scar/WAVE complex drives actin nucleation during cell migration. Interestingly, the same complex is important in forming membrane ruffles during macropinocytosis, a process mediating nutrient uptake and membrane receptor trafficking. Mammalian CYRI-B is a recently described negative regulator of the Scar/WAVE complex by RAC1 sequestration, but its other paralogue, CYRI-A, has not been characterized. Here, we implicate CYRI-A as a key regulator of macropinosome formation and integrin internalization. We find that CYRI-A is transiently recruited to nascent macropinosomes, dependent on PI3K and RAC1 activity. CYRI-A recruitment precedes RAB5A recruitment but follows sharply after RAC1 and actin signaling, consistent with it being a local inhibitor of actin polymerization. Depletion of both CYRI-A and -B results in enhanced surface expression of the α5β1 integrin via reduced internalization. CYRI depletion enhanced migration, invasion, and anchorage-independent growth in 3D. Thus, CYRI-A is a dynamic regulator of macropinocytosis, functioning together with CYRI-B to regulate integrin trafficking.

The structural dynamics of macropinosome formation and PI3-kinase-mediated sealing revealed by lattice light sheet microscopy

Macropinosomes are formed by shaping actin-rich plasma membrane ruffles into large intracellular organelles in a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-coordinated manner. Here, we utilize lattice lightsheet microscopy and image visualization methods to map the three-dimensional structure and dynamics of macropinosome formation relative to PI3K activity. We show that multiple ruffling morphologies produce macropinosomes and that the majority form through collisions of adjacent PI3K-rich ruffles. By combining multiple volumetric representations of the plasma membrane structure and PI3K products, we show that PI3K activity begins early throughout the entire ruffle volume and continues to increase until peak activity concentrates at the base of the ruffle after the macropinosome closes. Additionally, areas of the plasma membrane rich in ruffling had increased PI3K activity and produced many macropinosomes of various sizes. Pharmacologic inhibition of PI3K activity had little effect on the rate and morphology of membrane ruffling, demonstrating that early production of 3'-phosphoinositides within ruffles plays a minor role in regulating their morphology. However, 3'-phosphoinositides are critical for the fusogenic activity that seals ruffles into macropinosomes. Taken together, these data indicate that local PI3K activity is amplified in ruffles and serves as a priming mechanism for closure and sealing of ruffles into macropinosomes.

The structural dynamics of macropinosome formation and PI3-kinase-mediated sealing revealed by lattice light sheet microscopy

Macropinosomes are formed by shaping actin-rich plasma membrane ruffles into large intracellular organelles in a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-coordinated manner. Here, we utilize lattice lightsheet microscopy and image visualization methods to map the three-dimensional structure and dynamics of macropinosome formation relative to PI3K activity. We show that multiple ruffling morphologies produce macropinosomes and that the majority form through collisions of adjacent PI3K-rich ruffles. By combining multiple volumetric representations of the plasma membrane structure and PI3K products, we show that PI3K activity begins early throughout the entire ruffle volume and continues to increase until peak activity concentrates at the base of the ruffle after the macropinosome closes. Additionally, areas of the plasma membrane rich in ruffling had increased PI3K activity and produced many macropinosomes of various sizes. Pharmacologic inhibition of PI3K activity had little effect on the rate and morphology of membrane ruffling, demonstrating that early production of 3'-phosphoinositides within ruffles plays a minor role in regulating their morphology. However, 3'-phosphoinositides are critical for the fusogenic activity that seals ruffles into macropinosomes. Taken together, these data indicate that local PI3K activity is amplified in ruffles and serves as a priming mechanism for closure and sealing of ruffles into macropinosomes.

Unconjugated p-cresol activates macrophage macropinocytosis leading to increased LDL uptake

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease suffer from increased cardiovascular events and cardiac mortality. Prior studies have demonstrated that a portion of this enhanced risk can be attributed to the accumulation of microbiota-derived toxic metabolites, with most studies focusing on the sulfonated form of p-cresol (PCS). However, unconjugated p-cresol (uPC) itself was never assessed due to rapid and extensive first-pass metabolism that results in negligible serum concentrations of uPC. These reports thus failed to consider the host exposure to uPC prior to hepatic metabolism. In the current study, not only did we measure the effect of altering the intestinal microbiota on lipid accumulation in coronary arteries, but we also examined macrophage lipid uptake and handling pathways in response to uPC. We found that atherosclerosis-prone mice fed a high-fat diet exhibited significantly higher coronary artery lipid deposits upon receiving fecal material from CKD mice. Furthermore, treatment with uPC increased total cholesterol, triglycerides, and hepatic and aortic fatty deposits in non-CKD mice. Studies employing an in vitro macrophage model demonstrated that uPC exposure increased apoptosis whereas PCS did not. Additionally, uPC exhibited higher potency than PCS to stimulate LDL uptake and only uPC induced endocytosis- and pinocytosis-related genes. Pharmacological inhibition of varying cholesterol influx and efflux systems indicated that uPC increased macrophage LDL uptake by activating macropinocytosis. Overall, these findings indicate that uPC itself had a distinct effect on macrophage biology that might have contributed to increased cardiovascular risk in patients with CKD.

Distinct forms of the actin cross-linking protein α-actinin support macropinosome internalization and trafficking

The α-actinin family of actin cross-linking proteins have been implicated in driving tumor cell metastasis through regulation of the actin cytoskeleton; however, there has been little investigation into whether these proteins can influence tumor cell growth. We demonstrate that α-actinin 1 and 4 are essential for nutrient uptake through the process of macropinocytosis in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells, and inhibition of these proteins decreases tumor cell survival in the presence of extracellular protein. The α-actinin proteins play essential roles throughout the macropinocytic process, where α-actinin 4 stabilizes the actin cytoskeleton on the plasma membrane to drive membrane ruffling and macropinosome internalization and α-actinin 1 localizes to actin tails on macropinosomes to facilitate trafficking to the lysosome for degradation. In addition to tumor cell growth, we also observe that the α-actinin proteins can influence uptake of chemotherapeutics and extracellular matrix proteins through macropinocytosis, suggesting that the α-actinin proteins can regulate multiple tumor cell properties through this endocytic process. In summary, these data demonstrate a critical role for the α-actinin isoforms in tumor cell macropinocytosis, thereby affecting the growth and invasive potential of PDAC tumors.

Cancer cells escape autophagy inhibition via NRF2-induced macropinocytosis

Many cancers, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), depend on autophagy-mediated scavenging and recycling of intracellular macromolecules, suggesting that autophagy blockade should cause tumor starvation and regression. However, until now autophagy-inhibiting monotherapies have not demonstrated potent anti-cancer activity. We now show that autophagy blockade prompts established PDAC to upregulate and utilize an alternative nutrient procurement pathway: macropinocytosis (MP) that allows tumor cells to extract nutrients from extracellular sources and use them for energy generation. The autophagy to MP switch, which may be evolutionarily conserved and not cancer cell restricted, depends on activation of transcription factor NRF2 by the autophagy adaptor p62/SQSTM1. NRF2 activation by oncogenic mutations, hypoxia, and oxidative stress also results in MP upregulation. Inhibition of MP in autophagy-compromised PDAC elicits dramatic metabolic decline and regression of transplanted and autochthonous tumors, suggesting the therapeutic promise of combining autophagy and MP inhibitors in the clinic.

Understanding nanoparticle endocytosis to improve targeting strategies in nanomedicine

Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted considerable attention in various fields, such as cosmetics, the food industry, material design, and nanomedicine. In particular, the fast-moving field of nanomedicine takes advantage of features of NPs for the detection and treatment of different types of cancer, fibrosis, inflammation, arthritis as well as neurodegenerative and gastrointestinal diseases. To this end, a detailed understanding of the NP uptake mechanisms by cells and intracellular localization is essential for safe and efficient therapeutic applications. In the first part of this review, we describe the several endocytic pathways involved in the internalization of NPs and we discuss the impact of the physicochemical properties of NPs on this process. In addition, the potential challenges of using various inhibitors, endocytic markers and genetic approaches to study endocytosis are addressed along with the principal (semi) quantification methods of NP uptake. The second part focuses on synthetic and bio-inspired substances, which can stimulate or decrease the cellular uptake of NPs. This approach could be interesting in nanomedicine where a high accumulation of drugs in the target cells is desirable and clearance by immune cells is to be avoided. This review contributes to an improved understanding of NP endocytic pathways and reveals potential substances, which can be used in nanomedicine to improve NP delivery.

New methods to decrypt emerging macropinosome functions during the host-pathogen crosstalk

Large volumes of liquid and other materials from the extracellular environment are internalised by eukaryotic cells via an endocytic process called macropinocytosis. It is now recognised that this fundamental and evolutionarily conserved pathway is hijacked by numerous intracellular pathogens as an entry portal to the host cell interior. Yet, an increasing number of additional cellular functions of macropinosomes in pathologic processes have been reported beyond this role for fluid internalisation. It emerges that the identity of macropinosomes can vary hugely and change rapidly during their lifetime. A deeper understanding of this important multi-faceted compartment is based on novel methods for their investigation. These methods are either imaging-based for the tracking of macropinosome dynamics, or they provide the means to extract macropinosomes at high purity for comprehensive proteomic analyses. Here, we portray these new approaches for the investigation of macropinosomes. We document how these method developments have provided insights for a new understanding of the intracellular lifestyle of the bacterial pathogens Shigella and Salmonella. We suggest that a systematic complete characterisation of macropinosome subversion with these approaches during other infection processes and pathologies will be highly beneficial for our understanding of the underlying cellular and molecular processes.

Rab5 regulates macropinocytosis by recruiting the inositol 5-phosphatases OCRL and Inpp5b that hydrolyse PtdIns(4,5)P2

Rab5 is required for macropinosome formation, but its site and mode of action remain unknown. We report that Rab5 acts at the plasma membrane, downstream of ruffling, to promote macropinosome sealing and scission. Dominant-negative Rab5, which obliterates macropinocytosis, had no effect on the development of membrane ruffles. However, Rab5-containing vesicles were recruited to circular membrane ruffles, and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE)-dependent endomembrane fusion was necessary for the completion of macropinocytosis. This fusion event coincided with the disappearance of PtdIns(4,5)P2 that accompanies macropinosome closure. Counteracting the depletion of PtdIns(4,5)P2 by expression of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase impaired macropinosome formation. Importantly, we found that the removal of PtdIns(4,5)P2 is dependent on Rab5, through the Rab5-mediated recruitment of the inositol 5-phosphatases OCRL and Inpp5b, via APPL1. Knockdown of OCRL and Inpp5b, or APPL1, prevented macropinosome closure without affecting ruffling. We therefore propose that Rab5 is essential for the clearance of PtdIns(4,5)P2 needed to complete the scission of macropinosomes or to prevent their back-fusion with the plasmalemma.

Investigation of the pathway dependent endocytosis of gold nanoparticles by surface-enhanced Raman scattering

Endocytosis is a critical mechanism providing not only internalization of biomacromolecular structures but also communication with the environment where cells reside. Due to being the first step at the interaction interface, the route of cellular uptake has a major role governing the intracellular destinations and behaviors of molecular and non-molecular species including nanoparticles. To this end, various methods employing variety of techniques are investigated. In this study, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) based approach for the investigation of endocytosis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) is reported. Internalization pathways of AuNPs were examined by flow cytometry via specific inhibitors for each endocytosis pathway type using three model cell lines Beas-2b, A549 and PNT1A. Macropinocytosis was blocked by cytochalasin D (CytoD), clathrin mediated endocytosis (CME) by sucrose (Scr), and caveolae mediated endocytosis (CE) by filipin (Fil). The results showed that cell type dependent AuNPs internalization affects not only the response of the cells to the inhibitors but also the obtained SERS spectra. SERS spectra of PNT1A cells treated with inhibitors was influenced most. The inhibition of each endocytosis pathway significantly affected the SERS spectral pattern and the spectral changes in different endocytosis pathways were clearly discriminated from each other. This means that SERS can significantly contribute to the investigation of different endosomal pathways from single living cells without any disruption of the cells or labeling.

The nanomorphology of cell surfaces of adhered osteoblasts

The functionality of living cells is inherently linked to subunits with dimensions ranging from several micrometers down to the nanometer scale. The cell surface plays a particularly important role. Electric signaling, including information processing, takes place at the membrane, as well as adhesion and contact. For osteoblasts, adhesion and spreading are crucial processes with regard to bone implants. Here we present a comprehensive characterization of the 3D nanomorphology of living, as well as fixed, osteoblastic cells using scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM), which is a nanoprobing method that largely avoids mechanical perturbations. Dynamic ruffles are observed, manifesting themselves in characteristic membrane protrusions. They contribute to the overall surface corrugation, which we systematically study by introducing the relative 3D excess area as a function of the projected adhesion area. A clear anticorrelation between the two parameters is found upon analysis of ca. 40 different cells on glass and on amine-covered surfaces. At the rim of lamellipodia, characteristic edge heights between 100 and 300 nm are observed. Power spectral densities of membrane fluctuations show frequency-dependent decay exponents with absolute values greater than 2 on living osteoblasts. We discuss the capability of apical membrane features and fluctuation dynamics in aiding the assessment of adhesion and migration properties on a single-cell basis.

Extracellular Vesicle Transportation and Uptake by Recipient Cells: A Critical Process to Regulate Human Diseases

Emerging evidence highlights the relevance of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in modulating human diseases including but not limited to cancer, inflammation, and neurological disorders. EVs can be found in almost all types of human body fluids, suggesting that their trafficking may allow for their targeting to remote recipient cells. While molecular processes underlying EV biogenesis and secretion are increasingly elucidated, mechanisms governing EV transportation, target finding and binding, as well as uptake into recipient cells remain to be characterized. Understanding the specificity of EV transport and uptake is critical to facilitating the development of EVs as valuable diagnostics and therapeutics. In this mini review, we focus on EV uptake mechanisms and specificities, as well as their implications in human diseases.

EVL regulates VEGF receptor-2 internalization and signaling in developmental angiogenesis

Endothelial tip cells are essential for VEGF‐induced angiogenesis, but underlying mechanisms are elusive. The Ena/VASP protein family, consisting of EVL, VASP, and Mena, plays a pivotal role in axon guidance. Given that axonal growth cones and endothelial tip cells share many common features, from the morphological to the molecular level, we investigated the role of Ena/VASP proteins in angiogenesis. EVL and VASP, but not Mena, are expressed in endothelial cells of the postnatal mouse retina. Global deletion of EVL (but not VASP) compromises the radial sprouting of the vascular plexus in mice. Similarly, endothelial‐specific EVL deletion compromises the radial sprouting of the vascular plexus and reduces the endothelial tip cell density and filopodia formation. Gene sets involved in blood vessel development and angiogenesis are down‐regulated in EVL‐deficient P5‐retinal endothelial cells. Consistently, EVL deletion impairs VEGF‐induced endothelial cell proliferation and sprouting, and reduces the internalization and phosphorylation of VEGF receptor 2 and its downstream signaling via the MAPK/ERK pathway. Together, we show that endothelial EVL regulates sprouting angiogenesis via VEGF receptor‐2 internalization and signaling.

Macropinocytosis as a cell entry route for peptide-functionalized and bystander nanoparticles

Endocytic pathways provide the primary route for therapeutic and diagnostic nanoparticles (NPs) to enter cells and subcellular compartments. A better understanding of these cell entry processes will not only aid in nanomaterial applications but also broaden our knowledge of cell biology. Among the endocytic routes, macropinocytosis has unique characteristics for engulfing NPs and other large cargo, yet its molecular machinery and involvement in NP uptake are far less characterized relative to other pathways. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the macropinocytic machinery, and its involvement in NP internalization. Particularly, we differentiate ligand (specifically peptide)-functionalized and unfunctionalized NPs (bystander NPs). While most of previous research focused on ligand-functionalized NPs, we showcase here a synergistic effect between these two NP types during their cell entry through receptor-mediated macropinocytosis. The regulation of NP uptake efficiency by extracellular amino acids is also highlighted in the context of interconnections between macropinocytosis and metabolic signaling. These discussions may fuel future research interests in improving NP internalization through this pathway, and open a new avenue to study the interplay among endocytosis, metabolism and nanomedicine.

Hijacking Endocytosis and Autophagy in Extracellular Vesicle Communication: Where the Inside Meets the Outside

Extracellular vesicles, phospholipid bilayer-membrane vesicles of cellular origin, are emerging as nanocarriers of biological information between cells. Extracellular vesicles transport virtually all biologically active macromolecules (e.g., nucleotides, lipids, and proteins), thus eliciting phenotypic changes in recipient cells. However, we only partially understand the cellular mechanisms driving the encounter of a soluble ligand transported in the lumen of extracellular vesicles with its cytosolic receptor: a step required to evoke a biologically relevant response. In this context, we review herein current evidence supporting the role of two well-described cellular transport pathways: the endocytic pathway as the main entry route for extracellular vesicles and the autophagic pathway driving lysosomal degradation of cytosolic proteins. The interplay between these pathways may result in the target engagement between an extracellular vesicle cargo protein and its cytosolic target within the acidic compartments of the cell. This mechanism of cell-to-cell communication may well own possible implications in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders.

Macrophage imaging and subset analysis using single-cell RNA sequencing

Macrophages have been associated with drug response and resistance in diverse settings, thus raising the possibility of using macrophage imaging as a companion diagnostic to inform personalized patient treatment strategies. Nanoparticle-based contrast agents are especially promising because they efficiently deliver fluorescent, magnetic, and/or radionuclide labels by leveraging the intrinsic capacity of macrophages to accumulate nanomaterials in their role as professional phagocytes. Unfortunately, current clinical imaging modalities are limited in their ability to quantify broad molecular programs that may explain (a) which particular cell subsets a given imaging agent is actually labeling, and (b) what mechanistic role those cells play in promoting drug response or resistance. Highly multiplexed single-cell approaches including single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) have emerged as resources to help answer these questions. In this review, we query recently published scRNAseq datasets to support companion macrophage imaging, with particular focus on using dextran-based nanoparticles to predict the action of anti-cancer nanotherapies and monoclonal antibodies.

LY6D-induced macropinocytosis as a survival mechanism of senescent cells

Although senescent cells display various morphological changes including vacuole formation, it is still unclear how these processes are regulated. We have recently identified the gene, lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus D (LY6D), to be upregulated specifically in senescent cells. LY6D is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored cell-surface protein whose function remains unknown. Here, we analyzed the functional relationship between LY6D and the senescence processes. We found that overexpression of LY6D induced vacuole formation and knockdown of LY6D suppressed the senescence-associated vacuole formation. The LY6D-induced vacuoles were derived from macropinocytosis, a distinct form of endocytosis. Furthermore, Src family kinases and Ras were found to be recruited to membrane lipid rafts in an LY6D-dependent manner, and inhibition of their activity impaired the LY6D-induced macropinocytosis. Finally, reduction of senescent-cell survival induced by glutamine deprivation was recovered by albumin supplementation to the culture media in an LY6D-dependent manner. Because macropinocytosis acts as an amino acid supply route, these results suggest that LY6D-mediated macropinocytosis contributes to senescent-cell survival through the incorporation of extracellular nutrients.

Effect of Surface Modifications on Cellular Uptake of Gold Nanorods in Human Primary Cells and Established Cell Lines

Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances are engulfed by the cellular membrane and budded off inside the cells to form vesicles. It plays key roles in controlling nutritional component uptake, immune responses, and other biological functions. A comprehensive understanding of endocytosis gives insights into such physiological functions and informs the design of medical nanodevices that need to enter cells. So far, endocytosis has been studied mostly using established cell lines. However, the established cell lines generally originate from cancer cells or are transformed from normal cells into immortalized cells. Therefore, primary cells may give us more reliable information about the endocytosis process of nanoparticles into cells. In this research, we studied the uptake of gold nanorods (AuNRs) with four different surface modifications (anionic/cationic polymers and anionic/cationic silica) by two kinds of primary cells (human monocyte-derived macrophages and human umbilical vein endothelial cells) and two kinds of established cell lines (HeLa cells and RAW 264.7 cells). We found that the surface properties of AuNRs affected their cellular uptake, and the cationic surface tended was advantageous for uptake, but it depended on the cell types. Control experiments using inhibitors of representative endocytosis pathways (macropinocytosis, clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and caveolae-mediated endocytosis) indicated that primary cells had a dominant uptake pathway for internalization of the AuNRs, whereas the established cell lines had multiple pathways. Our results provide us with novel insights into cellular uptake of AuNRs in that they depend not only on surface characters of the nanoparticles but also cell types, such as primary cells and established cell lines.

Nanomedicines for Subcellular Targeting: The Mitochondrial Perspective

BACKGROUND

Over the past decade, there has been a surge in the number of mitochondrialactive therapeutics for conditions ranging from cancer to aging. Subcellular targeting interventions can modulate adverse intracellular processes unique to the compartments within the cell. However, there is a dearth of reviews focusing on mitochondrial nano-delivery, and this review seeks to fill this gap with regards to nanotherapeutics of the mitochondria.

METHODS

Besides its potential for a higher therapeutic index than targeting at the tissue and cell levels, subcellular targeting takes into account the limitations of systemic drug administration and significantly improves pharmacokinetics. Hence, an extensive literature review was undertaken and salient information was compiled in this review.

RESULTS

From literature, it was evident that nanoparticles with their tunable physicochemical properties have shown potential for efficient therapeutic delivery, with several nanomedicines already approved by the FDA and others in clinical trials. However, strategies for the development of nanomedicines for subcellular targeting are still emerging, with an increased understanding of dysfunctional molecular processes advancing the development of treatment modules. For optimal delivery, the design of an ideal carrier for subcellular delivery must consider the features of the diseased microenvironment. The functional and structural features of the mitochondria in the diseased state are highlighted and potential nano-delivery interventions for treatment and diagnosis are discussed.

CONCLUSION

This review provides an insight into recent advances in subcellular targeting, with a focus on en route barriers to subcellular targeting. The impact of mitochondrial dysfunction in the aetiology of certain diseases is highlighted, and potential therapeutic sites are identified.

Intracellular Transport in Cancer Metabolic Reprogramming

Tumor progression is a complex process consisting of several steps characterized by alterations in cellular behavior and morphology. These steps include uncontrolled cell division and proliferation, invasiveness and metastatic ability. Throughout these phases, cancer cells encounter a changing environment and a variety of metabolic stress. To meet their needs for energy while they proliferate and survive in their new environment, tumor cells need to continuously fine-tune their metabolism. The connection between intracellular transport and metabolic reprogramming during cancer progression is emerging as a central process of cellular adaptation to these changes. The trafficking of proteolytic enzymes, surface receptors, but also the regulation of downstream pathways, are all central to cancer progression. In this review, we summarize different hallmarks of cancer with a special focus on the role of intracellular trafficking in cell proliferation, epithelial to mesenchymal transition as well as invasion. We will further emphasize how intracellular trafficking contributes to the regulation of energy consumption and metabolism during these steps of cancer progression.

Enhanced Internalization of Nanoparticles Following Ionizing Radiation Leads to Mitotic Catastrophe in MG-63 Human Osteosarcoma Cells

This study aims to investigate whether ionizing radiation combined with doxorubicin-conjugated iron oxide nanoparticles (NP-DOX) improves the internalization and cytotoxic effects of the nano-carrier-mediated drug delivery in MG-63 human osteosarcoma cells. NP-DOX was designed and synthesized using the co-precipitation method. Highly stable and crystalline nanoparticles conjugated with DOX were internalized in MG-63 cells through macropinocytosis and located in the perinuclear area. Higher nanoparticles internalization in MG-63 cells previously exposed to 1 Gy X-rays was correlated with an early accumulation of cells in G₂/M, starting at 12 h after treatment. After 48 h, the application of the combined treatment led to higher cytotoxic effects compared to the individual treatment, with a reduction in the metabolic capacity and unrepaired DNA breaks, whilst a low percent of arrested cells, contributing to the commitment of mitotic catastrophe. NP-DOX showed hemocompatibility and no systemic cytotoxicity, nor histopathological alteration of the main organs.