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Janisch J, Kirven J, Schapker N, Myers LC, Shapiro LJ, Young JW. Protocol to record and analyze primate leaping in three-dimensional in the wild. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38973531 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 06/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
Several studies comparing primate locomotion under lab versus field conditions have shown the importance of implementing both types of studies, as each has their advantages and disadvantages. However, three-dimensional (3D) motion capture of primates has been challenging under natural conditions. In this study, we provide a detailed protocol on how to collect 3D biomechanical data on primate leaping in their natural habitat that can be widely implemented. To record primate locomotion in the dense forest we use modified GoPro Hero Black cameras with zoom lenses that can easily be carried around and set up on tripods. We outline details on how to obtain camera calibrations at greater heights and how to process the collected data using the MATLAB camera calibration app and the motion tracking software DLTdv8a. We further developed a new MATLAB application "WildLeap3D" to generate biomechanical performance metrics from the derived x, y, z coordinates of the leaps. We provide details on how to collect data on support diameter, compliance, and orientation, and combine these with the jumps to study locomotor performance in an ecological context. We successfully reconstructed leaps of wild primates in the 3D space under natural conditions and provided data on four representative leaps. We provide exemplar data on primate velocity and acceleration during a leap and show how our protocol can be used to analyze segmental kinematics. This study will help to make motion capture of freely moving animals more accessible and help further our knowledge about animal locomotion and movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Janisch
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Jack Kirven
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, USA
| | - Nicole Schapker
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, USA
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, USA
| | - Lydia C Myers
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Liza J Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Jesse W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, USA
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Druelle F, Leti I, Bokika Ngawolo JC, Narat V. Vertical climbing in free-ranging bonobos: An exploratory study integrating locomotor performance and substrate compliance. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 183:e24894. [PMID: 38180148 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Ecological factors and body size shape animal movement and adaptation. Large primates such as bonobos excel in navigating the demanding substrates of arboreal habitats. However, current approaches lack comprehensive assessment of climbing performance in free-ranging individuals, limiting our understanding of locomotor adaptations. This study aims to explore climbing performance in free-ranging bonobos and how substrate properties affect their behavior. METHODS We collected data on the climbing performance of habituated bonobos, Pan paniscus, in the Bolobo Territory, Democratic Republic of Congo. We analyzed 46 climbing bouts (12 ascents, 34 descents) while moving on vertical substrates of varying diameter and compliance levels. This study assessed the average speed, peak acceleration, resting postures, and transitions between climbing and other locomotor modes. RESULTS During climbing sequences and transitions, bonobos mitigate speed variations. They also exhibit regular pauses during climbing and show higher speeds during descent in contrast to their ascent. Regarding the influence of substrate properties, bonobos exhibit higher speed when ascending on thin and slightly flexible substrates, while they appear to achieve higher speeds when descending on large and stiff substrates, by using a "fire-pole slide" submode. DISCUSSION Bonobos demonstrate remarkable abilities for negotiating vertical substrates and substrate properties influence their performance. Our results support the idea that bonobos adopt a behavioral strategy that aligns with the notion of minimizing costs. Overall, the adoption of high velocities and the use of low-cost resting postures may reduce muscle fatigue. These aspects could represent important targets of selection to ensure ecological efficiency in bonobos.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique, UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN-UPVD, Paris, France
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Innocent Leti
- NGO Mbou-Mon-Tour, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | | | - Victor Narat
- Eco-Anthropologie, UMR 7206, MNHN-CNRS-Univ. Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Bonobo Eco, Saint Brice sur Vienne, Vienne, France
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Wang Z, Feng Y, Wang B, Yuan J, Zhang B, Song Y, Wu X, Li L, Li W, Dai Z. Device for Measuring Contact Reaction Forces during Animal Adhesion Landing/Takeoff from Leaf-like Compliant Substrates. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:141. [PMID: 38534826 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9030141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A precise measurement of animal behavior and reaction forces from their surroundings can help elucidate the fundamental principle of animal locomotion, such as landing and takeoff. Compared with stiff substrates, compliant substrates, like leaves, readily yield to loads, presenting grand challenges in measuring the reaction forces on the substrates involving compliance. To gain insight into the kinematic mechanisms and structural-functional evolution associated with arboreal animal locomotion, this study introduces an innovative device that facilitates the quantification of the reaction forces on compliant substrates, like leaves. By utilizing the stiffness-damping characteristics of servomotors and the adjustable length of a cantilever structure, the substrate compliance of the device can be accurately controlled. The substrate was further connected to a force sensor and an acceleration sensor. With the cooperation of these sensors, the measured interaction force between the animal and the compliant substrate prevented the effects of inertial force coupling. The device was calibrated under preset conditions, and its force measurement accuracy was validated, with the error between the actual measured and theoretical values being no greater than 10%. Force curves were measured, and frictional adhesion coefficients were calculated from comparative experiments on the landing/takeoff of adherent animals (tree frogs and geckos) on this device. Analysis revealed that the adhesion force limits were significantly lower than previously reported values (0.2~0.4 times those estimated in previous research). This apparatus provides mechanical evidence for elucidating structural-functional relationships exhibited by animals during locomotion and can serve as an experimental platform for optimizing the locomotion of bioinspired robots on compliant substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhouyi Wang
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
- Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518063, China
| | - Yiping Feng
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
| | - Bingcheng Wang
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
- Institute of Neuroinformatics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jiwei Yuan
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
| | - Baowen Zhang
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
| | - Yi Song
- College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, 18 Chaowang Road, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Xuan Wu
- Robotics Laboratory China Nanhu Academy of Electronics and Information Technology, Jiaxing 314000, China
| | - Lei Li
- Robotics Laboratory China Nanhu Academy of Electronics and Information Technology, Jiaxing 314000, China
| | - Weipeng Li
- Robotics Laboratory China Nanhu Academy of Electronics and Information Technology, Jiaxing 314000, China
| | - Zhendong Dai
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
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Berles P, Wölfer J, Alfieri F, Botton-Divet L, Guéry JP, Nyakatura JA. Linking morphology, performance, and habitat utilization: adaptation across biologically relevant 'levels' in tamarins. BMC Ecol Evol 2024; 24:22. [PMID: 38355429 PMCID: PMC10865561 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-023-02193-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biological adaptation manifests itself at the interface of different biologically relevant 'levels', such as ecology, performance, and morphology. Integrated studies at this interface are scarce due to practical difficulties in study design. We present a multilevel analysis, in which we combine evidence from habitat utilization, leaping performance and limb bone morphology of four species of tamarins to elucidate correlations between these 'levels'. RESULTS We conducted studies of leaping behavior in the field and in a naturalistic park and found significant differences in support use and leaping performance. Leontocebus nigrifrons leaps primarily on vertical, inflexible supports, with vertical body postures, and covers greater leaping distances on average. In contrast, Saguinus midas and S. imperator use vertical and horizontal supports for leaping with a relatively similar frequency. S. mystax is similar to S. midas and S. imperator in the use of supports, but covers greater leaping distances on average, which are nevertheless shorter than those of L. nigrifrons. We assumed these differences to be reflected in the locomotor morphology, too, and compared various morphological features of the long bones of the limbs. According to our performance and habitat utilization data, we expected the long bone morphology of L. nigrifrons to reflect the largest potential for joint torque generation and stress resistance, because we assume longer leaps on vertical supports to exert larger forces on the bones. For S. mystax, based on our performance data, we expected the potential for torque generation to be intermediate between L. nigrifrons and the other two Saguinus species. Surprisingly, we found S. midas and S. imperator having relatively more robust morphological structures as well as relatively larger muscle in-levers, and thus appearing better adapted to the stresses involved in leaping than the other two. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates the complex ways in which behavioral and morphological 'levels' map onto each other, cautioning against oversimplification of ecological profiles when using large interspecific eco-morphological studies to make adaptive evolutionary inferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Berles
- AG Vergleichende Zoologie, Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 12/13, 10115, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Jan Wölfer
- AG Vergleichende Zoologie, Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 12/13, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Fabio Alfieri
- AG Vergleichende Zoologie, Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 12/13, 10115, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Berlin, Germany
| | - Léo Botton-Divet
- AG Vergleichende Zoologie, Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 12/13, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - John A Nyakatura
- AG Vergleichende Zoologie, Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 12/13, 10115, Berlin, Germany
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Boulinguez-Ambroise G, Dunham N, Phelps T, Mazonas T, Nguyen P, Bradley-Cronkwright M, Boyer DM, Yapuncich GS, Zeininger A, Schmitt D, Young JW. Jumping performance in tree squirrels: Insights into primate evolution. J Hum Evol 2023; 180:103386. [PMID: 37209637 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Morphological traits suggesting powerful jumping abilities are characteristic of early crown primate fossils. Because tree squirrels lack certain 'primatelike' grasping features but frequently travel on the narrow terminal branches of trees, they make a viable extant model for an early stage of primate evolution. Here, we explore biomechanical determinants of jumping performance in the arboreal Eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis, n = 3) as a greater understanding of the biomechanical strategies that squirrels use to modulate jumping performance could inform theories of selection for increased jumping ability during early primate evolution. We assessed vertical jumping performance by using instrumented force platforms upon which were mounted launching supports of various sizes, allowing us to test the influence of substrate diameter on jumping kinetics and performance. We used standard ergometric methods to quantify jumping parameters (e.g., takeoff velocity, total displacement, peak mechanical power) from force platform data during push-off. We found that tree squirrels display divergent mechanical strategies according to the type of substrate, prioritizing force production on flat ground versus center of mass displacement on narrower poles. As jumping represents a significant part of the locomotor behavior of most primates, we suggest that jumping from small arboreal substrates may have acted as a potential driver of the selection for elongated hindlimb segments in primates, allowing the center of mass to be accelerated over a longer distance-and thereby reducing the need for high substrate reaction forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grégoire Boulinguez-Ambroise
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), 4209 State Road 44, Rootstown, 44272, OH, USA.
| | - Noah Dunham
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, 3900 Wildlife Way, Cleveland, 44109, OH, USA; Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, 2080 Adelbert Road, Cleveland, 44106, OH, USA
| | - Taylor Phelps
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), 4209 State Road 44, Rootstown, 44272, OH, USA
| | - Thomas Mazonas
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), 4209 State Road 44, Rootstown, 44272, OH, USA
| | - Peter Nguyen
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), 4209 State Road 44, Rootstown, 44272, OH, USA
| | | | - Doug M Boyer
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 130 Science Drive, Durham, 27708, NC, USA
| | - Gabriel S Yapuncich
- Medical Education Administration, Duke University School of Medicine, 40 Duke Medicine Circle, Durham, 27710, NC, USA
| | - Angel Zeininger
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 130 Science Drive, Durham, 27708, NC, USA
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 130 Science Drive, Durham, 27708, NC, USA
| | - Jesse W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), 4209 State Road 44, Rootstown, 44272, OH, USA
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Divi S, Reynaga C, Azizi E, Bergbreiter S. Adapting small jumping robots to compliant environments. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220778. [PMID: 36854379 PMCID: PMC9974292 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Jumping animals launch themselves from surfaces that vary widely in compliance from grasses and shrubs to tree branches. However, studies of robotic jumpers have been largely limited to those jumping from rigid substrates. In this paper, we leverage recent work describing how latches in jumping systems can mediate the transition from stored potential energy to kinetic energy. By including a description of the latch in our system model of both the jumper and compliant substrate, we can describe conditions in which a jumper can either lose energy to the substrate or recover energy from the substrate resulting in an improved jump performance. Using our mathematical model, we illustrate how the latch plays a role in the ability of a system to adapt its jump performance to a wide range of substrates that vary in their compliance. Our modelling results are validated using a 4 g jumper with a range of latch designs jumping from substrates with varying mass and compliance. Finally, we demonstrate the jumper recovering energy from a tree branch during take-off, extending these mechanistic findings to robots interacting with a more natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathvik Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Crystal Reynaga
- Department of Biology, Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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Vega CM, Ashley-Ross MA. Tiger Salamanders ( Ambystoma tigrinum) Increase Foot Contact Surface Area on Challenging Substrates During Terrestrial Locomotion. Integr Org Biol 2020; 2:obaa029. [PMID: 33791568 PMCID: PMC7794020 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obaa029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals live in heterogeneous environments must navigate in order to forage or capture food, defend territories, and locate mates. These heterogeneous environments have a variety of substrates that differ in their roughness, texture, and other properties, all of which may alter locomotor performance. Despite such natural variation in substrate, many studies on locomotion use noncompliant surfaces that either are unrepresentative of the range of substrates experienced by species or underestimate maximal locomotor capabilities. The goal of this study was to determine the role of forefeet and hindfeet on substrates with different properties during walking in a generalized sprawling tetrapod, the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). Adult salamanders (n = 4, SVL = 11.2–14.6 cm) walked across level dry sand (DS), semi-soft plaster of Paris (PoP), wet sand (WS), and a hard, noncompliant surface (table)—substrates that vary in compliance. Trials were filmed in dorsal and anterior views. Videos were analyzed to determine the number of digits and surface area of each foot in contact with the substrate. The surface area of the forelimbs contacting the substrate was significantly greater on DS and PoP than on WS and the table. The surface area of the hindlimbs contacting the substrate was significantly greater on DS than on all other substrates. There were no significant differences in the time that the fore- or hindfeet were in contact with the substrate as determined by the number of digits. We conclude that salamanders modulate the use of their feet depending on the substrate, particularly on DS which is known to increase the mechanical work and energy expended during locomotion owing to the fluid nature of its loose particles. More studies are needed to test a wider range of substrates and to incorporate behavioral data from field studies to get a better understanding of how salamanders are affected by different substrates in their natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Vega
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, 1834 Wake Forest Road, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA
| | - Miriam A Ashley-Ross
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, 1834 Wake Forest Road, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA
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9
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Mo X, Romano D, Miraglia M, Ge W, Stefanini C. Effect of Substrates' Compliance on the Jumping Mechanism of Locusta migratoria. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:661. [PMID: 32775320 PMCID: PMC7381386 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Locusts generally live and move in complex environments including different kind of substrates, ranging from compliant leaves to stiff branches. Since the contact force generates deformation of the substrate, a certain amount of energy is dissipated each time when locust jumps from a compliant substrate. In published researches, it is proven that only tree frogs are capable of recovering part of the energy that had been accumulated in the substrate as deformation energy in the initial pushing phase, just before leaving the ground. The jumping performances of adult Locusta migratoria on substrates of three different compliances demonstrate that locusts are able to adapt their jumping mode to the mechanical characteristics of the substrate. Recorded high speed videos illustrate the existence of deformed substrate's recoil before the end of the takeoff phase when locusts jump from compliant substrates, which indicates their ability of recovering part of energy from the substrate deformation. This adaptability is supposed to be related to the catapult mechanism adopted in locusts' jump thanks to their long hind legs and sticky tarsus. These findings improve the understanding of the jumping mechanism of locusts, as well as can be used to develop artifact outperforming current jumping robots in unstructured scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojuan Mo
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Donato Romano
- Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, The BioRobotics Institute, Pisa, Italy
- Department of Excellence in Robotics & A.I., Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Miraglia
- Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, The BioRobotics Institute, Pisa, Italy
| | - Wenjie Ge
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Cesare Stefanini
- Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, The BioRobotics Institute, Pisa, Italy
- Department of Excellence in Robotics & A.I., Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy
- Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center (HEIC), Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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Rosario MV, Olberding JP, Deban SM. Playing with Power: Mechanisms of Energy Flow in Organismal Movement. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 59:1511-1514. [PMID: 31584638 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Across multiple evolutionary clades and size scales, organismal movement requires controlling the flow of energy through the body to enhance certain functions. Whether energy is released or absorbed by the organism, proper function hinges on the ability to manipulate both where and when energy is transferred. For example, both power amplification and power attenuation rely on the use of springs for the intermediate storage of energy between the body and the environment; but variation in function is the result of the path and timing of energy flow. In this symposium, we have invited speakers that demonstrate the diversity of mechanisms used to control the flow of energy through the body and into the environment. By bringing together researchers investigating movements in the context of power and energy flow, the major goal of this symposium is to facilitate fresh perspectives on the unifying mechanical themes of energy transfer in organismal movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Rosario
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, 700 South High Street, West Chester, PA, USA
| | - Jeffrey P Olberding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Stephen M Deban
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, SCA 110, Tampa, FL, USA
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Dunham NT, McNamara A, Shapiro LJ, Phelps T, Young JW. Asymmetrical gait kinematics of free-ranging callitrichines in response to changes in substrate diameter and orientation. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb.217562. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.217562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Arboreal environments present considerable biomechanical challenges for animals moving and foraging among substrates varying in diameter, orientation, and compliance. Most studies of quadrupedal gait kinematics in primates and other arboreal mammals have focused on symmetrical walking gaits and the significance of diagonal sequence gaits. Considerably less research has examined asymmetrical gaits, despite their prevalence in small-bodied arboreal taxa. Here we examine whether and how free-ranging callitrichine primates adjust asymmetrical gait kinematics to changes in substrate diameter and orientation, as well as how variation in gait kinematics affects substrate displacement. We used high-speed video to film free-ranging Saguinus tripartitus and Cebuella pygmaea inhabiting the Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Ecuador. We found that Saguinus used bounding and half-bounding gaits on larger substrates versus gallops and symmetrical gaits on smaller substrates, and also shifted several kinematic parameters consistent with attenuating forces transferred from the animal to the substrate. Similarly, Cebuella shifted from high impact bounding gaits on larger substrates to using more half-bounding gaits on smaller substrates; however, kinematic adjustments to substrate diameter were not as profound as in Saguinus. Both species adjusted gait kinematics to changes in substrate orientation; however, gait kinematics did not significantly affect empirical measures of substrate displacement in either species. Due to their small body size, claw-like nails, and reduced grasping capabilities, callitrichines arguably represent extant biomechanical analogues for an early stage in primate evolution. As such, greater attention should be placed on understanding asymmetrical gait dynamics for insight into hypotheses concerning early primate locomotor evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Dunham
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, 4200 Wildlife Way, Cleveland, OH, 44109, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, 2080 Adelbert Rd, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Allison McNamara
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2201 Speedway Stop C3200, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2201 Speedway Stop C3200, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Taylor Phelps
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH, 44272, USA
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH, 44272, USA
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Graham M, Socha JJ. Going the distance: The biomechanics of gap-crossing behaviors. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 333:60-73. [PMID: 31111626 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The discontinuity of the canopy habitat is one of the principle differences between the terrestrial and arboreal environments. An animal's ability to cross gaps-to move from one support to another across an empty space-is influenced by both the physical structure of the gap and the animal's locomotor capabilities. In this review, we discuss the range of behaviors animals use to cross gaps. Focusing on the biomechanics of these behaviors, we suggest broad categorizations that facilitate comparisons between taxa. We also discuss the importance of gap distance in determining crossing behavior, and suggest several mechanical characteristics that may influence behavior choice, including the degree to which a behavior is dynamic, and whether or not the behavior is airborne. Overall, gap crossing is an important aspect of arboreal locomotion that deserves further in-depth attention, particularly given the ubiquity of gaps in the arboreal habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mal Graham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
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13
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Reynaga CM, Eaton CE, Strong GA, Azizi E. Compliant Substrates Disrupt Elastic Energy Storage in Jumping Tree Frogs. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1535-1545. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Arboreal frogs navigate complex environments and face diverse mechanical properties within their physical environment. Such frogs may encounter substrates that are damped and absorb energy or are elastic and can store and release energy as the animal pushes off during take-off. When dealing with a compliant substrate, a well-coordinated jump would allow for the recovery of elastic energy stored in the substrate to amplify mechanical power, effectively adding an in-series spring to the hindlimbs. We tested the hypothesis that effective use of compliant substrates requires active changes to muscle activation and limb kinematics to recover energy from the substrate. We designed an actuated force platform, modulated with a real-time feedback controller to vary the stiffness of the substrate. We quantified the kinetics and kinematics of Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) jumping off platforms at four different stiffness conditions. In addition, we used electromyography to examine the relationship between muscle activation patterns and substrate compliance during take-off in a knee extensor (m. cruralis) and an ankle extensor (m. plantaris). We find O. septentrionalis do not modulate motor patterns in response to substrate compliance. Although not actively modulated, changes in the rate of limb extension suggest a trade-off between power amplification and energy recovery from the substrate. Our results suggest that compliant substrates disrupt the inertial catch mechanism that allows tree frogs to store elastic energy in the tendon, thereby slowing the rate of limb extension and increasing the duration of take-off. However, the slower rate of limb extension does provide additional time to recover more energy from the substrate. This work serves to broaden our understanding of how the intrinsic mechanical properties of a system may broaden an organism’s capacity to maintain performance when facing environmental perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal M Reynaga
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Caitrin E Eaton
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Computer Science, Colby College, 5852 Mayflower Hill, Waterville, ME, USA
| | - Galatea A Strong
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA, USA
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Dunham NT, McNamara A, Shapiro L, Hieronymus T, Young JW. A user's guide for the quantitative analysis of substrate characteristics and locomotor kinematics in free‐ranging primates. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:569-584. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Dunham
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Allison McNamara
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Liza Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Tobin Hieronymus
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
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Aerts P, D'Août K, Thorpe S, Berillon G, Vereecke E. The gibbon's Achilles tendon revisited: consequences for the evolution of the great apes? Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20180859. [PMID: 29899076 PMCID: PMC6015853 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The well-developed Achilles tendon in humans is generally interpreted as an adaptation for mechanical energy storage and reuse during cyclic locomotion. All other extant great apes have a short tendon and long-fibred triceps surae, which is thought to be beneficial for locomotion in a complex arboreal habitat as this morphology enables a large range of motion. Surprisingly, highly arboreal gibbons show a more human-like triceps surae with a long Achilles tendon. Evidence for a spring-like function similar to humans is not conclusive. We revisit and integrate our anatomical and biomechanical data to calculate the energy that can be recovered from the recoiling Achilles tendon during ankle plantar flexion in bipedal gibbons. Only 7.5% of the required external positive work in a stride can come from tendon recoil, yet it is delivered at an instant when the whole-body energy level drops. Consequently, an additional similar amount of mechanical energy must simultaneously dissipate elsewhere in the system. Altogether, this challenges the concept of an energy-saving function in the gibbon's Achilles tendon. Cercopithecids, sister group of the apes, also have a human-like triceps surae. Therefore, a well-developed Achilles tendon, present in the last common 'Cercopithecoidea-Hominoidea' ancestor, seems plausible. If so, the gibbon's anatomy represents an evolutionary relict (no harm-no benefit), and the large Achilles tendon is not the premised key adaptation in humans (although the spring-like function may have further improved during evolution). Moreover, the triceps surae anatomy of extant non-human great apes must be a convergence, related to muscle control and range of motion. This perspective accords with the suggestions put forward in the literature that the last common hominoid ancestor was not necessarily great ape-like, but might have been more similar to the small-bodied catarrhines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Aerts
- Department Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerpen, Belgium
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Department Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerpen, Belgium
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Susannah Thorpe
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Evie Vereecke
- Department of Development and Regeneration, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Fabre AC, Marigó J, Granatosky MC, Schmitt D. Functional associations between support use and forelimb shape in strepsirrhines and their relevance to inferring locomotor behavior in early primates. J Hum Evol 2017. [PMID: 28622924 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of primates is intimately linked to their initial invasion of an arboreal environment. However, moving and foraging in this milieu creates significant mechanical challenges related to the presence of substrates differing in their size and orientation. It is widely assumed that primates are behaviorally and anatomically adapted to movement on specific substrates, but few explicit tests of this relationship in an evolutionary context have been conducted. Without direct tests of form-function relationships in living primates it is impossible to reliably infer behavior in fossil taxa. In this study, we test a hypothesis of co-variation between forelimb morphology and the type of substrates used by strepsirrhines. If associations between anatomy and substrate use exist, these can then be applied to better understand limb anatomy of extinct primates. The co-variation between each forelimb long bone and the type of substrate used was studied in a phylogenetic context. Our results show that despite the presence of significant phylogenetic signal for each long bone of the forelimb, clear support use associations are present. A strong co-variation was found between the type of substrate used and the shape of the radius, with and without taking phylogeny into account, whereas co-variation was significant for the ulna only when taking phylogeny into account. Species that use a thin branch milieu show radii that are gracile and straight and have a distal articular shape that allows for a wide range of movements. In contrast, extant species that commonly use large supports show a relatively robust and curved radius with an increased surface area available for forearm and hand muscles in pronated posture. These results, especially for the radius, support the idea that strepsirrhine primates exhibit specific skeletal adaptations associated with the supports that they habitually move on. With these robust associations in hand it will be possible to explore the same variables in extinct early primates and primate relatives and thus improve the reliability of inferences concerning substrate use in early primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Claire Fabre
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA; UMR 7179, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Mécadev, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 55, 75231, Paris Cedex 5, France.
| | - Judit Marigó
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA; UMR 7207 CR2P - C.N.R.S., M.N.H.N., U.P.M.C.-Paris 6, Département Histoire de la Terre, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 75005, Paris, France; Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont (ICP), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici Z (ICTA-ICP), Carrer de les Columnes s/n, Campus UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, 60637, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
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Novel developments in field mechanics. J Hum Evol 2016; 98:5-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2014] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Young JW, Stricklen BM, Chadwell BA. Effects of support diameter and compliance on common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) gait kinematics. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:2659-72. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.140939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Locomotion is precarious in an arboreal habitat, where supports can vary in both diameter and level of compliance. Several previous studies have evaluated the influence of substrate diameter on the locomotor performance of arboreal quadrupeds. The influence of substrate compliance, however, has been mostly unexamined. Here, we used a multifactorial experimental design to investigate how perturbations in both diameter and compliance affect the gait kinematics of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus; N=2) moving over simulated arboreal substrates. We used 3D-calibrated video to quantify marmoset locomotion over a horizontal trackway consisting of variably sized poles (5, 2.5 and 1.25 cm in diameter), analyzing a total of 120 strides. The central portion of the trackway was either immobile or mounted on compliant foam blocks, depending on condition. We found that narrowing diameter and increasing compliance were both associated with relatively longer substrate contact durations, though adjustments to diameter were often inconsistent relative to compliance-related adjustments. Marmosets also responded to narrowing diameter by reducing speed, flattening center of mass (CoM) movements and dampening support displacement on the compliant substrate. For the subset of strides on the compliant support, we found that speed, contact duration and CoM amplitude explained >60% of the variation in substrate displacement over a stride, suggesting a direct performance advantage to these kinematic adjustments. Overall, our results show that compliant substrates can exert a significant influence on gait kinematics. Substrate compliance, and not just support diameter, should be considered a critical environmental variable when evaluating locomotor performance in arboreal quadrupeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
- Musculoskeletal Biology Research Focus Area, NEOMED, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - Bethany M. Stricklen
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
| | - Brad A. Chadwell
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
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19
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Grabar RD, Gilman CA, Irschick DJ. Effects of Surface Diameter on Jumping Kinematics and Performance in Two Arboreal Gecko Species (Correlophus ciliatusandRhacodactylus auriculatus). HERPETOLOGICA 2016. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-15-00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Selective Value of Characteristic Size Parameters in Hylobatids. A Biomechanical Approach to Small Ape Size and Morphology. DEVELOPMENTS IN PRIMATOLOGY: PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-5614-2_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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21
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Coward SRL, Halsey LG. Energy expended during horizontal jumping: investigating the effects of surface compliance. Biol Open 2014; 3:815-20. [PMID: 25150277 PMCID: PMC4163658 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20148672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the first data on the metabolic costs of horizontal jumping in humans, using this tractable model to explore variations in energy expenditure with substrate properties, and consider these findings in light of kinematic data. Twenty-four participants jumped consistently at the rate of 1 jump per 5 s between opposing springboards separated by either a short (1.2 m) or long (1.8 m) gap. Springboards were either 'firm' or 'compliant'. Respiratory gas exchange was measured using a back-mounted portable respiratory gas analyser to represent rate of energy expenditure, which was converted to energy expenditure per metre jumped. Video data were recorded to interpret kinematic information. Horizontal jumping was found to be between around 10 and 20 times the energy cost of cursorial locomotion per unit distance moved. There is considerable evidence from the data that jumping 1.8 m from a compliant springboard (134.9 mL O2 m(-1)) is less costly energetically than jumping that distance from a firm springboard (141.6 mL O2 m(-1)), albeit the effect size is quite small within the range of compliances tested in this study. However, there was no evidence of an effect of springboard type for jumps of 1.2 m. The kinematic analyses indicate possible explanations for these findings. Firstly, the calf muscle is likely used more, and the thigh muscles less, to take-off from a firm springboard during 1.8 m jumps, which may result in the power required to take-off being produced less efficiently. Secondly, the angle of take-off from the compliant surface during 1.8 m jumps is closer to the optimal for energetic efficiency (45°), possible due to the impulse provided by the surface as it returns stored energy during the final stages of the take-off. The theoretical effect on energy costs due to a different take-off angle for jumps of only 1.2 m is close to negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel R L Coward
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Lewis G Halsey
- Centre for Research in Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Roehampton, London SW15 4JD, UK
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Larsson M. Self-generated sounds of locomotion and ventilation and the evolution of human rhythmic abilities. Anim Cogn 2013; 17:1-14. [PMID: 23990063 PMCID: PMC3889703 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-013-0678-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Revised: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
It has been suggested that the basic building blocks of music mimic sounds of moving humans, and because the brain was primed to exploit such sounds, they eventually became incorporated in human culture. However, that raises further questions. Why do genetically close, culturally well-developed apes lack musical abilities? Did our switch to bipedalism influence the origins of music? Four hypotheses are raised: (1) Human locomotion and ventilation can mask critical sounds in the environment. (2) Synchronization of locomotion reduces that problem. (3) Predictable sounds of locomotion may stimulate the evolution of synchronized behavior. (4) Bipedal gait and the associated sounds of locomotion influenced the evolution of human rhythmic abilities. Theoretical models and research data suggest that noise of locomotion and ventilation may mask critical auditory information. People often synchronize steps subconsciously. Human locomotion is likely to produce more predictable sounds than those of non-human primates. Predictable locomotion sounds may have improved our capacity of entrainment to external rhythms and to feel the beat in music. A sense of rhythm could aid the brain in distinguishing among sounds arising from discrete sources and also help individuals to synchronize their movements with one another. Synchronization of group movement may improve perception by providing periods of relative silence and by facilitating auditory processing. The adaptive value of such skills to early ancestors may have been keener detection of prey or stalkers and enhanced communication. Bipedal walking may have influenced the development of entrainment in humans and thereby the evolution of rhythmic abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matz Larsson
- The Cardiology Clinic, Örebro University Hospital, 701 85, Örebro, Sweden,
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23
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Vereecke EE, Channon AJ. The role of hind limb tendons in gibbon locomotion: springs or strings? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 216:3971-80. [PMID: 23868842 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.083527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Tendon properties have an important effect on the mechanical behaviour of muscles, with compliant tendons allowing near-isometric muscle contraction and facilitating elastic energy storage and recoil. Stiff tendons, in contrast, facilitate rapid force transfer and precise positional control. In humans, the long Achilles tendon contributes to the mechanical efficiency of running via elastic energy storage and recovery, and its presence has been linked to the evolution of habitual bipedalism. Gibbons also possess relatively long hind limb tendons; however, their role is as yet unknown. Based on their large dimensions, and inferring from the situation in humans, we hypothesize that the tendons in the gibbon hind limb will facilitate elastic energy storage and recoil during hind-limb-powered locomotion. To investigate this, we determined the material properties of the gibbon Achilles and patellar tendon in vitro and linked this with available kinematic and kinetic data to evaluate their role in leaping and bipedalism. Tensile tests were conducted on tendon samples using a material testing machine and the load-displacement data were used to calculate stiffness, Young's modulus and hysteresis. In addition, the average stress-in-life and energy absorption capacity of both tendons were estimated. We found a functional difference between the gibbon Achilles and patellar tendon, with the Achilles tendon being more suitable for elastic energy storage and release. The patellar tendon, in contrast, has a relatively high hysteresis, making it less suitable to act as elastic spring. This suggests that the gibbon Achilles tendon might fulfil a similar function as in humans, contributing to reducing the locomotor cost of bipedalism by acting as elastic spring, while the high stiffness of the patellar tendon might favour fast force transfer upon recoil and, possibly, enhance leaping performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evie E Vereecke
- Department of Development and Regeneration @ Kulak, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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24
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Factors affecting the compliance and sway properties of tree branches used by the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii). PLoS One 2013; 8:e67877. [PMID: 23844116 PMCID: PMC3699482 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The tropical arboreal environment is a mechanically complex and varied habitat. Arboreal inhabitants must adapt to changes in the compliance and stability of supports when moving around trees. Because the orangutan is the largest habitual arboreal inhabitant, it is unusually susceptible to branch compliance and stability and therefore represents a unique animal model to help investigate how animals cope with the mechanical heterogeneity of the tropical canopy. The aim of this study was to investigate how changes in compliance and time of oscillation of branches are related to easily observable traits of arboreal supports. This should help predict how supports react mechanically to the weight and mass of a moving orangutan, and suggest how orangutans themselves predict branch properties. We measured the compliance and time of oscillation of branches from 11 tree species frequented by orangutans in the rainforest of Sumatra. Branches were pulled at several points along their length using a force balance at the end of a stiff rope, and the local diameter of the branch and the distance to its base and tip were measured. Compliance was negatively associated with both local diameter and length to the tip of the branch, and positively, if weakly, associated with length from the trunk. However, branch diameter not only predicted compliance best, but would also be easiest for an orangutan to observe. In contrast, oscillation times of branches were largely unaffected by local diameter, and only significantly increased at diameters below 2 cm. The results of this study validate previous field research, which related locomotory modes to local branch diameter, while suggesting how arboreal animals themselves sense their mechanical environment.
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Byrnes G, Jayne BC. The effects of three-dimensional gap orientation on bridging performance and behavior of brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis). J Exp Biol 2012; 215:2611-20. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.064576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Traversing gaps with different orientations within arboreal environments has ecological relevance and mechanical consequences for animals. For example, the orientation of the animal while crossing gaps determines whether the torques acting on the body tend to cause it to pitch or roll from the supporting perch or fail as a result of localized bending. The elongate bodies of snakes seem well suited for crossing gaps, but a long unsupported portion of the body can create large torques that make gap bridging demanding. We tested whether the three-dimensional orientation of substrates across a gap affected the performance and behavior of an arboreal snake (Boiga irregularis). The snakes crossed gaps 65% larger for vertical than for horizontal trajectories and 13% greater for straight trajectories than for those with a 90 deg turn within the horizontal plane. Our results suggest that failure due to the inability to keep the body rigid at the edge of the gap may be the primary constraint on performance for gaps with a large horizontal component. In addition, the decreased performance when the destination perch was oriented at an angle to the long axis of the initial perch was probably a result of the inability of snakes to maintain balance due to the large rolling torque. For some very large gaps the snakes enhanced their performance by using rapid lunges to cross otherwise impassable gaps. Perhaps such dynamic movements preceded the aerial behavior observed in other species of arboreal snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Byrnes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, PO Box 210006, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA
| | - Bruce C. Jayne
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, PO Box 210006, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA
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26
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Gilman CA, Bartlett MD, Gillis GB, Irschick DJ. Total recoil: perch compliance alters jumping performance and kinematics in green anole lizards (Anolis carolinensis). J Exp Biol 2012; 215:220-6. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.061838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Jumping is a common form of locomotion for many arboreal animals. Many species of the arboreal lizard genus Anolis occupy habitats in which they must jump to and from unsteady perches, e.g. narrow branches, vines, grass and leaves. Anoles therefore often use compliant perches that could alter jump performance. In this study we conducted a small survey of the compliance of perches used by the arboreal green anole Anolis carolinensis in the wild (N=54 perches) and then, using perches within the range of compliances used by this species, investigated how perch compliance (flexibility) affects the key jumping variables jump distance, takeoff duration, takeoff angle, takeoff speed and landing angle in A. carolinensis in the laboratory (N=11). We observed that lizards lost contact with compliant horizontal perches prior to perch recoil, and increased perch compliance resulted in decreased jump distance and takeoff speed, likely because of the loss of kinetic energy to the flexion of the perch. However, the most striking effect of perch compliance was an unexpected one; perch recoil following takeoff resulted in the lizards being struck on the tail by the perch, even on the narrowest perches. This interaction between the perch and the tail significantly altered body positioning during flight and landing. These results suggest that although the use of compliant perches in the wild is common for this species, jumping from these perches is potentially costly and may affect survival and behavior, particularly in the largest individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey A. Gilman
- Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Michael D. Bartlett
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Gary B. Gillis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA 01075, USA
| | - Duncan J. Irschick
- Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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27
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