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McNally T, Edwards S, Halaki M, O'Dwyer N, Pizzari T, Blyton S. Quantifying demands on the hamstrings during high-speed running: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33:2423-2443. [PMID: 37668346 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hamstring strain injury (HSI) remains a performance, economic, and player availability burden in sport. High-speed running (HSR) is cited as a common mechanism for HSI. While evidence exists regarding the high physical demands on the hamstring muscles in HSR, meta-analytical synthesis of related activation and kinetic variables is lacking. METHODS A systematic search of Medline, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL, SportDiscus, and Cochrane library databases was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Studies reporting hamstring activation (electromyographic [EMG]) or hamstring muscle/related joint kinetics were included where healthy adult participants ran at or beyond 60% of maximum speed (activation studies) or 4 m per second (m/s) (kinetic studies). RESULTS A total of 96 studies met the inclusion criteria. Run intensities were categorized as "slow," "moderate," or "fast" in both activation and kinetic based studies with appropriate relative, and raw measures, respectively. Meta-analysis revealed pooled mean lateral hamstring muscle activation levels of 108.1% (95% CI: 84.4%-131.7%) of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) during "fast" running. Meta-analysis found swing phase peak knee flexion internal moment and power at 2.2 Newton meters/kilogram (Nm/kg) (95% CI: 1.9-2.5) and 40.3 Watts/kilogram (W/kg) (95% CI: 31.4-49.2), respectively. Hip extension peak moment and power was estimated as 4.8 Nm/kg (95% CI: 3.9-5.7) and 33.1 W/kg (95% CI: 17.4-48.9), respectively. CONCLUSIONS As run intensity/speed increases, so do the activation and kinetic demands on the hamstrings. The presented data will enable clinicians to incorporate more objective measures into the design of injury prevention and return-to-play decision-making strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy McNally
- Faculty of Medicine & Health, Sydney School of Health Sciences, Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Suzi Edwards
- Faculty of Medicine & Health, Sydney School of Health Sciences, Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mark Halaki
- Faculty of Medicine & Health, Sydney School of Health Sciences, Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Nicholas O'Dwyer
- Faculty of Medicine & Health, Sydney School of Health Sciences, Discipline of Exercise & Sport Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tania Pizzari
- School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarah Blyton
- School of Health Sciences (Physiotherapy), University of Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
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2
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Arias AA, Azizi E. Modulation of limb mechanics in alligators moving across varying grades. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb246025. [PMID: 37930362 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Graded substrates require legged animals to modulate their limb mechanics to meet locomotor demands. Previous work has elucidated strategies used by cursorial animals with upright limb posture, but it remains unclear how sprawling species such as alligators transition between grades. We measured individual limb forces and 3D kinematics as alligators walked steadily across level, 15 deg incline and 15 deg decline conditions. We compared our results with the literature to determine how limb posture alters strategies for managing the energetic variation that accompanies shifts in grade. We found that juvenile alligators maintain spatiotemporal characteristics of gait and locomotor speed while selectively modulating craniocaudal impulses (relative to level) when transitioning between grades. Alligators seem to accomplish this using a variety of kinematic strategies, but consistently sprawl both limb pairs outside of the parasagittal plane during decline walking. This latter result suggests alligators and other sprawling species may use movements outside of the parasagittal plane as an axis of variation to modulate limb mechanics when transitioning between graded substrates. We conclude that limb mechanics during graded locomotion are fairly predictable across quadrupedal species, regardless of body plan and limb posture, with hindlimbs playing a more propulsive role and forelimbs functioning to dissipate energy. Future work will elucidate how shifts in muscle properties or function underlie such shifts in limb kinematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien A Arias
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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3
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Hu Z, Ren L, Hu D, Gao Y, Wei G, Qian Z, Wang K. Speed-Related Energy Flow and Joint Function Change During Human Walking. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:666428. [PMID: 34136472 PMCID: PMC8201992 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.666428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
During human walking, mechanical energy transfers between segments via joints. Joint mechanics of the human body are coordinated with each other to adapt to speed change. The aim of this study is to analyze the functional behaviors of major joints during walking, and how joints and segments alter walking speed during different periods (collision, rebound, preload, and push-off) of stance phase. In this study, gait experiment was performed with three different self-selected speeds. Mechanical works of joints and segments were determined with collected data. Joint function indices were calculated based on net joint work. The results show that the primary functional behaviors of joints would not change with altering walking speed, but the function indices might be changed slightly (e.g., strut functions decrease with increasing walking speed). Waist acts as strut during stance phase and contributes to keep stability during collision when walking faster. Knee of stance leg does not contribute to altering walking speed. Hip and ankle absorb more mechanical energy to buffer the strike during collision with increasing walking speed. What is more, hip and ankle generate more energy during push-off with greater motion to push distal segments forward with increasing walking speed. Ankle also produces more mechanical energy during push-off to compensate the increased heel-strike collision of contralateral leg during faster walking. Thus, human may utilize the cooperation of hip and ankle during collision and push-off to alter walking speed. These findings indicate that speed change in walking leads to fundamental changes to joint mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheqi Hu
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Lei Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Dan Hu
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Automotive Engineering, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Yilei Gao
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Guowu Wei
- School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of Salford, Salford, United Kingdom
| | - Zhihui Qian
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Kunyang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
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4
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Li G, Zhang R, Han D, Pang H, Yu G, Cao Q, Wang C, Kong L, Chengjin W, Dong W, Li T, Li J. Forelimb joints contribute to locomotor performance in reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) by maintaining stability and storing energy. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10278. [PMID: 33240627 PMCID: PMC7666566 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) have lengthy seasonal migrations on land and their feet possess excellent locomotor characteristics that can adapt to complex terrains. In this study, the kinematics and vertical ground reaction force (GRF) of reindeer forelimb joints (interphalangeal joint b, metacarpophalangeal joint c, and wrist joint d) under walk, trot 1, and trot 2 were measured using a motion tracking system and Footscan pressure plates. Significant differences among different locomotor activities were observed in the joint angles, but not in changes of the joint angles (αb, αc, αd) during the stance phase. Peak vertical GRF increased as locomotor speed increased. Net joint moment, power, and work at the forelimb joints were calculated via inverse dynamics. The peak joint moment and net joint power related to the vertical GRF increased as locomotor speed increased. The feet absorbed and generated more energy at the joints. During different locomotor activities, the contribution of work of the forelimbs changed with both gait and speed. In the stance phase, the metacarpophalangeal joint absorbed more energy than the other two joints while trotting and thus performed better in elastic energy storage. The joint angles changed very little (∼5°) from 0 to 75% of the stance phase, which reflected the stability of reindeer wrist joints. Compared to typical ungulates, reindeer toe joints are more stable and the stability and energy storage of forelimb joints contribute to locomotor performance in reindeer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyu Li
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Dianlei Han
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Pang
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Guolong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Qingqiu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Chen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingxi Kong
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Wang Chengjin
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenchao Dong
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Li
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianqiao Li
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, People's Republic of China
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5
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Kui H, Liu X, Liu J, Liang W, Zhang S, Qian Z, Ren L. The Passive Contact Stability of Blue Sheep Hoof Based on Structure, Mechanical Properties, and Surface Morphology. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:363. [PMID: 32426345 PMCID: PMC7212375 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As the only component that contacts the ground and rock, the hooves of blue sheep may play a crucial role in their excellent climbing abilities. In this study, we used a combination of techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and nanoindentation, to characterize the surface morphology, structure, material composition, and mechanical properties of blue sheep hoof and investigate the potential contributions of these properties to the establishment of passive contact stability. Straight and curled microscopic lamellar morphology were found on the hoof surfaces. The cross section of the hoof revealed four layers, and each layer had a unique structure. Finite element analysis was employed to verify that the surface morphology and microstructure effectively contributed to the slip resistance and impact cushioning, respectively. Analyses of the energy and infrared spectra showed that the organic and inorganic substances in different regions of the hoof had similar components but different contents of those components. The hoof was mainly composed of keratin. From the outside to the inside, gradients in both the modulus and hardness were observed. These factors help the hoof alleviate high impact strengths and increase contact stability. These findings further our understanding of the unique mechanism of blue sheep hoof and may help in the development of novel biomimetic materials and mechanical components with enhanced friction and contact stability properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailin Kui
- College of Transportation, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiangyu Liu
- College of Transportation, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wei Liang
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Shiwu Zhang
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Zhihui Qian
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Lei Ren
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Coordination amongst quadriceps muscles suggests neural regulation of internal joint stresses, not simplification of task performance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:8135-8142. [PMID: 32205442 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1916578117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Many studies have demonstrated covariation between muscle activations during behavior, suggesting that muscles are not controlled independently. According to one common proposal, this covariation reflects simplification of task performance by the nervous system so that muscles with similar contributions to task variables are controlled together. Alternatively, this covariation might reflect regulation of low-level aspects of movements that are common across tasks, such as stresses within joints. We examined these issues by analyzing covariation patterns in quadriceps muscle activity during locomotion in rats. The three monoarticular quadriceps muscles (vastus medialis [VM], vastus lateralis [VL], and vastus intermedius [VI]) produce knee extension and so have identical contributions to task performance; the biarticular rectus femoris (RF) produces an additional hip flexion. Consistent with the proposal that muscle covariation is related to similarity of muscle actions on task variables, we found that the covariation between VM and VL was stronger than their covariations with RF. However, covariation between VM and VL was also stronger than their covariations with VI. Since all vastii have identical actions on task variables, this finding suggests that covariation between muscle activity is not solely driven by simplification of overt task performance. Instead, the preferentially strong covariation between VM and VL is consistent with the control of internal joint stresses: Since VM and VL produce opposing mediolateral forces on the patella, the high positive correlation between their activation minimizes the net mediolateral patellar force. These results provide important insights into the interpretation of muscle covariations and their role in movement control.
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7
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Abad SA, Herzig N, Sadati SMH, Nanayakkara T. Significance of the Compliance of the Joints on the Dynamic Slip Resistance of a Bioinspired Hoof. IEEE T ROBOT 2019. [DOI: 10.1109/tro.2019.2930864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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8
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Kuhman DJ, Hurt CP. Lower extremity joints and muscle groups in the human locomotor system alter mechanical functions to meet task demand. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.206383. [PMID: 31558593 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.206383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
To facilitate movement through mechanically complex environments, terrestrial animals have evolved locomotor systems capable of flexibly altering internal mechanics to meet external demands. They do this by shifting imposed workloads between joints/muscle groups (central mechanical flexibility) and/or by altering the function of individual joints/muscle groups (local mechanical flexibility). In human locomotion research, central mechanical flexibility is well established and regularly reported. Local mechanical flexibility at major lower extremity joints and muscle groups, however, has received relatively less attention. We used an emerging biomechanical analysis known as functional indexing to test the hypothesis that lower extremity joints and muscle groups within the human locomotor system alter their mechanical function to meet altered locomotor demands. Thirteen healthy adults walked across a range of speeds (0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0 m s-1) and slopes (0 deg, +5 deg, +10 deg) to determine whether hip, knee and ankle joints and their extensors and flexors altered their mechanical function in response to increased speed and slope. As walking speed increased, the knee and its extensors altered their function to behave more like mechanical springs while the ankle and its extensors altered their function to behave more like motors. As slope increased, all three joints and their extensors decreased spring- and damper-like behavior and increased motor-like behavior. Our results indicate that humans - similarly to many other terrestrial animals - utilize local mechanical flexibility to meet the demands of the locomotor task at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Kuhman
- Rehabilitation Science, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
| | - Christopher P Hurt
- Rehabilitation Science, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA.,Department of Physical Therapy, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham AL 35233, USA
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9
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Clites TR, Arnold AS, Singh NM, Kline E, Chen H, Tugman C, Billadeau B, Biewener AA, Herr HM. Goats decrease hindlimb stiffness when walking over compliant surfaces. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.198325. [PMID: 31085599 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.198325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Leg stiffness, commonly estimated as the 'compression' of a defined leg element in response to a load, has long been used to characterize terrestrial locomotion. This study investigated how goats adjust the stiffness of their hindlimbs to accommodate surfaces of different stiffness. Goats provide a compelling animal model for studying leg stiffness modulation, because they skillfully ambulate over a range of substrates that vary in compliance. To investigate the adjustments that goats make when walking over such substrates, ground reaction forces and three-dimensional trajectories of hindlimb markers were recorded as goats walked on rigid, rubber and foam surfaces. Net joint moments, power and work at the hip, knee, ankle and metatarsophalangeal joints were estimated throughout stance via inverse dynamics. Hindlimb stiffness was estimated from plots of total leg force versus total leg length, and individual joint stiffness was estimated from plots of joint moment versus joint angle. Our results support the hypothesis that goats modulate hindlimb stiffness in response to surface stiffness; specifically, hindlimb stiffness decreased on the more compliant surfaces (P<0.002). Estimates of joint stiffness identified hip and ankle muscles as the primary drivers of these adjustments. When humans run on compliant surfaces, they generally increase leg stiffness to preserve their center-of-mass mechanics. We did not estimate center-of-mass mechanics in this study; nevertheless, our estimates of hindlimb stiffness suggest that goats exhibit a different behavior. This study offers new insight into mechanisms that allow quadrupeds to modulate their gait mechanics when walking on surfaces of variable compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler R Clites
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.,Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Allison S Arnold
- Concord Field Station, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Nalini M Singh
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.,Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Eric Kline
- Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Hope Chen
- Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Christopher Tugman
- Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Brahms Billadeau
- Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Andrew A Biewener
- Concord Field Station, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Hugh M Herr
- Center for Extreme Bionics, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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10
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Doube M, Felder AA, Chua MY, Lodhia K, Kłosowski MM, Hutchinson JR, Shefelbine SJ. Limb bone scaling in hopping macropods and quadrupedal artiodactyls. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:180152. [PMID: 30473802 PMCID: PMC6227981 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Bone adaptation is modulated by the timing, direction, rate and magnitude of mechanical loads. To investigate whether frequent slow, or infrequent fast, gaits could dominate bone adaptation to load, we compared scaling of the limb bones from two mammalian herbivore clades that use radically different high-speed gaits, bipedal hopping (suborder Macropodiformes; kangaroos and kin) and quadrupedal galloping (order Artiodactyla; goats, deer and kin). Forelimb and hindlimb bones were collected from 20 artiodactyl and 15 macropod species (body mass M 1.05-1536 kg) and scanned in computed tomography or X-ray microtomography. Second moment of area (I max) and bone length (l) were measured. Scaling relations (y = axb ) were calculated for l versus M for each bone and for I max versus M and I max versus l for every 5% of length. I max versus M scaling relationships were broadly similar between clades despite the macropod forelimb being nearly unloaded, and the hindlimb highly loaded, during bipedal hopping. I max versus l and l versus M scaling were related to locomotor and behavioural specializations. Low-intensity loads may be sufficient to maintain bone mass across a wide range of species. Occasional high-intensity gaits might not break through the load sensitivity saturation engendered by frequent low-intensity gaits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Doube
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Skeletal Biology Group, The Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
- Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Alessandro A. Felder
- Skeletal Biology Group, The Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | - Melissa Y. Chua
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Kalyani Lodhia
- Skeletal Biology Group, The Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 0TU, UK
| | | | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Sandra J. Shefelbine
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, 334 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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11
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Zhang Q, Xu K, Ding X. Investigation of feet functions of large ruminants with a decoupled model of equivalent mechanism. Biol Open 2017; 6:407-414. [PMID: 28412713 PMCID: PMC5399556 DOI: 10.1242/bio.023630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cloven hooves of ruminants adapt to diverse terrain, provide propulsive force and support the whole body during movement in natural environments. To reveal how the feet ensure terrain adaptability by choosing the proper configurations and terrain conditions, we model the feet of ruminants as an equivalent mechanism with flexion-extension and lateral movement decoupled. The upper part of the equivalent mechanism can flex and extend, while the lower part performs the lateral movement. Combination of the two parts can adapt to longitudinal slope (anterior-posterior) and transverse slope (medial-lateral), respectively. When one of two digits closes laterally, the workspace of the other decreases. The distal interdigital ligament between two digits limits their motion by elastic force and stores energy during movement. Differences in elastic energy variation of the ligament on different transverse slopes are characterized based on the configurations of two digits and the elastic energy between them. If the upper one of two symmetric digits is fixed, the foot landing on the grade surface (2°) shows greater capacity for absorbing energy; otherwise, level ground is the best choice for ruminants. As for the asymmetric digits, longer lateral digits enhance the optimal adaptive lateral angle. The asymmetry predisposes the feet to damage on the hard ground, which indicates soft ground is more suitable. Summary: This study shows that level and soft grounds are best for symmetric and asymmetric digits, respectively, as revealed by kinematic analysis using a decoupled equivalent mechanism of the foot of ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Zhang
- Space Robot Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Kun Xu
- Space Robot Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China .,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Xilun Ding
- Space Robot Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
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12
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Farris DJ, Raiteri BJ. Modulation of leg joint function to produce emulated acceleration during walking and running in humans. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:160901. [PMID: 28405377 PMCID: PMC5383834 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how humans adapt gait mechanics for a wide variety of locomotor tasks is important for inspiring the design of robotic, prosthetic and wearable assistive devices. We aimed to elicit the mechanical adjustments made to leg joint functions that are required to generate accelerative walking and running, using metrics with direct relevance to device design. Twelve healthy male participants completed constant speed (CS) walking and running and emulated acceleration (ACC) trials on an instrumented treadmill. External force and motion capture data were combined in an inverse dynamics analysis. Ankle, knee and hip joint mechanics were described and compared using angles, moments, powers and normalized functional indexes that described each joint as relatively more: spring, motor, damper or strut-like. To accelerate using a walking gait, the ankle joint was switched from predominantly spring-like to motor-like, while the hip joint was maintained as a motor, with an increase in hip motor-like function. Accelerating while running involved no change in the primary function of any leg joint, but involved high levels of spring and motor-like function at the hip and ankle joints. Mechanical adjustments for ACC walking were achieved primarily via altered limb positioning, but ACC running needed greater joint moments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic James Farris
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brent J. Raiteri
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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13
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Lauer J, Rouard AH, Vilas-Boas JP. Modulation of upper limb joint work and power during sculling while ballasted with varying loads. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1729-1736. [PMID: 28250107 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.154781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The human musculoskeletal system must modulate work and power output in response to substantial alterations in mechanical demands associated with different tasks. In particular, in water, upper limb muscles must perform net positive work to replace the energy lost against the dissipative fluid load. Where in the upper limb are work and power developed? Is mechanical output modulated similarly at all joints, or are certain muscle groups favored? This study examined, for the first time, how work and power per stroke are distributed at the upper limb joints in seven male participants sculling while ballasted with 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 kg. Upper limb kinematics was captured and used to animate body virtual geometry. Net wrist, elbow and shoulder joint work and power were subsequently computed through a novel approach integrating unsteady numerical fluid flow simulations and inverse dynamics modeling. Across a threefold increase in load, total work and power significantly increased from 0.38±0.09 to 0.67±0.13 J kg-1, and 0.47±0.06 to 1.14±0.16 W kg-1, respectively. Shoulder and elbow equally supplied >97% of the upper limb total work and power, coherent with the proximo-distal gradient of work performance in the limbs of terrestrial animals. Individual joint relative contributions remained constant, as observed on land during tasks necessitating no net work. The apportionment of higher work and power simultaneously at all joints in water suggests a general motor strategy of power modulation consistent across physical environments, limbs and tasks, regardless of whether or not they demand positive net work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessy Lauer
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport; and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal .,Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Science, University Savoie Mont Blanc, 73376 Le Bourget-du-Lac, France
| | - Annie Hélène Rouard
- Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Science, University Savoie Mont Blanc, 73376 Le Bourget-du-Lac, France
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport; and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
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A descriptive analysis of the climbing mechanics of a mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus). ZOOLOGY 2016; 119:541-546. [PMID: 27402383 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) is one of the most extraordinary mountaineers in the animal kingdom. While observational descriptions exist to indicate factors that may influence their climbing ability, these have never been assessed biomechanically. Here, we describe whole-body motion of a mountain goat during ascent of a 45° incline based on a video recording in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and discuss the results in a mechanical context. During the push-off phase, the hindlimb extended and the forelimb was tucked close to the torso. During the pull-up phase, the hindlimb was raised near to the torso, while the forelimb humerus seemed to "lock" in a constant position relative to the torso, allowing the elbow to be held in close proximity to the whole-body center of mass. Extension of the elbow and carpal joints resulted in a vertical translation of the center of mass up the mountain slope. Based on the observations from this naturalistic study, hypotheses for future controlled studies of mountain goat climbing mechanics are proposed.
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Foster KL, Higham TE. Integrating gastrocnemius force-length properties, in vivo activation, and operating lengths reveals how Anolis deal with ecological challenges. J Exp Biol 2016; 220:796-806. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.151795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A central question in biology is how animals successfully behave under complex natural conditions. Although changes in locomotor behaviour, motor control, and force production in relation to incline are commonly examined, a wide range of other factors, including a range of perch diameters, pervades arboreal habitats. Moving on different substrate diameters requires considerable alteration of body and limb posture, likely causing significant shifts in the lengths of the muscle-tendon units powering locomotion. Thus, how substrate shape impacts in vivo muscle function remains an important, but neglected question in ecophysiology. Here, we used high-speed videography, electromyography, in situ contractile experiments, and morphology to examine gastrocnemius muscle function during arboreal locomotion in the Cuban knight anole, (Anolis equestris). The gastrocnemius contributes more to the propulsive effort on broad surfaces than on narrow surfaces. Surprisingly, substrate inclination affected the relationship between the maximum potential force and fibre recruitment; the trade-off that was present between these variables on horizontal conditions became a positive relationship on inclined surfaces. Finally, the biarticular nature of the gastrocnemius allows it to generate force isometrically, regardless of condition, despite the fact that the tendons are incapable of stretching during cyclical locomotion. Our results emphasize the importance of considering ecology and muscle function together, and the necessity of examining both mechanical and physiological properties of muscles to understand how animals move in their environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen L. Foster
- Department of Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
- Current address: Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, K1N7N1, Canada
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
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Schache AG, Brown NAT, Pandy MG. Modulation of work and power by the human lower-limb joints with increasing steady-state locomotion speed. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:2472-81. [PMID: 26056240 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.119156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We investigated how the human lower-limb joints modulate work and power during walking and running on level ground. Experimental data were recorded from seven participants for a broad range of steady-state locomotion speeds (walking at 1.59±0.09 m s(-1) to sprinting at 8.95±0.70 m s(-1)). We calculated hip, knee and ankle work and average power (i.e. over time), along with the relative contribution from each joint towards the total (sum of hip, knee and ankle) amount of work and average power produced by the lower limb. Irrespective of locomotion speed, ankle positive work was greatest during stance, whereas hip positive work was greatest during swing. Ankle positive work increased with faster locomotion until a running speed of 5.01±0.11 m s(-1), where it plateaued at ∼1.3 J kg(-1). In contrast, hip positive work during stance and swing, as well as knee negative work during swing, all increased when running speed progressed beyond 5.01±0.11 m s(-1). When switching from walking to running at the same speed (∼2.0 m s(-1)), the ankle's contribution to the average power generated (and positive work done) by the lower limb during stance significantly increased from 52.7±10.4% to 65.3±7.5% (P=0.001), whereas the hip's contribution significantly decreased from 23.0±9.7% to 5.5±4.6% (P=0.004). With faster running, the hip's contribution to the average power generated (and positive work done) by the lower limb significantly increased during stance (P<0.001) and swing (P=0.003). Our results suggest that changing locomotion mode and faster steady-state running speeds are not simply achieved via proportional increases in work and average power at the lower-limb joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony G Schache
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Nicholas A T Brown
- Performance Science and Innovation, Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, ACT 2616, Australia
| | - Marcus G Pandy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
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Terrain Adaptability Mechanism of Large Ruminants' Feet on the Kinematics View. Appl Bionics Biomech 2015; 2015:151686. [PMID: 27019579 PMCID: PMC4745437 DOI: 10.1155/2015/151686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ruminants live in various parts of land. Similar cloven hooves assist ruminants in adapting to different ground environment during locomotion. This paper analyzes the general terrain adaptability of the feet of ruminants using kinematics of the equivalent mechanism model based on screw theory. Cloven hooves could adjust attitude by changing relative positions between two digits in swing phase. This function helps to choose better landing orientation. "Grasping" or "holding" a rock or other object on the ground passively provides extra adhesion force in stance phase. Ruminants could adjust the position of the metacarpophalangeal joint or metatarsophalangeal joint (MTP or MCP) with no relative motion between the tip of feet and the ground, which ensures the adhesion and dexterity in stance phase. These functions are derived from an example from chamois' feet and several assumptions, which are believed to demonstrate the foundation of adaptation of ruminants and ensure a stable and continuous movement.
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Peng S, Ding X. Revealing the mechanism of high loading capacity of the horse in leg structure. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-014-0376-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Birn-Jeffery AV, Higham TE. The Scaling of Uphill and Downhill Locomotion in Legged Animals. Integr Comp Biol 2014; 54:1159-72. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icu015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Modeling fall propensity in Parkinson's disease: deficits in the attentional control of complex movements in rats with cortical-cholinergic and striatal-dopaminergic deafferentation. J Neurosci 2013; 33:16522-39. [PMID: 24133257 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2545-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive symptoms, complex movement deficits, and increased propensity for falls are interrelated and levodopa-unresponsive symptoms in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). We developed a test system for the assessment of fall propensity in rats and tested the hypothesis that interactions between loss of cortical cholinergic and striatal dopaminergic afferents increase fall propensity. Rats were trained to traverse stationary and rotating rods, placed horizontally or at inclines, and while exposed to distractors. Rats also performed an operant Sustained Attention Task (SAT). Partial cortical cholinergic and/or caudate dopaminergic deafferentation were produced by bilateral infusions of 192 IgG-saporin (SAP) into the basal forebrain and/or 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the caudate nucleus, respectively, modeling the lesions seen in early PD. Rats with dual cholinergic-dopaminergic lesions (DL) fell more frequently than SAP or 6-OHDA rats. Falls in DL rats were associated with incomplete rebalancing after slips and low traversal speed. Ladder rung walking and pasta handling performance did not indicate sensorimotor deficits. SAT performance was impaired in DL and SAP rats; however, SAT performance and falls were correlated only in DL rats. Furthermore, in DL rats, but not in rats with only dopaminergic lesions, the placement and size of dopaminergic lesion correlated significantly with fall rates. The results support the hypothesis that after dual cholinergic-dopaminergic lesions, attentional resources can no longer be recruited to compensate for diminished striatal control of complex movement, thereby "unmasking" impaired striatal control of complex movements and yielding falls.
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