Thermal dependence of sprint performance of the lizard Sceloporus occidentalis

Lower-level predictors and behavioral correlates of maximal aerobic capacity and sprint speed among individual lizards

The standard paradigm of organismal biology views lower-level traits (e.g. aspects of physiology) as determining organismal performance ability (e.g. maximal sprint speed), which in turn constrains behavior (e.g. social interactions). However, few studies have simultaneously examined all three levels of organization. We used focal observations to record movement behaviors and push-up displays in the field for adult male Sceloporus occidentalis lizards during the breeding season. We then captured animals, measured aspects of their physiology, morphology and performance, and counted ectoparasites and endoparasites as potential predictors of sprint speed and maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2,max). Field behaviors were statistically repeatable, but not strongly so. Sprint speed and V̇O2,max were repeatable using residuals from regressions on body mass (speed: r=0.70; V̇O2,max: r=0.88). Both calf [standardized partial regression (path) coefficient B=0.53] and thigh [B=-0.37] muscle mass (as residuals from regressions on body mass) were significant predictors of sprint speed; hemoglobin concentration (B=0.42) was a predictor of V̇O2,max. In turn, V̇O2,max predicted the maximum number of four-legged push-ups per bout (B=0.39). In path analysis, log likelihood ratio tests indicated no direct paths from lower-level traits to behavior, supporting the idea that morphology, in the broad sense, only affects behavior indirectly through measures of performance. Our results show that inter-individual variation in field behaviors can be related to performance ability, which in turn reflect differences in morphology and physiology, although not parasite load. Given the low repeatability of field behaviors, some of the relationships between behavior and performance may be stronger than suggested by our results.

Ontogenic differences and sexual dimorphism of the locomotor performance in a nocturnal gecko, Tarentola mauritanica

Locomotion performance in reptiles is deeply associated with habitat use, escape from predators, prey capture, and territory defense. As ectotherms, this trait in lizards is extremely sensitive to body temperature (BT). However, most studies rarely look at locomotion patterns in an ontogenic perspective. The Moorish gecko, Tarentola mauritanica, was used to investigate the possible effects of distinct BTs on the locomotor performance within juveniles and adults. Not surprisingly, adult individuals significantly outperform the juveniles in speed at every BT. Moreover, except in the 30-day-old juveniles, there is a general trend for an increase of speed with BT. The comparison of these speed values with the ones obtained for diurnal lizard species, corroborates the premise that because nocturnal species are subject to low thermal heterogeneity, little selection for behavioral thermoregulation, but strong selection for high performance at relatively cool temperatures are expected. Furthermore, the higher locomotor performance in adults at 29°C, roughly coincides with previously obtained preferred BTs. However, further studies need to be conducted to build the full performance curve, and to validate the existence of coadaption between behavioral thermoregulation and thermal sensitivity of physiological performance. Finally, this study has found that adult males run significantly faster than females at the highest BTs, highlighting the importance in understanding sex differences, and its potential to drive sex-specific behaviors, ecology, and ultimately fitness.

Relationship between gene expression networks and muscle contractile physiology differences in Anolis lizards

Muscles facilitate most animal behavior, from eating to fleeing. However, to generate the variation in behavior necessary for survival, different muscles must perform differently; for instance, sprinting requires multiple rapid muscle contractions, whereas biting may require fewer contractions but greater force. Here, we use a transcriptomic approach to identify genes associated with variation in muscle contractile physiology among different muscles from the same individual. We measured differential gene expression between a leg and jaw muscle of Anolis lizards known to differ in muscle contractile physiology and performance. For each individual, one muscle was used to measure muscle contractile physiology, including contractile velocity (V_max and V₄₀), specific tension, power ratio, and twitch time, whereas the contralateral muscle was used to extract RNA for transcriptomic sequencing. Using the transcriptomic data, we found clear clustering of muscle type. Expression of genes clustered in gene ontology (GO) terms related to muscle contraction and extracellular matrix was, on average, negatively correlated with V_max and slower twitch times but positively correlated to power ratio and V₄₀. Conversely, genes related to the GO terms related to aerobic respiration were downregulated in muscles with higher power ratio and V₄₀, and over-expressed as twitch time decreased. Determining the molecular mechanisms that underlie variation in muscle contractile physiology can begin to explain how organisms are able to optimize behavior under variable conditions. Future studies pursuing the effects of differential gene expression across muscle types in different environments might inform researchers about how differences develop across species, populations, and individuals varying in ecological history.

Defibrillate You Later, Alligator: Q10 Scaling and Refractoriness Keeps Alligators from Fibrillation

Effective cardiac contraction during each heartbeat relies on the coordination of an electrical wave of excitation propagating across the heart. Dynamically induced heterogeneous wave propagation may fracture and initiate reentry-based cardiac arrhythmias, during which fast-rotating electrical waves lead to repeated self-excitation that compromises cardiac function and potentially results in sudden cardiac death. Species which function effectively over a large range of heart temperatures must balance the many interacting, temperature-sensitive biochemical processes to maintain normal wave propagation at all temperatures. To investigate how these species avoid dangerous states across temperatures, we optically mapped the electrical activity across the surfaces of alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) hearts at 23°C and 38°C over a range of physiological heart rates and compare them with that of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). We find that unlike rabbits, alligators show minimal changes in wave parameters (action potential duration and conduction velocity) which complement each other to retain similar electrophysiological wavelengths across temperatures and pacing frequencies. The cardiac electrophysiology of rabbits accommodates the high heart rates necessary to sustain an active and endothermic metabolism at the cost of increased risk of cardiac arrhythmia and critical vulnerability to temperature changes, whereas that of alligators allows for effective function over a range of heart temperatures without risk of cardiac electrical arrhythmias such as fibrillation, but is restricted to low heart rates. Synopsis La contracción cardíaca efectiva durante cada latido del corazón depende de la coordinación de una onda eléctrica de excitación que se propaga a través del corazón. Heterogéidades inducidas dinámicamente por ondas de propagación pueden resultar en fracturas de las ondas e iniciar arritmias cardíacas basadas en ondas de reingreso, durante las cuales ondas espirales eléctricas de rotación rápida producen una autoexcitación repetida que afecta la función cardíaca y pude resultar en muerte súbita cardíaca. Las especies que funcionan eficazmente en una amplia gama de temperaturas cardíacas deben equilibrar los varios procesos bioquímicos que interactúan, sensibles a la temperatura para mantener la propagación normal de ondas a todas las temperaturas. Para investigar cómo estas especies evitan los estados peligrosos a través de las temperaturas, mapeamos ópticamente la actividad eléctrica a través de las superficies de los corazones de caimanes (Alligator mississippiensis) a 23°C and 38°C sobre un rango de frecuencias fisiológicas del corazón y comparamos con el de los conejos (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Encontramos que a diferencia de los conejos, los caimanes muestran cambios mínimos en los parámetros de onda (duración potencial de acción y velocidad de conducción) que se complementan entre sí para retener longitudes de onda electrofisiológicas similares a través de los rangos de temperaturas y frecuencias de ritmo. La electrofisiología cardíaca de los conejos acomoda las altas frecuencias cardíacas necesarias para mantener un metabolismo activo y endotérmico a costa de un mayor riesgo de arritmia cardíaca y vulnerabilidad crítica a los cambios de temperatura, mientras que la de los caimanes permite un funcionamiento eficaz en una serie de temperaturas cardíacas sin riesgo de arritmias eléctricas cardíacas como la fibrilación, pero está restringida a bajas frecuencias cardíacas.

The Lizard Gut Microbiome Changes with Temperature and Is Associated with Heat Tolerance

Vertebrates harbor trillions of microorganisms in the gut, collectively termed the gut microbiota, which affect a wide range of host functions. Recent experiments in lab-reared vertebrates have shown that changes in environmental temperature can induce shifts in the gut microbiota, and in some cases these shifts have been shown to affect host thermal physiology. However, there is a lack of information about the effects of temperature on the gut microbiota of wild-caught vertebrates. Moreover, in ectotherms, which are particularly vulnerable to changing temperature regimens, the extent to which microbiota composition is shaped by temperature and associated with host thermal tolerance has not been investigated. To address these issues, we monitored the gut microbiota composition of wild-caught western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) experimentally exposed to a cool-to-warm temperature transition. Comparing experimentally exposed and control lizards indicated that warm temperatures altered and destabilized the composition of the S. occidentalis gut microbiota. Warming drove a significant reduction in the relative abundances of a clade of Firmicutes, a significant increase in the rate of compositional turnover in the gut microbiota within individual lizards, and increases in the abundances of bacteria from predicted pathogenic clades. In addition, the composition of the microbiota was significantly associated with the thermal tolerance of lizards measured at the end of the experiment. These results suggest that temperature can alter the lizard gut microbiota, with potential implications for the physiological performance and fitness of natural populations.IMPORTANCE Gut microbial communities affect their animal hosts in numerous ways, motivating investigations of the factors that shape the gut microbiota and the consequences of gut microbiota variation for host traits. In this study, we tested the effects of increases in environmental temperatures on the gut microbiota of fence lizards, a vertebrate ectotherm threatened by warming climates. By monitoring lizards and their gut microbes during an experimental temperature treatment, we showed that the warming altered and destabilized the lizard gut microbiota. Moreover, measuring thermal performance of lizard hosts at the end of the experiment indicated that the composition of the gut microbiota was associated with host thermal tolerance. These results indicate that warming temperatures can alter the gut microbiota of vertebrate ectotherms and suggest relationships between variation in the gut microbiota and the thermal physiology of natural host populations.

Effect of temperature on the locomotor performance of species in a lizard assemblage in the Puna region of Argentina

Locomotion is relevant to the ecology of reptiles because of its presumed influence on an organism's Darwinian fitness. Moreover, in ectothermic species, physiological performance capacity is affected by body temperature. We analyzed two components of locomotor performance in three species of lizards, Phymaturus extrilidus, Liolaemus parvus, and Liolaemus ruibali, in the Puna environment of Argentina. First, we estimated the thermal sensitivity of locomotion by measuring sprint speed at four different body temperatures. We included two measures of sprint speed: initial velocity and long sprint for sustained runs. Based on these data, we calculated the optimal temperature for performance and the optimal performance breadth. We also estimated endurance capacity at a single temperature. Maximum sprint speed for L. parvus was greater than L. ruibali and P. extrilidus in both initial velocity and long sprint. In contrast, L. parvus exhibited lower levels of endurance than L. ruibali and P. extrilidus. However, endurance in L. ruibali exceeded that of P. extrilidus. The species differed in the optimal temperature for the initial velocity with the lowest for L. ruibali (31.8 °C) followed by P. extrilidus (33.25 °C) and then L. parvus (36.25 °C). The optimal temperature for long sprint varied between 32 and 36 °C for all species. We found that all species attained maximum performance at body temperatures commonly experienced during daily activity, which was higher than the thermal quality of the environment. We found evidence for thermal sensitivity in locomotor performance in these species. However, we also show that the broad thermal breadth of performance suggests that the lizards are capable of sustaining near optimal levels of locomotor performance at ambient temperatures that would appear to be suboptimal. Thus, this lizard assemblage is capable of coping with the highly variable climatic conditions in the Puna region of Argentina.

Crossing regimes of temperature dependence in animal movement

A pressing challenge in ecology is to understand the effects of changing global temperatures on food web structure and dynamics. The stability of these complex ecological networks largely depends on how predator-prey interactions may respond to temperature changes. Because predators and prey rely on their velocities to catch food or avoid being eaten, understanding how temperatures may affect animal movement is central to this quest. Despite our efforts, we still lack a mechanistic understanding of how the effect of temperature on metabolic processes scales up to animal movement and beyond. Here, we merge a biomechanical approach, the Metabolic Theory of Ecology and empirical data to show that animal movement displays multiple regimes of temperature dependence. We also show that crossing these regimes has important consequences for population dynamics and stability, which depend on the parameters controlling predator-prey interactions. We argue that this dependence upon interaction parameters may help explain why experimental work on the temperature dependence of interaction strengths has so far yielded conflicting results. More importantly, these changes in the temperature dependence of animal movement can have consequences that go well beyond ecological interactions and affect, for example, animal communication, mating, sensory detection, and any behavioral modality dependent on the movement of limbs. Finally, by not taking into account the changes in temperature dependence reported here we might not be able to properly forecast the impact of global warming on ecological processes and propose appropriate mitigation action when needed.

Some Like It Hot: Camera Traps Unravel the Effects of Weather Conditions and Predator Presence on the Activity Levels of Two Lizards

It is generally assumed that favourable weather conditions determine the activity levels of lizards, because of their temperature-dependent behavioural performance. Inactivity, however, might have a selective advantage over activity, as it could increase survival by reducing exposure to predators. Consequently, the effects of weather conditions on the activity patterns of lizards should be strongly influenced by the presence of predators. Using remote camera traps, we test the hypothesis that predator presence and weather conditions interact to modulate daily activity levels in two sedentary cordylid lizards, Karusasaurus polyzonus and Ouroborus cataphractus. While both species are closely related and have a fully overlapping distribution, the former is a fast-moving lightly armoured lizard, whereas the latter is a slow-moving heavily armoured lizard. The significant interspecific difference in antipredator morphology and consequently differential vulnerability to aerial and terrestrial predators, allowed us to unravel the effects of predation risk and weather conditions on activity levels. Our results demonstrate that K. polyzonus is predominantly active during summer, when ambient temperatures are favourable enough to permit activity. In contrast, a peak in activity during spring was observed in O. cataphractus, with individuals being inactive during most of summer. While favourable weather conditions had a strong effect on the activity levels of K. polyzonus, no such relationship was present in O. cataphractus. Contrary to our hypothesis, the presence of terrestrial predators does not seem to affect daily activity levels or alter the influence of weather conditions on activity levels. We conclude that inactivity in O. cataphractus appears to be related to seasonal differences in vulnerability to predators, rather than the presence of predators, and highlight the importance of additional selective pressures, such as food abundance, in determining the species' activity levels.

Fifty years of chasing lizards: new insights advance optimal escape theory

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses often examine data from diverse taxa to identify general patterns of effect sizes. Meta-analyses that focus on identifying generalisations in a single taxon are also valuable because species in a taxon are more likely to share similar unique constraints. We conducted a comprehensive phylogenetic meta-analysis of flight initiation distance in lizards. Flight initiation distance (FID) is a common metric used to quantify risk-taking and has previously been shown to reflect adaptive decision-making. The past decade has seen an explosion of studies focused on quantifying FID in lizards, and, because lizards occur in a wide range of habitats, are ecologically diverse, and are typically smaller and differ physiologically from the better studied mammals and birds, they are worthy of detailed examination. We found that variables that reflect the costs or benefits of flight (being engaged in social interactions, having food available) as well as certain predator effects (predator size and approach speed) had large effects on FID in the directions predicted by optimal escape theory. Variables that were associated with morphology (with the exception of crypsis) and physiology had relatively small effects, whereas habitat selection factors typically had moderate to large effect sizes. Lizards, like other taxa, are very sensitive to the costs of flight.

Thermal effects on the dynamics and motor control of ballistic prey capture in toads: maintaining high performance at low temperature

Temperature has a strong influence on biological rates, including the contractile rate properties of muscle and thereby the velocity, acceleration and power of muscle-powered movements. We hypothesized that the dynamics of movements powered by elastic recoil have a lower thermal dependence than muscle-powered movements. We examined the prey capture behavior of toads (Bufo terrestris) using high speed imaging and electromyography to compare the effects of body temperature (11-35°C) on the kinematics, dynamics and motor control of two types of movement: (1) ballistic mouth opening and tongue projection, which are powered by elastic recoil, and (2) non-ballistic prey transport, including tongue retraction and mouth closing, which are powered directly by muscle contraction. Over 11-25°C, temperature coefficients of ballistic mouth opening and tongue projection dynamics (Q(10) of 0.99-1.25) were not significantly different from 1.00 and were consistently lower than those of prey transport movements (Q(10) of 1.77-2.26), supporting our main hypothesis. The depressor mandibulae muscle, which is responsible for ballistic mouth opening and tongue projection via the recovery of elastic strain energy stored by the muscle prior to the onset of the movement, was activated earlier and for a longer duration at lower temperatures (Q(10) of 2.29-2.41), consistent with a slowing of its contractile rates. Muscle recruitment was unaffected by temperature, as revealed by the lack of thermal dependence in the intensity of activity of both the jaw depressor and jaw levator muscles (Q(10) of 0.754-1.12). Over the 20-35°C range, lower thermal dependence was found for the dynamics of non-elastic movements and the motor control of both elastic and non-elastic movements, in accord with a plateau of high performance found in other systems.

The physiology and mechanics of undulatory swimming: a student laboratory exercise using medicinal leeches

The medicinal leech is a useful animal model for investigating undulatory swimming in the classroom. Unlike many swimming organisms, its swimming performance can be quantified without specialized equipment. A large blood meal alters swimming behavior in a way that can be used to generate a discussion of the hydrodynamics of swimming, muscle mechanics, hydrostatic skeletons, and the physiological features that allow leeches to deal with the volume increase and osmotic load imposed by the meal. Analyses can be carried out at a range of levels tailored to suit a particular class.

Skeletal muscle fiber types in the ghost crab, Ocypode quadrata: implications for running performance

Ghost crabs possess rapid running capabilities, which make them good candidates for comparing invertebrate exercise physiology with that of more extensively studied vertebrates. While a number of studies have examined various aspects of running physiology and biomechanics in terrestrial crabs, none to date have defined the basic skeletal muscle fiber types that power locomotion. In the current study, we investigated skeletal muscle fiber types comprising the extensor and flexor carpopodite muscles in relation to running performance in the ghost crab. We used kinematic analyses to determine stride frequency and muscle shortening velocity and found that both parameters are similar to those of comparably sized mammals but slower than those observed in running lizards. Using several complementary methods, we found that the muscles are divided into two primary fiber types: those of the proximal and distal regions possess long sarcomeres (6.2+/-2.3 microm) observed in crustacean slow fibers and have characteristics of aerobic fibers whereas those of the muscle mid-region have short sarcomeres (3.5+/-0.4 microm) characteristic of fast fibers and appear to be glycolytic. Each fiber type is characterized by several different myofibrillar protein isoforms including multiple isoforms of myosin heavy chain (MHC), troponin I (TnI), troponin T (TnT) and a crustacean fast muscle protein, P75. Three different isoforms of MHC are differentially expressed in the muscles, with fibers of the mid-region always co-expressing two isoforms at a 1:1 ratio within single fibers. Based on our analyses, we propose that these muscles are functionally divided into a two-geared system, with the aerobic fibers used for slow sustained activities and the glycolytic mid-region fibers being reserved for explosive sprints. Finally, we identified subtle differences in myofibrillar isoform expression correlated with crab body size, which changes by several orders of magnitude during an animal's lifetime.

The effects of acute temperature change on swimming performance in bluegill sunfishLepomis macrochirus

Many fish change gait within their aerobically supported range of swimming speeds. The effects of acute temperature change on this type of locomotor behavior are poorly understood. Bluegill sunfish swim in the labriform mode at low speeds and switch to undulatory swimming as their swimming speed increases. Maximum aerobic swimming speed (Umax),labriform-undulatory gait transition speed (Utrans) and the relationships between fin beat frequency and speed were measured at 14,18, 22, 26 and 30°C in bluegill acclimated to 22°C. At temperatures below the acclimation temperature (Ta), Umax, Utrans and the caudal and pectoral fin beat frequencies at these speeds were reduced relative to the acclimation level. At temperatures above Ta there was no change in these variables relative to the acclimation level. Supplementation of oxygen levels at 30°C had no effect on swimming performance. The mechanical power output of the abductor superficialis, a pectoral fin abductor muscle, was measured in vitro at the same temperatures used for the swimming experiments. At and below Ta, maximal power output was produced at a cycle frequency approximately matching the in vivo pectoral fin beat frequency. At temperatures above Ta muscle power output and cycle frequency could be increased above the in vivo levels at Utrans. Our data suggest that the factors triggering the labriform–undulatory gait transition change with temperature. Muscle mechanical performance limited labriform swimming speed at Ta and below, but other mechanical or energetic factors limited labriform swimming speed at temperatures above Ta.

Estimating maximum performance: effects of intraindividual variation

Researchers often estimate the performance capabilities of animals using a small number of trials per individual. This procedure inevitably underestimates maximum performance, but few studies have examined the magnitude of this effect. In this study we explored the effects of intraindividual variation and individual sample size on the estimation of locomotor performance parameters. We measured sprint speed of the lizard Sceloporus occidentalis at two temperatures (20°C and 35°C),obtaining 20 measurements per individual. Speed did not vary temporally,indicating no training or fatigue effects. About 50% of the overall variation in speed at each temperature was due to intraindividual variation. While speed was repeatable, repeatability decreased slightly with increasing separation between trials. Speeds at 20°C and 35°C were positively correlated,indicating repeatability across temperatures as well. We performed statistical sampling experiments in which we randomly drew a subset of each individual's full set of 20 trials. As expected, the sample's maximum speed increased with the number of trials per individual; for example, five trials yielded an estimate averaging 89% of the true maximum. The number of trials also influenced the sample correlation between mean speeds at 20°C and 35°C; for example, five trials yielded a correlation coefficient averaging 90% of the true correlation. Therefore, intraindividual variation caused underestimation of maximal speed and the correlation between speeds across temperatures. These biases declined as the number of trials per individual increased, and depended on the magnitude of intraindividual variation, as illustrated by running sampling experiments that used modified data sets.

Modulation of flight muscle power output in budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus and zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata: in vitro muscle performance

The pectoralis muscles are the main source of mechanical power for avian flight. The power output of these muscles must be modulated to meet the changing power requirements of flight across a range of speeds. This can be achieved at the muscle level by manipulation of strain trajectory and recruitment patterns, and/or by intermittent flight strategies. We have measured the in vitro power outputs of pectoralis muscle fascicles from budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus and zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata under conditions replicating those previously measured in vivo during flight. This has allowed us to quantify the extent to which different power modulation mechanisms control flight muscle power output. Intermittent flight behaviour is a more important determinant of flight power in zebra finches than budgerigars. This behaviour accounts for 25-62% of power modulation relative to the maximum available mechanical power output in zebra finch, compared to 0-38% in budgerigars. Muscle level changes in fascicle strain trajectory and motor unit recruitment, rather than intermittent flight behaviours, are the main determinants of pectoralis muscle power output in budgerigars at all speeds, and in zebra finch at speeds below 14 m s(-1).

Sex-based differences and similarities in locomotor performance, thermal preferences, and escape behaviour in the lizard Platysaurus intermedius wilhelmi

Differences between sexes in physiological performance have received little attention in animals. We tested for sex differences in maximum sprint speed and maximal exertion over a range of temperatures in a population of Platysaurus intermedius wilhelmi lizards. We also examined sex-based differences in selected temperature range, mean field body temperatures (T(b)), and thermal activity limits. Finally, we conducted field studies to quantify male and female responses to a potential predator, which may be affected by their respective performance capabilities. Males were faster than females at all temperatures, and body size had no significant effect on sprint speeds. Males and females also selected similar T(b)'s when placed in a thermal gradient, but in the field, male lizards' T(b)'s were different from those of the females. However, predicted sprint speeds for males and females at their field T(b)'s are similar. No significant differences were found between males and females with regard to maximal exertion. When approached in the field, adult male lizards took refuge significantly earlier than did adult females and also fled over shorter distances, suggesting that females rely on crypsis as an escape strategy.

Proximate causes of intraspecific variation in locomotor performance in the lizard Gallotia galloti

To understand the evolution of biological traits, information on the degree and origins of intraspecific variation is essential. Because adaptation can take place only if the trait shows heritable variation, it is important to know whether (at least) part of the trait variation is genetically based. We describe intra- and interindividual variation in three performance measures (sprint speed, climbing, and clambering speed) in juvenile Gallotia galloti lizards from three populations and examine how genetic, environmental (incubation temperature), and ontogenetic (age, size) effects interact to cause performance variation. Moreover, we test whether the three performance traits are intercorrelated phenotypically and genetically. Sprint speed is highest in juveniles incubated at the lowest temperature (26 degrees C) irrespective of population. Climbing speed differs among populations, and the differences persist at least until the lizards are 30 wk old. This suggests that the three populations experience different selective pressures. Moreover, mass, snout-vent length, and hindlimb length seem to affect climbing performance differently in the three populations. The variation in sprinting and climbing ability appears to be genetically based. Moreover, the two performance traits are intercorrelated and thus will not evolve independently from each other. Clambering speed (i.e., capacity to climb up an inclined mesh) varies among individuals, but the origin of this variation remains obscure.

Morphology of the feeding system in agamid lizards: ecological correlates

The interaction of organismal design with ecology, and its evolutionary development are the subject of many functional and ecomorphological studies. Many studies have shown that the morphology and mechanics of the masticatory apparatus in mammals are adapted to diet. To investigate the relations between diet and the morphological and physiological properties of the lizard jaw system, a detailed analysis of the structure of the jaw apparatus was undertaken in the insectivorous lizard Plocederma stellio and in closely related herbivorous lizards of the genus Uromastix. The morphological and physiological properties of the jaw system in P. stellio and U. aegyptius were studied by means of dissections, light microscopy, histochemical characterisations, and in vivo stimulation experiments. The skull of Uromastix seems to be built for forceful biting (high, short snout). Additionally, the pterygoid muscle is modified in P. stellio, resulting in an additional force component during static biting. Stimulation experiments indicate that jaw muscles in both species are fast, which is supported by histochemical stainings. However, the oxidative capacity of the jaw muscles is larger in Uromastix. Contraction characteristics and performance of the feeding system (force output) are clearly thermally dependent. We conclude that several characteristics of the jaw system (presence of extra portion of the pterygoid muscle, large oxidative capacity of jaw muscles) in Uromastix may be attributed to its herbivorous diet. Jaw muscles, however, are still faster than expected. This is presumably the result of trade-offs between the thermal characteristics of the jaw adductors and the herbivorous lifestyle of these animals.

A field study of the effects of incline on the escape locomotion of a bipedal lizard, Callisaurus draconoides

We analyzed footprints on the surface of a sand dune to estimate maximal running speeds and the incidence of bipedality in nature, as well as to investigate the effects of incline on the escape locomotion of the lizard Callisaurus draconoides. Previous laboratory tests predicted that inclines would negatively affect sprinting performance in C. draconoides. Although physiologists commonly assume that escape locomotion will be near maximal capacity, we found that only 11% of all strides were greater than 90% of maximal speed of C. draconoides. Escape paths averaged 10 m in length and were generally straight. Approximately 30% of the strides taken by C. draconoides were bipedal, and this value was three times greater than previously found for the closely related species Uma scoparia. The modal value of bipedal stride lengths was greater than that for quadrupedal strides. Inclines negatively affected velocity of only the first meter of C. draconoides escape paths. The location of nearest cover had better predictive value for the initial orientation of C. draconoides escapes than incline. On steep slopes (>15 degrees), C. draconoides avoided running directly downhill and uphill and primarily ran horizontally, whereas on shallow slopes, lizards exhibited approximately equal amounts of horizontal, direct uphill, and direct downhill running.

Locomotion and antipredator behaviour in three species of semi-aquatic snakes

For temperate-zone ectotherms, a potential cost of an aquatic lifestyle may be impaired locomotor performance, due to rapid cooling of the body when in cold water. Contrary to the hypothesis that more-aquatic species should be better adapted for locomotion at low temperatures, the decline in swimming performance with temperature was similar for three species of snakes (the northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon), eastern ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus) and common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)) that varied in their association with aquatic habitats. The effect of temperature on antipredator behaviour was also similar for the three species; at lower body temperatures, snakes relied more on alternative defensive behaviours. However, antipredator behaviour was used less by water snakes than by garter and ribbon snakes. Except for the smallest individuals, all snakes crawled more slowly than they swam, and the difference in performance was greatest for the largest snakes. When crawling, all three species relied more on alternative defensive behaviours than when swimming. In the field, water snakes fled at greater distances from human "predators" than did garter and ribbon snakes, which tended to rely on crypsis. The greater dependence on flight as the primary antipredator behaviour by water snakes, and on other tactics such as crypsis by garter and ribbon snakes, does not conform to the generalization that a species' antipredator behaviour is related to its characteristic dorsal pigmentation pattern. Species differences in antipredator behaviour appear to be more strongly related to habitat use.

The effect of size on the mechanical properties of the myotomal-skeletal system of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)

The length and mean cross-sectional area of the myotome of rainbow trout,Salmo gairdneri, scale isometrically with total length (L, cm) and L(2) respectively for fish from 5 to 35 cm in length. The net maximum force, (F, kN·m(-2)) developed by a single twitch of thein situ myotome on one side of the body, and measured normal to the hypural complex increased as; F=1.05×10(-3)·L(2.6), and maximum lateral velocity (W, m·s(-1)) at the hypural plate as; W=0.29 L(-0.47). Maximum power (P, W) increased as; P=7.64×10(-5)·L(3.06). Acceleration rates predicted from these data do not agree well with observations. In addition, except for small fish, predicted maximum speeds differed from those calculated from minimum twitch times of excised muscle blocks and stride length, the popular method for estimating maximum speed. It is suggested that temporal summation of twitches must occur in larger fish. This could provide forces matched to inertial loads which are important in fitness-critical maneuvers.

The physiological basis of slow locomotion in chamaeleons

The African chamaeleon, Chamaeleo senegalensis, will not move faster than approximately 0.1 m/second at 23 degrees C, whereas the lizard Agama agama, like most lizards its size, runs at speeds more than 10X as fast. To account for this difference, we measured various physiological parameters of the iliofibularis muscle of both lizards. The maximum speed of tetanic contraction of unloaded Chamaeleo muscle was half as fast as that of Agama muscle (2.5 vs. 5.8 resting lengths per second). Heavily loaded Chamaeleo iliofibularis contracted at nearly 1/4 the speed of Agama muscle. Time to peak isometric twitch tension and time to half relaxation were twice as long in Chamaeleo as in Agama (122 vs. 58 msec, and 168 vs. 81 msec). Much more of the Chamaeleo muscle consisted of tonic muscle fibers, and the Chamaeleo muscle, compared to Agama muscle, showed physiological evidence of having a significant amount of tonic fibers (potassium contracture and high tetanus to twitch ratios). Finally, the myofibrillar ATPase activity of the Chamaeleo muscle was 1/3 that of Agama muscle. Thus, these results show that the slow locomotion of old world chamaeleons can, in part, be explained by the physiology, biochemistry, and fiber-type distribution of their muscles.