1
|
Brandt EE, Manyama MR, Nirody JA. Kinematics and coordination of moth flies walking on smooth and rough surfaces. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2024; 1537:64-73. [PMID: 38922707 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The moth fly, Clogmia albipunctata, is a common synanthropic insect with a worldwide range that lives in nearly any area with moist, decaying organic matter. These habitats comprise both smooth, slippery substrates (e.g., bathroom drains) and heterogeneous, bumpy ground (e.g., soil in plant pots). By using terrain of varying levels of roughness, we focus specifically on how substrate roughness at the approximate size scale of the organism affects kinematics and coordination in adult moth flies. Finally, we compare and contrast our characterizations of locomotion in C. albipunctata with previous work of insect walking in naturalistic environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin E Brandt
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Maria R Manyama
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jasmine A Nirody
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Haustein M, Blanke A, Bockemühl T, Büschges A. A leg model based on anatomical landmarks to study 3D joint kinematics of walking in Drosophila melanogaster. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1357598. [PMID: 38988867 PMCID: PMC11233710 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1357598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Walking is the most common form of how animals move on land. The model organism Drosophila melanogaster has become increasingly popular for studying how the nervous system controls behavior in general and walking in particular. Despite recent advances in tracking and modeling leg movements of walking Drosophila in 3D, there are still gaps in knowledge about the biomechanics of leg joints due to the tiny size of fruit flies. For instance, the natural alignment of joint rotational axes was largely neglected in previous kinematic analyses. In this study, we therefore present a detailed kinematic leg model in which not only the segment lengths but also the main rotational axes of the joints were derived from anatomical landmarks, namely, the joint condyles. Our model with natural oblique joint axes is able to adapt to the 3D leg postures of straight and forward walking fruit flies with high accuracy. When we compared our model to an orthogonalized version, we observed that our model showed a smaller error as well as differences in the used range of motion (ROM), highlighting the advantages of modeling natural rotational axes alignment for the study of joint kinematics. We further found that the kinematic profiles of front, middle, and hind legs differed in the number of required degrees of freedom as well as their contributions to stepping, time courses of joint angles, and ROM. Our findings provide deeper insights into the joint kinematics of walking in Drosophila, and, additionally, will help to develop dynamical, musculoskeletal, and neuromechanical simulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Haustein
- Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Alexander Blanke
- Bonn Institute for Organismic Biology (BIOB), Animal Biodiversity, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Till Bockemühl
- Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Karashchuk L, Li JS(L, Chou GM, Walling-Bell S, Brunton SL, Tuthill JC, Brunton BW. Sensorimotor delays constrain robust locomotion in a 3D kinematic model of fly walking. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.18.589965. [PMID: 38712226 PMCID: PMC11071299 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.18.589965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Walking animals must maintain stability in the presence of external perturbations, despite significant temporal delays in neural signaling and muscle actuation. Here, we develop a 3D kinematic model with a layered control architecture to investigate how sensorimotor delays constrain robustness of walking behavior in the fruit fly, Drosophila. Motivated by the anatomical architecture of insect locomotor control circuits, our model consists of three component layers: a neural network that generates realistic 3D joint kinematics for each leg, an optimal controller that executes the joint kinematics while accounting for delays, and an inter-leg coordinator. The model generates realistic simulated walking that matches real fly walking kinematics and sustains walking even when subjected to unexpected perturbations, generalizing beyond its training data. However, we found that the model's robustness to perturbations deteriorates when sensorimotor delay parameters exceed the physiological range. These results suggest that fly sensorimotor control circuits operate close to the temporal limit at which they can detect and respond to external perturbations. More broadly, we show how a modular, layered model architecture can be used to investigate physiological constraints on animal behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lili Karashchuk
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle
| | - Jing Shuang (Lisa) Li
- Dept of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Grant M. Chou
- Dept of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle
| | | | | | - John C. Tuthill
- Dept of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mingchinda N, Jaiton V, Leung B, Manoonpong P. Leg-body coordination strategies for obstacle avoidance and narrow space navigation of multi-segmented, legged robots. Front Neurorobot 2023; 17:1214248. [PMID: 38023449 PMCID: PMC10663368 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2023.1214248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Millipedes can avoid obstacle while navigating complex environments with their multi-segmented body. Biological evidence indicates that when the millipede navigates around an obstacle, it first bends the anterior segments of its corresponding anterior segment of its body, and then gradually propagates this body bending mechanism from anterior to posterior segments. Simultaneously, the stride length between pairs of legs inside the bending curve decreases to coordinate the leg motions with the bending mechanism of the body segments. In robotics, coordination between multiple legs and body segments during turning for navigating in complex environments, e.g., narrow spaces, has not been fully realized in multi-segmented, multi-legged robots with more than six legs. Method To generate the efficient obstacle avoidance turning behavior in a multi-segmented, multi-legged (millipede-like) robot, this study explored three possible strategies of leg and body coordination during turning: including the local leg and body coordination at the segment level in a manner similar to millipedes, global leg amplitude change in response to different turning directions (like insects), and the phase reversal of legs inside of turning curve during obstacle avoidance (typical engineering approach). Results Using sensory inputs obtained from the antennae located at the robot head and recurrent neural control, different turning strategies were generated, with gradual body bending propagation from the anterior to posterior body segments. Discussion We discovered differences in the performance of each turning strategy, which could guide the future control development of multi-segmented, legged robots.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nopparada Mingchinda
- Bio-Inspired Robotics and Neural Engineering Laboratory, School of Information Science and Technology, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology, Rayong, Thailand
| | - Vatsanai Jaiton
- Bio-Inspired Robotics and Neural Engineering Laboratory, School of Information Science and Technology, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology, Rayong, Thailand
| | - Binggwong Leung
- Bio-Inspired Robotics and Neural Engineering Laboratory, School of Information Science and Technology, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology, Rayong, Thailand
| | - Poramate Manoonpong
- Bio-Inspired Robotics and Neural Engineering Laboratory, School of Information Science and Technology, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology, Rayong, Thailand
- Embodied AI and Neurorobotics Laboratory, SDU Biorobotics, The Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Institute, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cruz TL, Chiappe ME. Multilevel visuomotor control of locomotion in Drosophila. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2023; 82:102774. [PMID: 37651855 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2023.102774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Vision is critical for the control of locomotion, but the underlying neural mechanisms by which visuomotor circuits contribute to the movement of the body through space are yet not well understood. Locomotion engages multiple control systems, forming distinct interacting "control levels" driven by the activity of distributed and overlapping circuits. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying locomotion control requires the consideration of all control levels and their necessary coordination. Due to their small size and the wide availability of experimental tools, Drosophila has become an important model system to study this coordination. Traditionally, insect locomotion has been divided into studying either the biomechanics and local control of limbs, or navigation and course control. However, recent developments in tracking techniques, and physiological and genetic tools in Drosophila have prompted researchers to examine multilevel control coordination in flight and walking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomás L Cruz
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - M Eugenia Chiappe
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nirody JA. Flexible locomotion in complex environments: the influence of species, speed and sensory feedback on panarthropod inter-leg coordination. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:297127. [PMID: 36912384 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Panarthropods (a clade containing arthropods, tardigrades and onychophorans) can adeptly move across a wide range of challenging terrains and their ability to do so given their relatively simple nervous systems makes them compelling study organisms. Studies of forward walking on flat terrain excitingly point to key features in inter-leg coordination patterns that seem to be 'universally' shared across panarthropods. However, when movement through more complex, naturalistic terrain is considered, variability in coordination patterns - from the intra-individual to inter-species level - becomes more apparent. This variability is likely to be due to the interplay between sensory feedback and local pattern-generating activity, and depends crucially on species, walking speed and behavioral goal. Here, I gather data from the literature of panarthropod walking coordination on both flat ground and across more complex terrain. This Review aims to emphasize the value of: (1) designing experiments with an eye towards studying organisms in natural environments; (2) thoughtfully integrating results from various experimental techniques, such as neurophysiological and biomechanical studies; and (3) ensuring that data is collected and made available from a wider range of species for future comparative analyses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine A Nirody
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Walking is like slithering: A unifying, data-driven view of locomotion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2113222119. [PMID: 36067311 PMCID: PMC9477242 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2113222119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Legged movement is ubiquitous in nature and of increasing interest for robotics. Most legged animals routinely encounter foot slipping, yet detailed modeling of multiple contacts with slipping exceeds current simulation capacity. Here we present a principle that unifies multilegged walking (including that involving slipping) with slithering and Stokesian (low Reynolds number) swimming. We generated data-driven principally kinematic models of locomotion for walking in low-slip animals (Argentine ant, 4.7% slip ratio of slipping to total motion) and for high-slip robotic systems (BigANT hexapod, slip ratio 12 to 22%; Multipod robots ranging from 6 to 12 legs, slip ratio 40 to 100%). We found that principally kinematic models could explain much of the variability in body velocity and turning rate using body shape and could predict walking behaviors outside the training data. Most remarkably, walking was principally kinematic irrespective of leg number, foot slipping, and turning rate. We find that grounded walking, with or without slipping, is governed by principally kinematic equations of motion, functionally similar to frictional swimming and slithering. Geometric mechanics thus leads to a unified model for swimming, slithering, and walking. Such commonality may shed light on the evolutionary origins of animal locomotion control and offer new approaches for robotic locomotion and motion planning.
Collapse
|
8
|
Günzel Y, Schmitz J, Dürr V. Locomotor resilience through load-dependent modulation of muscle co-contraction. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:276888. [PMID: 36039914 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Terrestrial locomotor behavior in variable environments requires resilience to sudden changes in substrate properties. For example, walking animals can adjust to substantial changes in slope and corresponding changes in load distribution among legs. In insects, slope-dependent adjustments have mainly been examined under steady-state conditions, whereas the transition dynamics have been largely neglected. In a previous study, we showed that steady-state adjustments of stick insects to ±45° slopes involve substantial changes in joint torques and muscle activity with only minor changes in leg kinematics. Here, we take a close look at the time course of these adjustments as stick insects compensate for various kinds of disturbances to load distribution. In particular, we test whether the transition from one steady state to another involves distinct transition steps or follows a graded process. To resolve this, we combined simultaneous recordings of whole-body kinematics and hind leg muscle activity to elucidate how freely walking Carausius morosus negotiated a step-change in substrate slope. Step-by-step adjustments reveal that muscle activity changed in a graded manner as a function of body pitch relative to gravity. We further show analogous transient adjustment of muscle activity in response to destabilizing lift-off events of neighboring legs and the disappearance of antagonist co-activation during crawling episodes. Given these three examples of load-dependent regulation of antagonist muscle co-contraction, we conclude that stick insects respond to both transient and sustained changes in load distribution by regulating joint stiffness rather than through distinct transition steps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Günzel
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany
| | - Volker Dürr
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Tross J, Wolf H, Pfeffer SE. Influence of caste and subcaste characteristics in ant locomotion (Camponotus fellah). J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275528. [PMID: 35615922 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Worker polymorphism in ants has evolved repeatedly, with considerable differences in the morphometry of worker subcastes. Such body size differences and especially caste- and subcaste-specific characteristics might significantly influence locomotion. Therefore, we performed a comprehensive locomotion analysis along gradients in both body size and walking speed of Camponotus fellah worker subcastes, and of males, which have rarely been studied to date due to short life spans associated with mating flights. We provide a detailed description of the morphometry and size differences of C. fellah castes and subcastes and analyse locomotion in the different polymorphic groups in terms of absolute and relative walking speeds (mesosoma lengths per second). Our results reveal that body size and shape affect locomotion behaviour to different extents in the worker subcastes (minor workers, medias, major workers) and in males. Nevertheless, C. fellah ants use the same overall locomotion strategy, with males and major workers reaching considerably lower walking speeds than minors and medias. Body size thus mainly affects walking speed. Minor workers reach the highest relative velocities by high relative stride lengths in combination with large vertical and lateral COM oscillations and clearly higher stride frequencies of up to 25 Hz. Locomotion of males was characterised by clearly lower walking speeds, wider footprint positions, significant phase shifts and a notable dragging of the shorter hind legs. However, general walking parameters of males differed less from those of the female workers than expected due to division of labour in the colony.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Tross
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Harald Wolf
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
NeuroMechFly, a neuromechanical model of adult Drosophila melanogaster. Nat Methods 2022; 19:620-627. [PMID: 35545713 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-022-01466-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Animal behavior emerges from an interaction between neural network dynamics, musculoskeletal properties and the physical environment. Accessing and understanding the interplay between these elements requires the development of integrative and morphologically realistic neuromechanical simulations. Here we present NeuroMechFly, a data-driven model of the widely studied organism, Drosophila melanogaster. NeuroMechFly combines four independent computational modules: a physics-based simulation environment, a biomechanical exoskeleton, muscle models and neural network controllers. To enable use cases, we first define the minimum degrees of freedom of the leg from real three-dimensional kinematic measurements during walking and grooming. Then, we show how, by replaying these behaviors in the simulator, one can predict otherwise unmeasured torques and contact forces. Finally, we leverage NeuroMechFly's full neuromechanical capacity to discover neural networks and muscle parameters that drive locomotor gaits optimized for speed and stability. Thus, NeuroMechFly can increase our understanding of how behaviors emerge from interactions between complex neuromechanical systems and their physical surroundings.
Collapse
|
11
|
Walking strides direct rapid and flexible recruitment of visual circuits for course control in Drosophila. Neuron 2022; 110:2124-2138.e8. [PMID: 35525243 PMCID: PMC9275417 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Flexible mapping between activity in sensory systems and movement parameters is a hallmark of motor control. This flexibility depends on the continuous comparison of short-term postural dynamics and the longer-term goals of an animal, thereby necessitating neural mechanisms that can operate across multiple timescales. To understand how such body-brain interactions emerge across timescales to control movement, we performed whole-cell patch recordings from visual neurons involved in course control in Drosophila. We show that the activity of leg mechanosensory cells, propagating via specific ascending neurons, is critical for stride-by-stride steering adjustments driven by the visual circuit, and, at longer timescales, it provides information about the moving body’s state to flexibly recruit the visual circuit for course control. Thus, our findings demonstrate the presence of an elegant stride-based mechanism operating at multiple timescales for context-dependent course control. We propose that this mechanism functions as a general basis for the adaptive control of locomotion. HS cells receive stride-coupled signals via ascending neurons The stride-coupled signals reflect an internal motor context Motor context modulates HS cells at multiple timescales HS cells drive rapid steering depending on motor context
Collapse
|
12
|
Guschlbauer C, Hooper SL, Mantziaris C, Schwarz A, Szczecinski NS, Büschges A. Correlation between ranges of leg walking angles and passive rest angles among leg types in stick insects. Curr Biol 2022; 32:2334-2340.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
13
|
Parallel locomotor control strategies in mice and flies. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2022; 73:102516. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2022.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
14
|
Cruz TL, Pérez SM, Chiappe ME. Fast tuning of posture control by visual feedback underlies gaze stabilization in walking Drosophila. Curr Biol 2021; 31:4596-4607.e5. [PMID: 34499851 PMCID: PMC8556163 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Locomotion requires a balance between mechanical stability and movement flexibility to achieve behavioral goals despite noisy neuromuscular systems, but rarely is it considered how this balance is orchestrated. We combined virtual reality tools with quantitative analysis of behavior to examine how Drosophila uses self-generated visual information (reafferent visual feedback) to control gaze during exploratory walking. We found that flies execute distinct motor programs coordinated across the body to maximize gaze stability. However, the presence of inherent variability in leg placement relative to the body jeopardizes fine control of gaze due to posture-stabilizing adjustments that lead to unintended changes in course direction. Surprisingly, whereas visual feedback is dispensable for head-body coordination, we found that self-generated visual signals tune postural reflexes to rapidly prevent turns rather than to promote compensatory rotations, a long-standing idea for visually guided course control. Together, these findings support a model in which visual feedback orchestrates the interplay between posture and gaze stability in a manner that is both goal dependent and motor-context specific.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomás L Cruz
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - M Eugenia Chiappe
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Tardigrades exhibit robust interlimb coordination across walking speeds and terrains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2107289118. [PMID: 34446560 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2107289118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Tardigrades must negotiate heterogeneous, fluctuating environments and accordingly utilize locomotive strategies capable of dealing with variable terrain. We analyze the kinematics and interleg coordination of freely walking tardigrades (species: Hypsibius exemplaris). We find that tardigrade walking replicates several key features of walking in insects despite disparities in size, skeleton, and habitat. To test the effect of environmental changes on tardigrade locomotor control circuits we measure kinematics and interleg coordination during walking on two substrates of different stiffnesses. We find that the phase offset between contralateral leg pairs is flexible, while ipsilateral coordination is preserved across environmental conditions. This mirrors similar results in insects and crustaceans. We propose that these functional similarities in walking coordination between tardigrades and arthropods is either due to a generalized locomotor control circuit common to panarthropods or to independent convergence onto an optimal strategy for robust multilegged control in small animals with simple circuitry. Our results highlight the value of tardigrades as a comparative system toward understanding the mechanisms-neural and/or mechanical-underlying coordination in panarthropod locomotion.
Collapse
|
16
|
Nirody JA. Universal Features in Panarthropod Inter-Limb Coordination during Forward Walking. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:710-722. [PMID: 34043783 PMCID: PMC8427173 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Terrestrial animals must often negotiate heterogeneous, varying environments. Accordingly, their locomotive strategies must adapt to a wide range of terrain, as well as to a range of speeds to accomplish different behavioral goals. Studies in Drosophila have found that inter-leg coordination patterns (ICPs) vary smoothly with walking speed, rather than switching between distinct gaits as in vertebrates (e.g., horses transitioning between trotting and galloping). Such a continuum of stepping patterns implies that separate neural controllers are not necessary for each observed ICP. Furthermore, the spectrum of Drosophila stepping patterns includes all canonical coordination patterns observed during forward walking in insects. This raises the exciting possibility that the controller in Drosophila is common to all insects, and perhaps more generally to panarthropod walkers. Here, we survey and collate data on leg kinematics and inter-leg coordination relationships during forward walking in a range of arthropod species, as well as include data from a recent behavioral investigation into the tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris. Using this comparative dataset, we point to several functional and morphological features that are shared among panarthropods. The goal of the framework presented in this review is to emphasize the importance of comparative functional and morphological analyses in understanding the origins and diversification of walking in Panarthropoda. Introduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine A Nirody
- Center for Studies in Physics and Biology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA.,All Souls College, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 4AL, UK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
David I, Ayali A. From Motor-Output to Connectivity: An In-Depth Study of in-vitro Rhythmic Patterns in the Cockroach Periplaneta americana. FRONTIERS IN INSECT SCIENCE 2021; 1:655933. [PMID: 38468881 PMCID: PMC10926548 DOI: 10.3389/finsc.2021.655933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
The cockroach is an established model in the study of locomotion control. While previous work has offered important insights into the interplay among brain commands, thoracic central pattern generators, and the sensory feedback that shapes their motor output, there remains a need for a detailed description of the central pattern generators' motor output and their underlying connectivity scheme. To this end, we monitored pilocarpine-induced activity of levator and depressor motoneurons in two types of novel in-vitro cockroach preparations: isolated thoracic ganglia and a whole-chain preparation comprising the thoracic ganglia and the subesophageal ganglion. Our data analyses focused on the motoneuron firing patterns and the coordination among motoneuron types in the network. The burstiness and rhythmicity of the motoneurons were monitored, and phase relations, coherence, coupling strength, and frequency-dependent variability were analyzed. These parameters were all measured and compared among network units both within each preparation and among the preparations. Here, we report differences among the isolated ganglia, including asymmetries in phase and coupling strength, which indicate that they are wired to serve different functions. We also describe the intrinsic default gait and a frequency-dependent coordination. The depressor motoneurons showed mostly similar characteristics throughout the network regardless of interganglia connectivity; whereas the characteristics of the levator motoneurons activity were mostly ganglion-dependent, and influenced by the presence of interganglia connectivity. Asymmetries were also found between the anterior and posterior homolog parts of the thoracic network, as well as between ascending and descending connections. Our analyses further discover a frequency-dependent inversion of the interganglia coordination from alternations between ipsilateral homolog oscillators to simultaneous activity. We present a detailed scheme of the network couplings, formulate coupling rules, and review a previously suggested model of connectivity in light of our new findings. Our data support the notion that the inter-hemiganglia coordination derives from the levator networks and their coupling with local depressor interneurons. Our findings also support a dominant role of the metathoracic ganglion and its ascending output in governing the anterior ganglia motor output during locomotion in the behaving animal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Izhak David
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Amir Ayali
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Chun C, Biswas T, Bhandawat V. Drosophila uses a tripod gait across all walking speeds, and the geometry of the tripod is important for speed control. eLife 2021; 10:65878. [PMID: 33533718 PMCID: PMC7932689 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Changes in walking speed are characterized by changes in both the animal's gait and the mechanics of its interaction with the ground. Here we study these changes in walking Drosophila. We measured the fly's center of mass movement with high spatial resolution and the position of its footprints. Flies predominantly employ a modified tripod gait that only changes marginally with speed. The mechanics of a tripod gait can be approximated with a simple model - angular and radial spring-loaded inverted pendulum (ARSLIP) - which is characterized by two springs of an effective leg that become stiffer as the speed increases. Surprisingly, the change in the stiffness of the spring is mediated by the change in tripod shape rather than a change in stiffness of individual legs. The effect of tripod shape on mechanics can also explain the large variation in kinematics among insects, and ARSLIP can model these variations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chanwoo Chun
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Tirthabir Biswas
- Department of Physics, Loyola University, New Orleans, United States.,Janelia Research Campus, Howard Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Vikas Bhandawat
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Sciences and Health Systems, Drexel University, Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, United States
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Weihmann T. Survey of biomechanical aspects of arthropod terrestrialisation - Substrate bound legged locomotion. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2020; 59:100983. [PMID: 33160205 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2020.100983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Arthropods are the most diverse clade on earth with regard to both species number and variability of body plans. Their general body plan is characterised by variable numbers of legs, and many-legged locomotion is an essential aspect of many aquatic and terrestrial arthropod species. Moreover, arthropods belong to the first groups of animals to colonise subaerial habitats, and they did so repeatedly and independently in a couple of clades. Those arthropod clades that colonised land habitats were equipped with highly variable body plans and locomotor apparatuses. Proceeding from their respective specific anatomies, they were challenged with strongly changing environmental conditions as well as altered physical and physiological constraints. This review explores the transitions from aquatic to terrestrial habitats across the different arthropod body plans and explains the major mechanisms and principles that constrain design and function of a range of locomotor apparatuses. Important aspects of movement physiology addressed here include the effects of different numbers of legs, different body sizes, miniaturisation and simplification of body plans and different ratios of inertial and damping forces. The article's focus is on continuous legged locomotion, but related ecological and behavioural aspects are also taken into account.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom Weihmann
- Dept. of Animal Physiology, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Strasse 47b, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Goldsmith CA, Szczecinski NS, Quinn RD. Neurodynamic modeling of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:065003. [PMID: 32924978 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ab9e52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This manuscript describes neuromechanical modeling of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster in the form of a hexapod robot, Drosophibot, and an accompanying dynamic simulation. Drosophibot is a testbed for real-time dynamical neural controllers modeled after the anatomy and function of the insect nervous system. As such, Drosophibot has been designed to capture features of the animal's biomechanics in order to better test the neural controllers. These features include: dynamically scaling the robot to match the fruit fly by designing its joint elasticity and movement speed; a biomimetic actuator control scheme that converts neural activity into motion in the same way as observed in insects; biomimetic sensing, including proprioception from all leg joints and strain sensing from all leg segments; and passively compliant tarsi that mimic the animal's passive compliance to the walking substrate. We incorporated these features into a dynamical simulation of Drosophibot, and demonstrate that its actuators and sensors perform in an animal-like way. We used this simulation to test a neural walking controller based on anatomical and behavioral data from insects. Finally, we describe Drosophibot's hardware and show that the animal-like features of the simulation transfer to the physical robot.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C A Goldsmith
- Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States of America
| | - N S Szczecinski
- Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States of America
| | - R D Quinn
- Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Azevedo AW, Dickinson ES, Gurung P, Venkatasubramanian L, Mann RS, Tuthill JC. A size principle for recruitment of Drosophila leg motor neurons. eLife 2020; 9:e56754. [PMID: 32490810 PMCID: PMC7347388 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
To move the body, the brain must precisely coordinate patterns of activity among diverse populations of motor neurons. Here, we use in vivo calcium imaging, electrophysiology, and behavior to understand how genetically-identified motor neurons control flexion of the fruit fly tibia. We find that leg motor neurons exhibit a coordinated gradient of anatomical, physiological, and functional properties. Large, fast motor neurons control high force, ballistic movements while small, slow motor neurons control low force, postural movements. Intermediate neurons fall between these two extremes. This hierarchical organization resembles the size principle, first proposed as a mechanism for establishing recruitment order among vertebrate motor neurons. Recordings in behaving flies confirmed that motor neurons are typically recruited in order from slow to fast. However, we also find that fast, intermediate, and slow motor neurons receive distinct proprioceptive feedback signals, suggesting that the size principle is not the only mechanism that dictates motor neuron recruitment. Overall, this work reveals the functional organization of the fly leg motor system and establishes Drosophila as a tractable system for investigating neural mechanisms of limb motor control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony W Azevedo
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Evyn S Dickinson
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Pralaksha Gurung
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Lalanti Venkatasubramanian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Neuroscience, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Richard S Mann
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Neuroscience, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - John C Tuthill
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Schilling M, Cruse H. Decentralized control of insect walking: A simple neural network explains a wide range of behavioral and neurophysiological results. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1007804. [PMID: 32339162 PMCID: PMC7205325 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Controlling the six legs of an insect walking in an unpredictable environment is a challenging task, as many degrees of freedom have to be coordinated. Solutions proposed to deal with this task are usually based on the highly influential concept that (sensory-modulated) central pattern generators (CPG) are required to control the rhythmic movements of walking legs. Here, we investigate a different view. To this end, we introduce a sensor based controller operating on artificial neurons, being applied to a (simulated) insectoid robot required to exploit the "loop through the world" allowing for simplification of neural computation. We show that such a decentralized solution leads to adaptive behavior when facing uncertain environments which we demonstrate for a broad range of behaviors never dealt with in a single system by earlier approaches. This includes the ability to produce footfall patterns such as velocity dependent "tripod", "tetrapod", "pentapod" as well as various stable intermediate patterns as observed in stick insects and in Drosophila. These patterns are found to be stable against disturbances and when starting from various leg configurations. Our neuronal architecture easily allows for starting or interrupting a walk, all being difficult for CPG controlled solutions. Furthermore, negotiation of curves and walking on a treadmill with various treatments of individual legs is possible as well as backward walking and performing short steps. This approach can as well account for the neurophysiological results usually interpreted to support the idea that CPGs form the basis of walking, although our approach is not relying on explicit CPG-like structures. Application of CPGs may however be required for very fast walking. Our neuronal structure allows to pinpoint specific neurons known from various insect studies. Interestingly, specific common properties observed in both insects and crustaceans suggest a significance of our controller beyond the realm of insects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malte Schilling
- Cluster of Excellence Cognitive Interactive Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Holk Cruse
- Cluster of Excellence Cognitive Interactive Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
- Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Clifton GT, Holway D, Gravish N. Uneven substrates constrain walking speed in ants through modulation of stride frequency more than stride length. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192068. [PMID: 32269814 PMCID: PMC7137955 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Natural terrain is rarely flat. Substrate irregularities challenge walking animals to maintain stability, yet we lack quantitative assessments of walking performance and limb kinematics on naturally uneven ground. We measured how continually uneven 3D-printed substrates influence walking performance of Argentine ants by measuring walking speeds of workers from laboratory colonies and by testing colony-wide substrate preference in field experiments. Tracking limb motion in over 8000 videos, we used statistical models that associate walking speed with limb kinematic parameters to compare movement over flat versus uneven ground of controlled dimensions. We found that uneven substrates reduced preferred and peak walking speeds by up to 42% and that ants actively avoided uneven terrain in the field. Observed speed reductions were modulated primarily by shifts in stride frequency instead of stride length (flat R 2: 0.91 versus 0.50), a pattern consistent across flat and uneven substrates. Mixed effect modelling revealed that walking speeds on uneven substrates were accurately predicted based on flat walking data for over 89% of strides. Those strides that were not well modelled primarily involved limb perturbations, including missteps, active foot repositioning and slipping. Together these findings relate kinematic mechanisms underlying walking performance on uneven terrain to ecologically relevant measures under field conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G. T. Clifton
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - D. Holway
- Division of Biological Science, Section of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - N. Gravish
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Behavior and Evolution, University of California, San Diego, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Dürr V, Arena PP, Cruse H, Dallmann CJ, Drimus A, Hoinville T, Krause T, Mátéfi-Tempfli S, Paskarbeit J, Patanè L, Schäffersmann M, Schilling M, Schmitz J, Strauss R, Theunissen L, Vitanza A, Schneider A. Integrative Biomimetics of Autonomous Hexapedal Locomotion. Front Neurorobot 2019; 13:88. [PMID: 31708765 PMCID: PMC6819508 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2019.00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite substantial advances in many different fields of neurorobotics in general, and biomimetic robots in particular, a key challenge is the integration of concepts: to collate and combine research on disparate and conceptually disjunct research areas in the neurosciences and engineering sciences. We claim that the development of suitable robotic integration platforms is of particular relevance to make such integration of concepts work in practice. Here, we provide an example for a hexapod robotic integration platform for autonomous locomotion. In a sequence of six focus sections dealing with aspects of intelligent, embodied motor control in insects and multipedal robots—ranging from compliant actuation, distributed proprioception and control of multiple legs, the formation of internal representations to the use of an internal body model—we introduce the walking robot HECTOR as a research platform for integrative biomimetics of hexapedal locomotion. Owing to its 18 highly sensorized, compliant actuators, light-weight exoskeleton, distributed and expandable hardware architecture, and an appropriate dynamic simulation framework, HECTOR offers many opportunities to integrate research effort across biomimetics research on actuation, sensory-motor feedback, inter-leg coordination, and cognitive abilities such as motion planning and learning of its own body size.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Volker Dürr
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Paolo P Arena
- DIEEI: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica Elettronica e Informatica, Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Holk Cruse
- Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Chris J Dallmann
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Alin Drimus
- Mads Clausen Institute, University of Southern Denmark, Sønderborg, Denmark
| | - Thierry Hoinville
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Tammo Krause
- Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie und Neurobiologie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Jan Paskarbeit
- Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Luca Patanè
- DIEEI: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica Elettronica e Informatica, Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Mattias Schäffersmann
- Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Malte Schilling
- Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Roland Strauss
- Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie und Neurobiologie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Mainz, Germany
| | - Leslie Theunissen
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Alessandra Vitanza
- DIEEI: Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica Elettronica e Informatica, Università degli Studi di Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Axel Schneider
- Cognitive Interaction Technology: Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Institute of System Dynamics and Mechatronics, Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Bielefeld, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Daun S, Mantziaris C, Tóth T, Büschges A, Rosjat N. Unravelling intra- and intersegmental neuronal connectivity between central pattern generating networks in a multi-legged locomotor system. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0220767. [PMID: 31386699 PMCID: PMC6684069 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal walking results from a complex interplay of central pattern generating networks (CPGs), local sensory signals expressing position, velocity and forces generated in the legs, and coordinating signals between neighboring legs. In particular, the CPGs control the activity of motoneuron (MN) pools which drive the muscles of the individual legs and are thereby responsible for the generation of rhythmic leg movements. The rhythmic activity of the CPGs as well as their connectivity can be modified by the aforementioned sensory signals. However, the precise nature of the interaction between the CPGs and these sensory signals has remained generally largely unknown. Experimental methods aiming at finding out details of these interactions often apply cholinergic agonists such as pilocarpine in order to induce rhythmic activity in the CPGs. Using this general approach, we removed the influence of sensory signals and investigated the putative connections between CPGs controlling the upward/downward movement in the different legs of the stick insect. The experimental data, i.e. the measured MN activities, underwent connectivity analysis using Dynamic Causal Modelling (DCM). This method can uncover the underlying coupling structure and strength between pairs of segmental CPGs. For the analysis we set up different coupling schemes (models) for DCM and compared them using Bayesian Model Selection (BMS). Models with contralateral connections in each segment and ipsilateral connections on both sides, as well as the coupling from the meta- to the ipsilateral prothoracic ganglion were preferred by BMS to all other types of models tested. Moreover, the intrasegmental coupling strength in the mesothoracic ganglion was the strongest and most stable in all three ganglia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Daun
- Heisenberg Research Group of Computational Neuroscience - Modelling Neural Network Function, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-3), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Charalampos Mantziaris
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tibor Tóth
- Heisenberg Research Group of Computational Neuroscience - Modelling Neural Network Function, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Nils Rosjat
- Heisenberg Research Group of Computational Neuroscience - Modelling Neural Network Function, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-3), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Park H, Latash EM, Molkov YI, Klishko AN, Frigon A, DeWeerth SP, Prilutsky BI. Cutaneous sensory feedback from paw pads affects lateral balance control during split-belt locomotion in the cat. J Exp Biol 2019; 222:jeb198648. [PMID: 31308054 PMCID: PMC6679349 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.198648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous sensory feedback from the paw pads plays an important role in regulating body balance, especially in challenging environments like ladder or slope walking. Here, we investigated the contribution of cutaneous sensory feedback from the paw pads to balance control in cats stepping on a split-belt treadmill. Forepaws and hindpaws were anesthetized unilaterally using lidocaine injections. We evaluated body balance in intact and compromised cutaneous feedback conditions during split-belt locomotion with belt-speed ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. Measures of body balance included step width, relative duration of limb support phases, lateral bias of center of mass (CoM) and margins of static and dynamic stability. In the intact condition, static and dynamic balance declined with increasing belt-speed ratio as a result of a lateral shift of the CoM toward the borders of support on the slower moving belt. Anesthesia of the ipsilateral paws improved locomotor balance with increasing belt-speed ratios by reversing the CoM shift, decreasing the relative duration of the two-limb support phase, increasing the duration of four- or three-limb support phases, and increasing the hindlimb step width and static stability. We observed no changes in most balance measures in anesthetized conditions during tied-belt locomotion at 0.4 m s-1 CoM lateral displacements closely resembled those of the inverted pendulum and of human walking. We propose that unilaterally compromised cutaneous feedback from the paw pads is compensated for by improving lateral balance and by shifting the body toward the anesthetized paws to increase tactile sensation during the stance phase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hangue Park
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
- Biomechanics and Motor Control Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
| | - Elizaveta M Latash
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Yaroslav I Molkov
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
| | - Alexander N Klishko
- Biomechanics and Motor Control Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
| | - Alain Frigon
- Department of Pharmacology-Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Stephen P DeWeerth
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
- P.C. Rossin College of Engineering & Applied Science, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Boris I Prilutsky
- Biomechanics and Motor Control Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
DeAngelis BD, Zavatone-Veth JA, Clark DA. The manifold structure of limb coordination in walking Drosophila. eLife 2019; 8:e46409. [PMID: 31250807 PMCID: PMC6598772 DOI: 10.7554/elife.46409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Terrestrial locomotion requires animals to coordinate their limb movements to efficiently traverse their environment. While previous studies in hexapods have reported that limb coordination patterns can vary substantially, the structure of this variability is not yet well understood. Here, we characterized the symmetric and asymmetric components of variation in walking kinematics in the genetic model organism Drosophila. We found that Drosophila use a single continuum of coordination patterns without evidence for preferred configurations. Spontaneous symmetric variability was associated with modulation of a single control parameter-stance duration-while asymmetric variability consisted of small, limb-specific modulations along multiple dimensions of the underlying symmetric pattern. Commands that modulated walking speed, originating from artificial neural activation or from the visual system, evoked modulations consistent with spontaneous behavior. Our findings suggest that Drosophila employ a low-dimensional control architecture, which provides a framework for understanding the neural circuits that regulate hexapod legged locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian D DeAngelis
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience ProgramYale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | | | - Damon A Clark
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience ProgramYale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of PhysicsYale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental BiologyYale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of NeuroscienceYale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Dallmann CJ, Dürr V, Schmitz J. Motor control of an insect leg during level and incline walking. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:222/7/jeb188748. [PMID: 30944163 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.188748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
During walking, the leg motor system must continually adjust to changes in mechanical conditions, such as the inclination of the ground. To understand the underlying control, it is important to know how changes in leg muscle activity relate to leg kinematics (movements) and leg dynamics (forces, torques). Here, we studied these parameters in hindlegs of stick insects (Carausius morosus) during level and uphill/downhill (±45 deg) walking, using a combination of electromyography, 3D motion capture and ground reaction force measurements. We find that some kinematic parameters including leg joint angles and body height vary across walking conditions. However, kinematics vary little compared with dynamics: horizontal leg forces and torques at the thorax-coxa joint (leg protraction/retraction) and femur-tibia joint (leg flexion/extension) tend to be stronger during uphill walking and are reversed in sign during downhill walking. At the thorax-coxa joint, the different mechanical demands are met by adjustments in the timing and magnitude of antagonistic muscle activity. Adjustments occur primarily in the first half of stance after the touch-down of the leg. When insects transition from level to incline walking, the characteristic adjustments in muscle activity occur with the first step of the leg on the incline, but not in anticipation. Together, these findings indicate that stick insects adjust leg muscle activity on a step-by-step basis so as to maintain a similar kinematic pattern under different mechanical demands. The underlying control might rely primarily on feedback from leg proprioceptors signaling leg position and movement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chris J Dallmann
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany .,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Inspiration 1, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Volker Dürr
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Inspiration 1, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany .,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Inspiration 1, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Tóth TI, Daun S. A kinematic model of stick-insect walking. Physiol Rep 2019; 7:e14080. [PMID: 31033245 PMCID: PMC6487367 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal, and insect walking (locomotion) in particular, have attracted much attention from scientists over many years up to now. The investigations included behavioral, electrophysiological experiments, as well as modeling studies. Despite the large amount of material collected, there are left many unanswered questions as to how walking and related activities are generated, maintained, and controlled. It is obvious that for them to take place, precise coordination within muscle groups of one leg and between the legs is required: intra- and interleg coordination. The nature, the details, and the interactions of these coordination mechanisms are not entirely clear. To help uncover them, we made use of modeling techniques, and succeeded in developing a six-leg model of stick-insect walking. Our main goal was to prove that the same model can mimic a variety of walking-related behavioral modes, as well as the most common coordination patterns of walking just by changing the values of a few input or internal variables. As a result, the model can reproduce the basic coordination patterns of walking: tetrapod and tripod and the transition between them. It can also mimic stop and restart, change from forward-to-backward walking and back. Finally, it can exhibit so-called search movements of the front legs both while walking or standing still. The mechanisms of the model that enable it to produce the aforementioned behavioral modes can hint at and prove helpful in uncovering further details of the biological mechanisms underlying walking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tibor I. Tóth
- Department of BiologyFaculty of Mathematical and Natural SciencesHeisenberg Research Group of Computational Neuroscience – Modeling Neuronal Network FunctionUniversity of CologneKoelnGermany
| | - Silvia Daun
- Department of BiologyFaculty of Mathematical and Natural SciencesHeisenberg Research Group of Computational Neuroscience – Modeling Neuronal Network FunctionUniversity of CologneKoelnGermany
- Jülich Research CenterInstitute of Neuroscience and MedicineINM‐3KoelnGermany
| |
Collapse
|