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Günzel Y, Schmitz J, Dürr V. Locomotor resilience through load-dependent modulation of muscle co-contraction. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:276888. [PMID: 36039914 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Terrestrial locomotor behavior in variable environments requires resilience to sudden changes in substrate properties. For example, walking animals can adjust to substantial changes in slope and corresponding changes in load distribution among legs. In insects, slope-dependent adjustments have mainly been examined under steady-state conditions, whereas the transition dynamics have been largely neglected. In a previous study, we showed that steady-state adjustments of stick insects to ±45° slopes involve substantial changes in joint torques and muscle activity with only minor changes in leg kinematics. Here, we take a close look at the time course of these adjustments as stick insects compensate for various kinds of disturbances to load distribution. In particular, we test whether the transition from one steady state to another involves distinct transition steps or follows a graded process. To resolve this, we combined simultaneous recordings of whole-body kinematics and hind leg muscle activity to elucidate how freely walking Carausius morosus negotiated a step-change in substrate slope. Step-by-step adjustments reveal that muscle activity changed in a graded manner as a function of body pitch relative to gravity. We further show analogous transient adjustment of muscle activity in response to destabilizing lift-off events of neighboring legs and the disappearance of antagonist co-activation during crawling episodes. Given these three examples of load-dependent regulation of antagonist muscle co-contraction, we conclude that stick insects respond to both transient and sustained changes in load distribution by regulating joint stiffness rather than through distinct transition steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Günzel
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany
| | - Volker Dürr
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany.,Cognitive Interaction Technology Center of Excellence, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld 33615, Germany
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2
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Sakamoto T, Sasaki S, Yamaguchi N, Nakano M, Sato H, Iwabuchi K, Tabunoki H, Simpson RJ, Bono H. De novo transcriptome analysis for examination of the nutrition metabolic system related to the evolutionary process through which stick insects gain the ability of flight (Phasmatodea). BMC Res Notes 2021; 14:182. [PMID: 33985569 PMCID: PMC8120901 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-021-05600-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Insects are the most evolutionarily successful groups of organisms, and this success is largely due to their flight ability. Interestingly, some stick insects have lost their flight ability despite having wings. To elucidate the shift from wingless to flying forms during insect evolution, we compared the nutritional metabolism system among flight-winged, flightless-winged, and flightless-wingless stick insect groups. Results Here, we report RNA sequencing of midgut transcriptome of Entoria okinawaensis, a prominent Japanese flightless-wingless stick insect, and the comparative analysis of its transcriptome in publicly available midgut transcriptomes obtained from seven stick insect species. A gene enrichment analysis for differentially expressed genes, including those obtained from winged vs wingless and flight vs flightless genes comparisons, revealed that carbohydrate metabolic process-related genes were highly expressed in the winged stick insect group. We also found that the expression of the mitochondrial enolase superfamily member 1 transcript was significantly higher in the winged stick insect group than in the wingless stick insect group. Our findings could indicate that carbohydrate metabolic processes are related to the evolutionary process through which stick insects gain the ability of flight. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-021-05600-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuma Sakamoto
- Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.,Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Shunya Sasaki
- Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Nobuki Yamaguchi
- Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Miho Nakano
- Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Hiroki Sato
- Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Kikuo Iwabuchi
- Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Hiroko Tabunoki
- Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.,Department of Science of Biological Production, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan
| | - Richard J Simpson
- Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.,Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science (LIMS), La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Hidemasa Bono
- Database Center for Life Science (DBCLS), Joint Support-Center for Data Science Research, Research Organization of Information and Systems (ROIS), Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540, Japan. .,Program of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 3-10-23 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-0046, Japan.
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3
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Codianni MG, Daun S, Rubin JE. The roles of ascending sensory signals and top-down central control in the entrainment of a locomotor CPG. Biol Cybern 2020; 114:533-555. [PMID: 33289879 DOI: 10.1007/s00422-020-00852-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Previous authors have proposed two basic hypotheses about the factors that form the basis of locomotor rhythms in walking insects: sensory feedback only or sensory feedback together with rhythmic activity of small neural circuits called central pattern generators (CPGs). Here we focus on the latter. Following this concept, to generate functional outputs, locomotor control must feature both rhythm generation by CPGs at the level of individual joints and coordination of their rhythmic activities, so that all muscles are activated in an appropriate pattern. This work provides an in-depth analysis of an aspect of this coordination process based on an existing network model of stick insect locomotion. Specifically, we consider how the control system for a single joint in the stick insect leg may produce rhythmic output when subjected to ascending sensory signals from other joints in the leg. In this work, the core rhythm generating CPG component of the joint under study is represented by a classical half-center oscillator constrained by a basic set of experimental observations. While the dynamical features of this CPG, including phase transitions by escape and release, are well understood, we provide novel insights about how these transition mechanisms yield entrainment to the incoming sensory signal, how entrainment can be lost under variation of signal strength and period or other perturbations, how entrainment can be restored by modulation of tonic top-down drive levels, and how these factors impact the duty cycle of the motor output.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvia Daun
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine - Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Zoology, Forschungszentrum Jülich and University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jonathan E Rubin
- Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Birgul Iyison N, Sinmaz MG, Duan Sahbaz B, Shahraki A, Aksoydan B, Durdagi S. In silico characterization of adipokinetic hormone receptor and screening for pesticide candidates against stick insect, Carausius morosus. J Mol Graph Model 2020; 101:107720. [PMID: 32937277 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2020.107720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Adipokinetic hormone (AKH) is an insect neuropeptide that plays crucial roles in a variety of physiological functions such as regulation of heartbeat frequency, blood hemolymph trehalose levels, and protein synthesis. It exerts its functions through binding to its cognate G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), named adipokinetic hormone receptor (AKHR). The aim of this study is to characterize AKHR of stick insect, Carausius morosus, which becomes an agricultural and forest pest during its outbreaks, and to screen pesticide candidates that would act through inhibition of AKHR. To this aim, the sequence of the receptor and its ligand were obtained from previously published transcriptome data and homology modeling, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were combined to find the ligand-binding pocket of AKHR. As a result, crucial residues in ligand binding were identified. These residues were located at the 6th and 7th transmembrane (TM) domains and the 2nd extracellular loop (ECL) of AKHR model. In order to propose pesticide candidates, virtual screening was performed, and candidate ligands were obtained. Considering the binding energies and the stability of the interaction between the ligand and the receptor, four hit compounds were selected. In conclusion, this study revealed a possible ligand-binding pocket of AKHR and proposed some high-affinity small-molecules to block its function, which would further facilitate pesticide design studies against the same receptor of various pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Necla Birgul Iyison
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, Bogazici University, 34342, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Merve Gizem Sinmaz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, Bogazici University, 34342, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Burcin Duan Sahbaz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, Bogazici University, 34342, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aida Shahraki
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Graduate Studies in Science and Engineering, Bogazici University, 34342, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Busecan Aksoydan
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, 34734, Istanbul, Turkey; Neuroscience Program, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Bahcesehir University, 34734, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Serdar Durdagi
- Computational Biology and Molecular Simulations Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Bahcesehir University, 34734, Istanbul, Turkey; Neuroscience Program, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Bahcesehir University, 34734, Istanbul, Turkey.
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5
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Stolz K, Strauß J, Alt JA, Lakes-Harlan R. Independent suboesophageal neuronal innervation of the defense gland and longitudinal muscles in the stick insect (Peruphasma schultei) prothorax. Arthropod Struct Dev 2018; 47:162-172. [PMID: 29438795 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the neuroanatomy of the defense gland and a related muscle in the stick insect Peruphasma schultei with axonal tracing and histological sections. The gland is innervated by three neurons through the Nervus anterior of the suboesophageal ganglion (SOG), the ipsilateral neuron (ILN), the contralateral neuron (CLN) and the prothoracic intersegmental neuron (PIN). The ILN has a large soma which is typical for motoneurons that cause fast contraction of large muscles and its dendrites are located in motor-sensory and sensory neuropile areas of the SOG. The CLN might be involved in the coordination of bilateral or unilateral discharge as its neurites are closely associated to the ILN of the contralateral gland. Close to the ejaculatory duct of the gland lies a dorsal longitudinal neck muscle, musculus pronoto-occipitalis (Idlm2), which is likely indirectly involved in gland discharge by controlling neck movements and, therefore, the direction of discharge. This muscle is innervated by three ventral median neurons (VMN). Thus, three neuron types (ILN, CLN, and PIN) innervate the gland muscle directly, and the VMNs could aid secretion indirectly. The cytoanatomy of motorneurons innervating the defense gland and neck muscle are discussed regarding the structure and functions of the neuropile in the SOG. As a basis for the neuroanatomical study on the defense gland we assembled a map of the SOG in Phasmatodea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Stolz
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Institut für Tierphysiologie, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392, Gießen, Germany.
| | - Johannes Strauß
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Institut für Tierphysiologie, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392, Gießen, Germany
| | - Joscha Arne Alt
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Institut für Tierphysiologie, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392, Gießen, Germany
| | - Reinhard Lakes-Harlan
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Institut für Tierphysiologie, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26, 35392, Gießen, Germany
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Maurer DL, Kohl T, Gebhardt MJ. Cuticular microstructures turn specular black into matt black in a stick insect. Arthropod Struct Dev 2017; 46:147-155. [PMID: 27890511 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The stick insect Peruphasma schultei stands out from other insects by its deep matt black cuticle. We tested whether the appearance of P. schultei is due to microstructures of the cuticle, a phenomenon that has recently been described for the velvet black scales of the Gaboon viper. The shiny black stick insect Anisomorpha paromalus served as a control. We found that the P. schultei cuticle is characterised by two different types of microstructures, tall elevations with a maximum size of 18 μm and small structures with a height of 4 μm. Other than in the snake, P. schultei microstructures do not bear nanostructures. The microstructures scatter light independently of the viewing angle. This causes the matt appearance of the cuticle, whereas pigments are responsible for the black colouration, resulting in a maximum reflectance of 2.8% percent. The microstructures also cause the hydrophobic properties of the cuticle with contact angles near 130°. Resin replicas and bleaching of the cuticle strongly support these results. Moreover, the matt black cuticle has a higher heat absorption compared to the control. We discuss the selective benefit of the matt black appearance of P. schultei in the context of behaviour, ecology and phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris L Maurer
- Lehrstuhl für Zoologie, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Straβe 4, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Tobias Kohl
- Lehrstuhl für Zoologie, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Straβe 4, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Michael J Gebhardt
- Lehrstuhl für Zoologie, AG Entomologie, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Hans-Carl-von-Carlowitz-Platz 2, 85354 Freising, Germany.
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Strauß J, Lakes-Harlan R. Vibrational sensitivity of the subgenual organ complex in female Sipyloidea sipylus stick insects in different experimental paradigms of stimulus direction, leg attachment, and ablation of a connective tibial sense organ. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2016; 203:100-108. [PMID: 27614184 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
We document the sensitivity to sinusoidal vibrations for chordotonal organs in the stick insect tibia (Sipyloidea sipylus). In the tibia, the scolopidial subgenual organ (~40 scolopidial sensilla), distal organ (~20 scolopidial sensilla), and distal tibial chordotonal organ (~7 scolopidial sensilla) are present. We study the sensitivity of tibial sensory organs in all leg pairs to vibration stimuli as sensory thresholds by recording summed action potentials from Nervus cruris in the femur. The tibia was stimulated with a minishaker delivering vibrational stimuli. Because different experimental procedures may affect the vibration sensitivity, we here analysed possible effects of different experimental conditions: (1) the stimulus direction delivered in either horizontal or vertical direction to the leg; (2) recording responses only from the subgenual organ complex after ablation of the distal tibial chordotonal organ, and (3) the attachment of the leg to the minishaker by plastilin, beeswax-colophony, or freely standing legs. The tibial scolopidial organs give summed responses to vibration stimuli with highest sensitivity between 500 and 1000Hz for all leg pairs. In the different experimental series, we find that (1) thresholds were influenced by stimulation direction with lower thresholds in response to vertical vibrations, (2) ablating the distal tibial chordotonal organ by cutting the distal-most tibia did not change the summed sensory thresholds significantly, and (3) the attachment material between legs and the minishaker (plastilin or beeswax-colophony mixture) did not significant influence the sensory thresholds against free-standing tarsi. The distal tibial chordotonal organ is a connective chordotonal organ attached to a tendon and is likely a proprioceptive organ. These results emphasise that vibrational thresholds are mainly direction-sensitive. Thus, the direction of stimulus delivery during electrophysiological recordings is relevant for comparisons of vibratory sensory thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Strauß
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany.
| | - Reinhard Lakes-Harlan
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany
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Stolz K, von Bredow CR, von Bredow YM, Lakes-Harlan R, Trenczek TE, Strauß J. Neurons of self-defence: neuronal innervation of the exocrine defence glands in stick insects. Front Zool 2015; 12:29. [PMID: 26500685 PMCID: PMC4619533 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-015-0122-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Stick insects (Phasmatodea) use repellent chemical substances (allomones) for defence which are released from so-called defence glands in the prothorax. These glands differ in size between species, and are under neuronal control from the CNS. The detailed neural innervation and possible differences between species are not studied so far. Using axonal tracing, the neuronal innervation is investigated comparing four species. The aim is to document the complexity of defence gland innervation in peripheral nerves and central motoneurons in stick insects. Results In the species studied here, the defence gland is innervated by the intersegmental nerve complex (ISN) which is formed by three nerves from the prothoracic (T1) and suboesophageal ganglion (SOG), as well as a distinct suboesophageal nerve (Nervus anterior of the suboesophageal ganglion). In Carausius morosus and Sipyloidea sipylus, axonal tracing confirmed an innervation of the defence glands by this N. anterior SOG as well as N. anterior T1 and N. posterior SOG from the intersegmental nerve complex. In Peruphasma schultei, which has rather large defence glands, only the innervation by the N. anterior SOG was documented by axonal tracing. In the central nervous system of all species, 3-4 neuron types are identified by axonal tracing which send axons in the N. anterior SOG likely innervating the defence gland as well as adjacent muscles. These neurons are mainly suboesophageal neurons with one intersegmental neuron located in the prothoracic ganglion. The neuron types are conserved in the species studied, but the combination of neuron types is not identical. In addition, the central nervous system in S. sipylus contains one suboesophageal and one prothoracic neuron type with axons in the intersegmental nerve complex contacting the defence gland. Conclusions Axonal tracing shows a very complex innervation pattern of the defence glands of Phasmatodea which contains different neurons in different nerves from two adjacent body segments. The gland size correlates to the size of a neuron soma in the suboesophageal ganglion, which likely controls gland contraction. In P. schultei, the innervation pattern appears simplified to the anterior suboesophageal nerve. Hence, some evolutionary changes are notable in a conserved neuronal network. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12983-015-0122-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Stolz
- Institute for General and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | | | - Yvette M von Bredow
- Institute for General and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Reinhard Lakes-Harlan
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Tina E Trenczek
- Institute for General and Applied Zoology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Johannes Strauß
- AG Integrative Sensory Physiology, Institute for Animal Physiology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Germany
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