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Gutiérrez-Ibáñez C, Wylie DR, Altshuler DL. From the eye to the wing: neural circuits for transforming optic flow into motor output in avian flight. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2023; 209:839-854. [PMID: 37542566 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-023-01663-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Avian flight is guided by optic flow-the movement across the retina of images of surfaces and edges in the environment due to self-motion. In all vertebrates, there is a short pathway for optic flow information to reach pre-motor areas: retinal-recipient regions in the midbrain encode optic flow, which is then sent to the cerebellum. One well-known role for optic flow pathways to the cerebellum is the control of stabilizing eye movements (the optokinetic response). However, the role of this pathway in controlling locomotion is less well understood. Electrophysiological and tract tracing studies are revealing the functional connectivity of a more elaborate circuit through the avian cerebellum, which integrates optic flow with other sensory signals. Here we review the research supporting this framework and identify the cerebellar output centres, the lateral (CbL) and medial (CbM) cerebellar nuclei, as two key nodes with potentially distinct roles in flight control. The CbM receives bilateral optic flow information and projects to sites in the brainstem that suggest a primary role for flight control over time, such as during forward flight. The CbL receives monocular optic flow and other types of visual information. This site provides feedback to sensory areas throughout the brain and has a strong projection the nucleus ruber, which is known to have a dominant role in forelimb muscle control. This arrangement suggests primary roles for the CbL in the control of wing morphing and for rapid maneuvers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Douglas R Wylie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada.
| | - Douglas L Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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2
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Zemel BM, Nevue AA, Tavares LES, Dagostin A, Lovell PV, Jin DZ, Mello CV, von Gersdorff H. Motor cortex analogue neurons in songbirds utilize Kv3 channels to generate ultranarrow spikes. eLife 2023; 12:e81992. [PMID: 37158590 PMCID: PMC10241522 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex motor skills in vertebrates require specialized upper motor neurons with precise action potential (AP) firing. To examine how diverse populations of upper motor neurons subserve distinct functions and the specific repertoire of ion channels involved, we conducted a thorough study of the excitability of upper motor neurons controlling somatic motor function in the zebra finch. We found that robustus arcopallialis projection neurons (RAPNs), key command neurons for song production, exhibit ultranarrow spikes and higher firing rates compared to neurons controlling non-vocal somatic motor functions (dorsal intermediate arcopallium [AId] neurons). Pharmacological and molecular data indicate that this striking difference is associated with the higher expression in RAPNs of high threshold, fast-activating voltage-gated Kv3 channels, that likely contain Kv3.1 (KCNC1) subunits. The spike waveform and Kv3.1 expression in RAPNs mirror properties of Betz cells, specialized upper motor neurons involved in fine digit control in humans and other primates but absent in rodents. Our study thus provides evidence that songbirds and primates have convergently evolved the use of Kv3.1 to ensure precise, rapid AP firing in upper motor neurons controlling fast and complex motor skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Zemel
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Alexander A Nevue
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Leonardo ES Tavares
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
- Department of Physics, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkUnited States
| | - Andre Dagostin
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Peter V Lovell
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Dezhe Z Jin
- Department of Physics, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkUnited States
| | - Claudio V Mello
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
| | - Henrique von Gersdorff
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
- Oregon Hearing Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortlandUnited States
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Agrawal S, Tobalske BW, Anwar Z, Luo H, Hedrick TL, Cheng B. Musculoskeletal wing-actuation model of hummingbirds predicts diverse effects of primary flight muscles in hovering flight. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20222076. [PMID: 36475440 PMCID: PMC9727662 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hummingbirds have evolved to hover and manoeuvre with exceptional flight control. This is enabled by their musculoskeletal system that successfully exploits the agile motion of flapping wings. Here, we synthesize existing empirical and modelling data to generate novel hypotheses for principles of hummingbird wing actuation. These may help guide future experimental work and provide insights into the evolution and robotic emulation of hummingbird flight. We develop a functional model of the hummingbird musculoskeletal system, which predicts instantaneous, three-dimensional torque produced by primary (pectoralis and supracoracoideus) and combined secondary muscles. The model also predicts primary muscle contractile behaviour, including stress, strain, elasticity and work. Results suggest that the primary muscles (i.e. the flight 'engine') function as diverse effectors, as they do not simply power the stroke, but also actively deviate and pitch the wing with comparable actuation torque. The results also suggest that the secondary muscles produce controlled-tightening effects by acting against primary muscles in deviation and pitching. The diverse effects of the pectoralis are associated with the evolution of a comparatively enormous bicipital crest on the humerus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suyash Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Bret W. Tobalske
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Zafar Anwar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Haoxiang Luo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Tyson L. Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Bo Cheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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Krishnan K, Garde B, Bennison A, Cole NC, Cole EL, Darby J, Elliott KH, Fell A, Gómez-Laich A, de Grissac S, Jessopp M, Lempidakis E, Mizutani Y, Prudor A, Quetting M, Quintana F, Robotka H, Roulin A, Ryan PG, Schalcher K, Schoombie S, Tatayah V, Tremblay F, Weimerskirch H, Whelan S, Wikelski M, Yoda K, Hedenström A, Shepard ELC. The role of wingbeat frequency and amplitude in flight power. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220168. [PMID: 36000229 PMCID: PMC9403799 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Body-mounted accelerometers provide a new prospect for estimating power use in flying birds, as the signal varies with the two major kinematic determinants of aerodynamic power: wingbeat frequency and amplitude. Yet wingbeat frequency is sometimes used as a proxy for power output in isolation. There is, therefore, a need to understand which kinematic parameter birds vary and whether this is predicted by flight mode (e.g. accelerating, ascending/descending flight), speed or morphology. We investigate this using high-frequency acceleration data from (i) 14 species flying in the wild, (ii) two species flying in controlled conditions in a wind tunnel and (iii) a review of experimental and field studies. While wingbeat frequency and amplitude were positively correlated, R2 values were generally low, supporting the idea that parameters can vary independently. Indeed, birds were more likely to modulate wingbeat amplitude for more energy-demanding flight modes, including climbing and take-off. Nonetheless, the striking variability, even within species and flight types, highlights the complexity of describing the kinematic relationships, which appear sensitive to both the biological and physical context. Notwithstanding this, acceleration metrics that incorporate both kinematic parameters should be more robust proxies for power than wingbeat frequency alone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Baptiste Garde
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8PP, UK
| | - Ashley Bennison
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 N73 K, Ireland
- British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, Cambridge, UK
| | - Nik C. Cole
- Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, La Profonde Rue, Jersey JE3 5BP, Jersey
| | - Emma-L. Cole
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8PP, UK
| | - Jamie Darby
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 N73 K, Ireland
| | - Kyle H. Elliott
- Department of Natural Resources Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Adam Fell
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Agustina Gómez-Laich
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución and Instituto de Ecología, Genética Y Evolución de Buenos Aires (IEGEBA), CONICET, Pabellón II Ciudad Universitaria, C1428EGA Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sophie de Grissac
- Diomedea Science – Research and Scientific Communication, 819 route de la Jars, 38 950 Quaix-en-Chartreuse, France
| | - Mark Jessopp
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork T23 N73 K, Ireland
| | | | - Yuichi Mizutani
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Aurélien Prudor
- Centres d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé – CNRS, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Michael Quetting
- Department of Migration, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Radolfzell, Germany
| | - Flavio Quintana
- Instituto de Biología de Organismos Marinos (IBIOMAR), CONICET, Boulevard Brown, 2915, U9120ACD, Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | | | - Alexandre Roulin
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Building Biophore, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Peter G. Ryan
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
| | - Kim Schalcher
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Building Biophore, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Schoombie
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
| | - Vikash Tatayah
- Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, Grannum Road, Vacoas 73418, Mauritius
| | - Fred Tremblay
- Department of Natural Resources Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Shannon Whelan
- Department of Natural Resources Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Martin Wikelski
- Department of Migration, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Radolfzell, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Ken Yoda
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Anders Hedenström
- Department of Biology, Centre for Animal Movement Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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Cheney JA, Rehm JC, Swartz SM, Breuer KS. Bats actively modulate membrane compliance to control camber and reduce drag. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275993. [PMID: 35762250 PMCID: PMC9377553 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bat wing skin is exceptionally compliant and cambers significantly during flight. Plagiopatagiales proprii, arrays of small muscles embedded in the armwing membrane, are activated during flight and are hypothesized to modulate membrane tension. We examined the function of these muscles using Jamaican fruit bats, Artibeus jamaicensis. When these muscles were paralyzed using botulinum toxin, the bats preferred flight speed decreased and they were unable to fly at very low speeds. Paralysis of the plagiopatagiales also resulted in increased armwing camber consistent with a hypothesized role of modulating aeroelastic interactions. Other compensatory kinematics included increased downstroke angle and increased wingbeat amplitude. These results are consistent with the bats experiencing increased drag and flight power costs associated with the loss of wing-membrane control. Our results indicate that A. jamaicensis likely always employ their wing membrane muscles during sustained flight to control camber and to enhance flight efficiency over a wide flight envelope. Highlighted Article: Temporary paralysis of wing-skin-embedded muscles in bats significantly increases wing-membrane camber, reduces preferred flight speed and prevents very slow flight, highlighting their role in control, efficiency and expanding the flight envelope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorn A Cheney
- Royal Veterinary College, London NW1 0TU, UK.,Dept. of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence 02912, USA
| | - Jeremy C Rehm
- Dept. of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence 02912, USA
| | - Sharon M Swartz
- Dept. of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence 02912, USA
| | - Kenneth S Breuer
- Dept. of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence 02912, USA
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Leal PBC, Cabral-Seanez M, Baliga VB, Altshuler DL, Hartl DJ. Phase transformation-driven artificial muscle mimics the multifunctionality of avian wing muscle. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20201042. [PMID: 34727709 PMCID: PMC8564628 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.1042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle provides a compact solution for performing multiple tasks under diverse operational conditions, a capability lacking in many current engineered systems. Here, we evaluate if shape memory alloy (SMA) components can serve as artificial muscles with tunable mechanical performance. We experimentally impose cyclic stimuli, electric and mechanical, to an SMA wire and demonstrate that this material can mimic the response of the avian humerotriceps, a skeletal muscle that acts in the dynamic control of wing shapes. We next numerically evaluate the feasibility of using SMA springs as artificial leg muscles for a bipedal walking robot. Altering the phase offset between mechanical and electrical stimuli was sufficient for both synthetic and natural muscle to shift between actuation, braking and spring-like behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro B. C. Leal
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Marcela Cabral-Seanez
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Vikram B. Baliga
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Douglas L. Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Darren J. Hartl
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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