Intracellular Regulation of Evodiamine-Induced A375-S2 Cell Death

Combination of DNA Damage, Autophagy, and ERK Inhibition: Novel Evodiamine-Inspired Multi-Action Pt(IV) Prodrugs with High-Efficiency and Low-Toxicity Antitumor Activity

Exploring multi-targeting chemotherapeutants with advantages over single-targeting agents and drug combinations is of great significance in drug discovery. Herein, we employed phytogenic evodiamine (EVO) and conventional Pt(II) drugs to design and synthesize multi-target EVO-Pt(IV) anticancer prodrugs (4-14). Among them, compound 10 exhibited a 118-fold enhancement in the IC₅₀ value compared to cisplatin and low toxicity to normal cells. Further studies proved that 10 significantly enhanced intracellular Pt accumulation and DNA damage, perturbed mitochondrial membrane potential, inhibited cell migration and invasion, upregulated reactive oxygen species levels, and induced apoptosis and autophagic cell death. Molecular docking assay revealed that 10 fits perfectly into the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK)-1 pocket, which was verified to produce profound ERK suppression. Most strikingly, compound 10 exhibited superior in vivo antitumor efficiency and effectively attenuated systemic toxicity. Our results emphasize that functionalizing platinum drugs with the multi-target EVO could generate synergistically excellent anticancer activity with low toxicity and decreased resistance, which may represent a brand-new cancer therapy modality.

Evodiamine as an anticancer agent: a comprehensive review on its therapeutic application, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and metabolism in various cancers

Evodiamine is a major alkaloid component found in the fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa. It shows the anti-proliferative potential against a wide range of cancers by suppressing cell growth, invasion, and metastasis and inducing apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Evodiamine shows its anticancer potential by modulating aberrant signaling pathways. Additionally, the review focuses on several therapeutic implications of evodiamine, such as epigenetic modification, cancer stem cells, and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Moreover, combinatory drug therapeutics along with evodiamine enhances the anticancer efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs in various cancers by overcoming the chemo resistance and radio resistance shown by cancer cells. It has been widely used in preclinical trials in animal models, exhibiting very negligible side effects against normal cells and effective against cancer cells. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics-based collaborations of evodiamine are also included. Due to its poor bioavailability, synthetic analogs of evodiamine and its nano capsule have been formulated to enhance its bioavailability and reduce toxicity. In addition, this review summarizes the ongoing research on the mechanisms behind the antitumor potential of evodiamine, which proposes an exciting future for such interests in cancer biology.

Naturally occurring heterocyclic anticancer compounds

Naturally occurring heterocyclic scaffolds are key ingredients for the development of various therapeutics employed for biomedical applications. Heterocyclic pharmacophores are widely disseminated and have been befallen in almost all categories of drugs for the alleviation of myriad ailments including diabetes, neurodegenerative, psychiatric, microbial infections, disastrous cancers etc. Countless fused heterocyclic anticancerous templates are reported to display antimetabolite, antioxidant, antiproliferative, cytostatic etc. pharmacological actions via targeting different signaling pathways (cell cycle, PI-3kinase/Akt, p53, caspase extrinsic pathway etc.), overexpressive receptors (EGRF, HER2, EGF, VEGF etc.) and physiological enzymes (topoisomerase I and II, cyclin dependent kinase etc.). A compiled description on various natural sources (plants, microbes, marine) containing anticancer agents comprising heterocyclic ring specified with presence of nitrogen (vincristine, vinblastine, indole-3-carbinol, meridianins, piperine, lamellarins etc.), oxygen (paclitaxel, halichondrin B, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol etc.) and sulphur atoms (brugine, fucoidan, carrageenan etc.) are displayed here along with their molecular level cytotoxic action and therapeutic applications.

Research progress on evodiamine, a bioactive alkaloid of Evodiae fructus: Focus on its anti-cancer activity and bioavailability (Review)

Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) can be isolated from the dried, unripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum and is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine that is applied extensively in China, Japan and Korea. Evodiae fructus has been traditionally used to treat headaches, abdominal pain and menorrhalgia. In addition, it is widely used as a dietary supplement to provide carboxylic acids, essential oils and flavonoids. Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the major bioactive components contained within Evodiae fructus and is considered to be a potential candidate anti-cancer agent. EVO has been reported to exert anti-cancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, whilst inducing apoptosis in numerous types of cancer cells. However, EVO is susceptible to metabolism and may inhibit the activities of metabolizing enzymes, such as cytochrome P450. Clinical application of EVO in the treatment of cancers may prove difficult due to poor bioavailability and potential toxicity due to metabolism. Currently, novel drug carriers involving the use of solid dispersion techniques, phospholipids and nanocomplexes to deliver EVO to improve its bioavailability and mitigate side effects have been tested. The present review aims to summarize the reported anti-cancer effects of EVO whilst discussing the pharmacokinetic behaviors, characteristics and effective delivery systems of EVO.

Piperidine nucleus in the field of drug discovery

Background

Piperidine is an essential heterocyclic system and a pivotal cornerstone in the production of drugs. Piperidine byproducts showed several important pharmacophoric features and are being utilized in different therapeutic applications.

Main text

Piperidine derivatives are being utilized in different ways as anticancer, antiviral, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antifungal, antihypertension, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer, antipsychotic and/or anticoagulant agents.

Conclusions

This review article sheds a light on the most recent studies proving the importance of piperidine nucleus in the field of drug discovery.

Potential Role of Phytochemicals Against Matrix Metalloproteinase Induced Breast Cancer; An Explanatory Review

World Health Organization (WHO) estimated breast cancer as one of the most prevailed malignancy around the globe. Its incident cases are gradually increasing every year, resulting in considerable healthcare burden. The heterogeneity of breast cancer accounts for its differential molecular subtyping, interaction between pathways, DNA damaging, and chronic inflammation. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a group of zinc-containing, calcium dependent endopeptidases which play a substantial role in breast carcinogenesis through several mechanisms. These mechanisms include remodeling of extracellular matrix (ECM), cell proliferation, and angiogenesis which promote metastasis and result in tumor progression. In this context, compounds bearing MMP inhibitory potential can serve as potent therapeutic agents in combating MMPs provoked breast cancer. Current systematic review aimed to encompass the details of potent natural lead molecules that can deter MMPs-provoked breast cancer. Following the critical appraisal of literature, a total of n = 44 studies that explored inhibitory effect of phytochemicals on MMPs were included in this review. These phytoconstituents include alkaloids (n = 11), flavonoids (n = 23), terpenoids (n = 7), and lignans (n = 2). The most common inhibitory methods used to evaluate efficacy of these phytoconstituents included Gelatin Zymography, Western Blotting, and real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Moreover, current limitations, challenges, and future directions of using such compounds have been critically discussed. This review underscores the potential implications of phytochemicals in the management of breast cancer which could lessen the growing encumbrance of disease.

The Biological Activity of Natural Alkaloids against Herbivores, Cancerous Cells and Pathogens

The growing incidence of microorganisms that resist antimicrobials is a constant concern for the scientific community, while the development of new antimicrobials from new chemical entities has become more and more expensive, time-consuming, and exacerbated by emerging drug-resistant strains. In this regard, many scientists are conducting research on plants aiming to discover possible antimicrobial compounds. The secondary metabolites contained in plants are a source of chemical entities having pharmacological activities and intended to be used for the treatment of different diseases. These chemical entities have the potential to be used as an effective antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic and antimicrobial agents. Among these pharmacologically active entities are the alkaloids which are classified into a number of classes, including pyrrolizidines, pyrrolidines, quinolizidines, indoles, tropanes, piperidines, purines, imidazoles, and isoquinolines. Alkaloids that have antioxidant properties are capable of preventing a variety of degenerative diseases through capturing free radicals, or through binding to catalysts involved indifferent oxidation processes occurring within the human body. Furthermore, these entities are capable of inhibiting the activity of bacteria, fungi, protozoan and etc. The unique properties of these secondary metabolites are the main reason for their utilization by the pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of different diseases. Generally, these alkaloids are extracted from plants, animals and fungi. Penicillin is the most famous natural drug discovery deriving from fungus. Similarly, marines have been used as a source for thousands of bioactive marine natural products. In this review, we cover the medical use of natural alkaloids isolated from a variety of plants and utilized by humans as antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and anticancer agents. An example for such alkaloids is berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, found in roots and stem-bark of Berberis asculin P. Renault plant and used to kill a variety of microorganisms.

A comprehensive review of topoisomerase inhibitors as anticancer agents in the past decade

The topoisomerase enzymes play an important role in DNA metabolism, and searching for enzyme inhibitors is an important target in the search for new anticancer drugs. Discovery of new anticancer chemotherapeutical capable of inhibiting topoisomerase enzymes is highlighted in anticancer research. Therefore, biologists, organic chemists and medicinal chemists all around the world have been identifying, designing, synthesizing and evaluating a variety of novel bioactive molecules targeting topoisomerase. This review summarizes types of topoisomerase inhibitors in the past decade, and divides them into nine classes by structural characteristics, including N-heterocycles compounds, quinone derivatives, flavonoids derivatives, coumarin derivatives, lignan derivatives, polyphenol derivatives, diterpenes derivatives, fatty acids derivatives, and metal complexes. Then we discussed the application prospect and development of these anticancer compounds, as well as concluded parts of their structural-activity relationships. We believe this review would be invaluable in helping to further search potential topoisomerase inhibition as antitumor agent in clinical usage.

Genus Tetradium L.: A comprehensive review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The dried fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum is frequently utilized as a common traditional medicine in China, Japan and Korea. It has been widely used for the treatment of various diseases such as headache, menorrhalgia, dermatophytosis, celialgia, emesis and aphtha and so on.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

Despite the wide biological activities of Tetradium plants, there is no current review summarizing medicinal properties of the genus of plants; thus, this review aims to systematically summarize studies on botanical characteristics, traditional uses, phytochemical ingredients, quality control, pharmacokinetics, pharmacological activities and toxicity of Tetradium species to demonstrate their therapeutic capacity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information and materials related to Tetradium species were obtained from scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Wikipedia, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, ACS Publications, SciFinder. Information was also gathered from International Plant Names Index, Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Chinese Medicine classics, etc. All studies of this genus were included in this review until July 2018.

RESULTS

Tetradium is widely assessed regarding its phytochemistry and biological activities. Approximately 131 chemical compounds, including alkaloids, saponins, phenols and other compounds, have been isolated from Tetradium plants. Among these components, alkaloid evodiamine is the most representative active ingredients of Tetradium plants. These compounds isolated from Tetradium plants exhibit a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, insecticide, cardioprotective and lipid-lowering, treating CNS disorders, digestive system regulation and endocrine system improving activities. Furthermore, alkaloids could be used as markers for quality identification and evaluation of medicinal materials and their preparations. Information on evaluating the safety and pharmacokinetics of Tetradium often focuses on the alkaloids, thus further study and clinical data are required to enable the drug safety of the utilization of Tetradium plants.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Tetradium plants have proved Tetradium plants are important medicinal herb resource. However, well-designed randomized clinical trials are necessary to confirm the therapeutic benefits of this genus in clinical settings.

Antiproliferative Effects of Alkaloid Evodiamine and Its Derivatives

Alkaloids, a category of natural products with ring structures and nitrogen atoms, include most U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved plant derived anti-cancer agents. Evodiamine is an alkaloid with attractive multitargeting antiproliferative activity. Its high content in the natural source ensures its adequate supply on the market and guarantees further medicinal study. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review about the antiproliferative effects of evodiamine derivatives. Therefore, in this article the review of the antiproliferative activities of evodiamine will be updated. More importantly, the antiproliferative activities of structurally modified new analogues of evodiamine will be summarized for the first time.

Evaluation of the Cardiotoxicity of Evodiamine In Vitro and In Vivo

Evodiamine is a bioactive alkaloid that is specified as a biomarker for the quality assessment of Evodia rutaecarpa (E. rutaecarpa) and for traditional Chinese medicines containing this plant. We previously reported that quantitative structure–activity modeling indicated that evodiamine may cause cardiotoxicity. However, previous investigations have indicated that evodiamine has beneficial effects in patients with cardiovascular diseases and there are no previous in vitro or in vivo reports of evodiamine-induced cardiotoxicity. The present study investigated the effects of evodiamine on primary cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in vitro, and on zebrafish in vivo. Cell viability was reduced in vitro, where evodiamine had a 24 h 50% inhibitory concentration of 28.44 µg/mL. Cells exposed to evodiamine also showed increased lactate dehydrogenase release and maleic dialdehyde levels, and reduced superoxide dismutase activity. In vivo, evodiamine had a 10% lethal concentration of 354 ng/mL and induced cardiac malfunction, as evidenced by changes in heart rate and circulation, and pericardial malformations. This study indicated that evodiamine could cause cardiovascular side effects involving oxidative stress. These findings suggest that cardiac function should be monitored in patients receiving preparations containing evodiamine.

Anti-proliferative effects of evodiamine in human lung cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine, a compound isolated from the Evodia rutaecarpa Bentham (Rutaceae), is known to have a potential anti-proliferative activity in human cancer cells. However, the growth inhibitory activity against lung cancer cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms have been poorly determined. The present study was designed to examine the anti-proliferative effect of evodiamine in A549 human lung cancer cells.

METHODS

A549 cells were treated with the compounds from Evodia rutaecarpa, and the anti-proliferative activity was evaluated by the sulforhodamine B assay. The mechanisms of action for the growth inhibitory activity of evodiamine on A549 human lung cancer cells were evaluated using flow cytometry for cell cycle distribution, and Western blot for assessment of accumulation and phosphorylation of potential target proteins.

RESULTS

Evodiamine exhibited a potent anti-proliferative activity against A549 human lung cancer cells. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that evodiamine induced cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and apoptosis in the A549 cells. The cell cycle arrest was well correlated with the inhibition of cyclin B1, cyclin A, cdk2 and p-cdc2 (Tyr15) and increase of p-chk1 (Ser345) and p-chk2 (Thr68). Evodiamine also significantly increased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and decreased procaspase-3, suggesting evodiamine-induced apoptosis via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In addition, evodiamine inhibited the expression of p-ERK and ERK.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the anti-proliferative effect of evodiamine was associated in part with the induction of G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and down-regulation of ERK in human lung cancer cells.

Growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis in SGC‑7901 human gastric cancer cells by evodiamine

Evodiamine is one of the major bioactive compounds isolated and purified from the fruit of Fructus Evodiae. Numerous studies have indicated that evodiamine exhibits activity against human tumor cells. In the present study, the effect of evodiamine on the proliferation and apoptosis of SGC-7901 human gastric cancer cells and the correlative mechanisms were investigated. This may provide further experimental evidence of the pharmacological actions of evodiamine and a strategy for its use as a novel chemotherapeutic drug. Following treatment with evodiamine, the typical morphological changes of apoptosis were observed in human SGC-7901 cells. Cell cycle analysis indicated that evodiamine induced G2/M phase arrest in SGC-7901 cells and flow cytometry revealed that evodiamine induced apoptosis. Analysis of the enzymatic activity demonstrated that evodiamine increased the activity of caspase-3, -8 and -9 in SGC-7901 cells. The protein expression of caspase-3, -8 and -9 and Bax increased, and the expression of Bcl-2 decreased following treatment with evodiamine. These results suggest that evodiamine is able to inhibit the proliferation of SGC-7901 cells by inhibiting the cell cycle at G2/M phase and inducing apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells by activating caspase-3, -8 and -9, and altering the expression of caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2.

Synergistic anticancer effects of polyphyllin I and evodiamine on freshly-removed human gastric tumors

Objective

The present study was designed to examine the anticancer effect of Traditional Chinese Medicine of polyphyllin I (PPI) and evodiamine (EVO) on freshly–removed gastric tumor tissues.

Methods

Sixty freshly–removed gastric tumor tissues were collected. Their sensitivity to PPI, EVO, platinum (Pt), 5-FU, irinotecan (CPT-11) were determined by histoculture drug response assay (HDRA). Those samples were also formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded, which were used to examine the mRNA expression levels of aprataxin(APTX), excision repair cross-complementing 1(ERCC1), thymidylate synthase(TS) and topoisomerase I(TOPO1) by quantitative RT-PCR. The association of the gene expression levels and in vitro sensitivity were analyzed.

Results

PPI, EVO, Pt, 5-FU and CPT-11 had anticancer effects on the freshly-removed gastric tumor tissues with average inhibition rates of 20.64%±14.25% for PPI, 21.14%±13.43% for EVO, 50.57%±22.37% for Pt, 53.54%±22.03% for 5-FU, and 39.33%±24.79% for CPT-11, respectively. Combination of PPI and Pt, EVO and Pt, EVO and 5-FU had higher inhibition rates than any single drug of them (P<0.001, P = 0.028, P = 0.017, respectively). The mRNA expression levels of ERCC1 were correlated with Pt sensitivity (rho = −0.645, P<0.001); the mRNA expression levels of TS were correlated with 5-FU sensitivity (rho = −0.803, P<0.001). There were also weak but significant correlations between APTX mRNA expression levels and CPT-11 sensitivity (rho = −0.376, P = 0.017) or EVO sensitivity (rho = −0.322, P = 0.036). ERCC1 mRNA expression levels was markedly suppressed by the presentation of PPI (P = 0.001) and slightly suppressed by the presentation of EVO (P = 0.04); whereas, TS mRNA expression levels was markedly decreased by the presentation of EVO (P = 0.017) and slightly decreased by the presentation of PPI (P = 0.047).

Conclusion

PPI and EVO both could inhibit the activity of freshly-removed gastric tumor, and they could enhance the anticancer effect of Pt and 5-FU by reducing the mRNA expression levels of ERCC1 and TS.

Pharmacological actions of multi-target-directed evodiamine

Evodiamine, a naturally occurring indole alkaloid, is one of the main bioactive ingredients of Evodiae fructus. With respect to the pharmacological actions of evodiamine, more attention has been paid to beneficial effects in insults involving cancer, obesity, nociception, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, Alzheimer's disease, infectious diseases and themoregulative effects. evodiamine has evolved a superior ability to bind various proteins, so we also argue that it is good starting point for multi-target drugs. This review is primarily addressed to the description of the recent advances in the biological activity studies of evodiamine, with a focus on pharmacological mechanism. The present review also includes the pharmacokinetics and the detailed exploration of target-binding properties of evodiamine in an attempt to provide a direction for further multi-target drug design.

Alkaloids isolated from natural herbs as the anticancer agents

Alkaloids are important chemical compounds that serve as a rich reservoir for drug discovery. Several alkaloids isolated from natural herbs exhibit antiproliferation and antimetastasis effects on various types of cancers both in vitro and in vivo. Alkaloids, such as camptothecin and vinblastine, have already been successfully developed into anticancer drugs. This paper focuses on the naturally derived alkaloids with prospective anticancer properties, such as berberine, evodiamine, matrine, piperine, sanguinarine, and tetrandrine, and summarizes the mechanisms of action of these compounds. Based on the information in the literature that is summarized in this paper, the use of alkaloids as anticancer agents is very promising, but more research and clinical trials are necessary before final recommendations on specific alkaloids can be made.

Evodiamine, a dual catalytic inhibitor of type I and II topoisomerases, exhibits enhanced inhibition against camptothecin resistant cells

DNA topoisomerases are nuclear enzymes that are the targets for several anticancer drugs. In this study we investigated the antiproliferative activity against human leukaemia cell lines and the effects on topoisomerase I and II of evodiamine, which is a quinazolinocarboline alkaloid isolated from the fruit of a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, Evodia rutaecarpa. We report here the anti-proliferative activity against human leukaemia cells K562, THP-1, CCRF-CEM and CCRF-CEM/C1 and the inhibitory mechanism on human topoisomerases I and II, important anti-cancer drugs targets, of evodiamine. Evodiamine failed to trap [Topo-DNA] complexes and induce any detectable DNA damage in cells, was unable to bind or intercalate DNA, and arrested cells in the G(2)/M phase. The results suggest evodiamine is a dual catalytic inhibitor of topoisomerases I and II, with IC(50) of 60.74 and 78.81 μM, respectively. The improved toxicity towards camptothecin resistant cells further supports its inhibitory mechanism which is different from camptothecin, and its therapeutic potential.

Anticancer drugs from traditional toxic Chinese medicines

Many anticancer drugs are obtained from natural sources. Nature produces a variety of toxic compounds, which are often used as anticancer drugs. Up to now, there are at least 120 species of poisonous botanicals, animals and minerals, of which more than half have been found to possess significant anticancer properties. In spite of their clinical toxicity, they exhibit pharmacological effects and have been used as important traditional Chinese medicines for the different stages of cancer. The article reviews many structures such as alkaloids of Camptotheca acuminata, Catharanthus roseus and Cephalotaxus fortunei, lignans of Dysosma versipellis and Podophyllum emodi, ketones of Garcinia hanburyi, terpenoids of Mylabris and Ginkgo biloba, diterpenoids of Tripterygium wilfordii, Euphorbia fischeriana, Euphorbia lathyris, Euphorbia kansui, Daphne genkwa, Pseudolarix kaempferi and Brucea javanica, triterpenoids of Melia toosendan, steroids of Periploca sepium, Paris polyphylla and Venenum Bufonis, and arsenic compounds including Arsenicum and Realgar. By comparing their related phytochemistry, toxic effects and the recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of action, this review puts forward some ideals and examples about how to increase antitumour activity and/or reduce the side effects experienced with Chinese medicine.

Enhanced antitumor efficacy of gemcitabine by evodiamine on pancreatic cancer via regulating PI3K/Akt pathway

Evodiamine has therapeutic potential against cancers. This study was designed to investigate whether combination therapy with gemcitabine and evodiamine enhanced antitumor efficacy in pancreatic cancer. In vitro application of the combination therapy triggered significantly higher frequency of pancreatic cancer cells apoptosis, inhibited the activities of PI3K, Akt, PKA, mTOR and PTEN, and decreased the activation of NF-κB and expression of NF-κB-regulated products. In vivo application of the combination therapy induced significant enhancement of tumor cell apoptosis, reductions in tumor volume, and inhibited activation of mTOR and PTEN. In conclusion, evodiamine can augment the therapeutic effect of gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer through direct or indirect negative regulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Acid sphingomyelinase contributes to evodiamine-induced apoptosis in human gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells

Evodiamine-induced apoptosis has been shown to have anticancer activity by eradication of some carcinoma cell lines. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of evodiamine on the viability of human gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells and to define the cell death pathway. Flow cytometry detection showed that 1.5 μM evodiamine significantly induced SGC-7901 cell apoptosis in a time-dependent manner. This apoptosis was partially inhibited by the pancaspase inhibitor carbobenzoxy-valyl-alanyl-aspartyl-[O-methyl]-fluoro-methylketone, which suggests that evodiamine-induced apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells is partially caspase independent. Further, the total content of sphingomyelin was decreased and expression of acid sphingomyelinase (aSMase) and neutral SMase genes in the SGC-7901cells was upregulated. Protein expression of aSMase, which was exposed to evodiamine, was shown to be increased by western blot analysis and could have been responsible for inducing caspase-independent apoptosis. Our results indicate that evodiamine stimulates upregulation of aSMase expression and hydrolysis of sphingomyelin into ceramide, which might be one of the mechanisms by which apoptosis occurs in SGC-7901 cells.

Anti-proliferative effects of evodiamine on human thyroid cancer cell line ARO

The incidence of thyroid cancer increases with age, and it is twice in women as common as in men. The undifferentiated thyroid cancer (UTC) is the most aggressive of all thyroid cancers. Unfortunately, there are almost no efficacious therapeutic modalities. It is important to develop some new effective therapies. Evodiamine is a chemical extracted from a kind of Chinese herb named Wu-Chu-Yu and has been demonstrated to be effective in preventing the growth of a variety of cancer cells. In the present study, the mechanism by which evodiamine inhibited the undifferentiated thyroid cancer cell line ARO was examined. Based on 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol -2-yle)2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, cell proliferation rate was reduced dose-dependently by evodiamine, but not by rutaecarpine. According to the flow cytometric analysis, evodiamine treatment resulted in G2/M arrest and DNA fragmentation in ARO cells. The G2/M arrest was accompanied with an increase of the expression of cdc25C, cyclin B1, and cdc2-p161 protein, and it was also with a decrease of the expression of cdc2-p15. Furthermore, by using the TUNEL assay, evodiamine-induced apoptosis was observed at 48 h and extended to 72 h. Western blotting demonstrated that evodiamine treatment induced the activation of caspase-8, caspase-9, caspase-3, and the cleavage of poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP). These results suggested that evodiamine inhibited the growth of the ARO cells, arrested them at M phase, and induced apoptosis through caspases signaling.

Evodiamine-induced human melanoma A375-S2 cell death was mediated by PI3K/Akt/caspase and Fas-L/NF-kappaB signaling pathways and augmented by ubiquitin-proteasome inhibition

Evodiamine, a major alkaloidal component of Evodiae fructus exhibits anti-tumor activities. We have previously reported that evodiamine has a marked inhibitory effect on IL-1 sensitive human melanoma A375-S2 cells proliferation, and this action might be through inactivation of PI3K signaling. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms of evodiamine-induced cell death remains poorly understood. In present study, we further confirmed that Akt is the main effector molecule involved in this pathway. Evodiamine also led to IkappaBalpha phosphorylation and degradation that reflect translocation of NF-kappaB. Pretreatment of A375-S2 cells with ubiquitin-proteasome inhibitor MG132 was shown to aggregate the evodiamine caused cell death at 24h. In addition, MG132 reduced ERK phosphorylation, increased caspase-3 activation, Fas-L expression and Bcl-2 cleavage in evodiamine-treated A375-S2 cells. These results suggested the PI3K/Akt/caspase and Fas-L/NF-kappaB signaling pathways might account for the responses of A375-S2 cell death induced by evodiamine, and these signals could be augmented by ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.

Critical roles of reactive oxygen species in mitochondrial permeability transition in mediating evodiamine-induced human melanoma A375-S2 cell apoptosis

Previous studies have shown that evodiamine could trigger apoptosis in human malignant melanoma A375-S2 cells within 24 h. To further investigate the biochemical basis of this activity, the roles of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) were evaluated. Exposure to evodiamine led to a rapid increase in intracellular ROS followed by an onset of mitochondrial depolarization. ROS scavenger rescued the DeltaPsim dissipation and cell death induced by evodiamine, whilst MPT inhibitor blocked the second-time ROS formation as well as cell death. Expressions of key proteins in Fas- and mitochondria-mediated pathways were furthermore examined. Both pathways were activated and regulated by ROS and MPT and were converged to a final common pathway involving the activation of caspase-3. These data suggested that a phenomenon termed ROS-induced ROS release (RIRR) was involved in evodiamine-treated A375-S2 cells and greatly contributed to the apoptotic process through both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways.

Evodiamine: a novel anti-cancer alkaloid from Evodia rutaecarpa

Traditional Chinese herbs are regarded as a new and promising source of potential anti-cancer remedies and new chemotherapy adjuvants to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy and/or to ameliorate its side effects. Extensive investigations have been undertaken both in the experimental and clinical studies over the years to augment the efficacy of chemotherapy. Evodia rutaecarpa is a very popular multi-purpose herb traditionally used in China for the treatment of headaches, abdominal pain, postpartum hemorrhage, dysentery and amenorrhea. The major constituents of Evodia rutaecarpa are evodiamine and rutaecarpine. Growing evidence demonstrates that evodiamine possesses anti-cancer activities both in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting proliferation, invasion and metastasis, inducing apoptosis of a variety of tumor cell lines. This review is aimed to summarize the recent researches on evodiamine focusing on anti-cancer activity and to highlight molecular mechanisms during the past ten years.

Autophagy preceded apoptosis in oridonin-treated human breast cancer MCF-7 cells

Recent studies have shown that MCF-7 cells undergo autophagy under some conditions, such as tamoxifen treatment and starvation. In this study, we investigated autophagy in MCF-7 cells under oridonin treatment and further examined the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis. After 3-MA (the specific inhibitor of autophagy) pre-culture, MCF-7 cells were exposed to oridonin, and the growth inhibitory ratio, morphologic changes, DNA fragmentation, proteins expression, autophagic ratio and apoptotic ratio were evaluated. Oridonin inhibited the proliferation of MCF-7 cells and induced autophagy in vitro. MDC (a specific dye for autophagosome) recruitment and typical apoptotic features, including apoptotic bodies, membrane blebbing as well as nuclear condensation, were induced by oridonin. Oridonin downregulated the phosphorylation of ERK, whereas those of JNK and P38 kinase were upregulated. In the condition of oridonin treatment, 3-MA significantly reduced the autophagic level, and the apoptotic cell ratio was also declined. Furthermore, combined treatment with oridonin and 3-MA upregulated ERK phosphorylation and downregulated JNK and P38 kinases phosphorylation compared with oridonin alone treatment groups, indicating that autophagy facilitated apoptosis in oridonin-induced MCF-7 cells. In addition, 3-MA application downregulated DNA ladder and Bax expression but upregulated Bcl-2 expression, compared with oridonin alone treatment. Taken together, oridonin simultaneously induced MCF-7 cells both apoptosis and autophagy, and in this settings, inhibition of autophagy induced lowered apoptotic level, therefore, autophagy participated in upregulation of apoptosis.

Caspase-dependent and caspase-independent apoptosis induced by evodiamine in human leukemic U937 cells

Evodiamine is one of the major bioactive compounds that have been isolated and purified from the fruit of Evodiae fructus. Evodiamine exhibits antitumor activities against the human tumor cells, including multidrug-resistant tumor cells. However, the molecular mechanism involved in cell death induced by evodiamine treatment remains poorly understood. In the present study, we showed that evodiamine activated the caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway. This apoptosis was only partially inhibited by a pancaspase inhibitor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethyl ketone, which suggested that evodiamine-induced apoptosis in leukemic U937 cells is partially caspase independent. We observed the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor in evodiamine-induced apoptosis of U937 cells, which may be responsible for the caspase-independent apoptotic execution. We next showed that evodiamine induced the substantial amount of apoptosis both in Bcl-2- and Akt-overexpressing U937 cells but not in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Although benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethyl ketone inhibited caspase activity in Bcl-2-overexpressing U937 cells, it completely prevented neither the induction of apoptosis or the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor, which suggests that evodiamine is, at least in part, able to bypass the resistance of leukemia cells via caspase-independent apoptotic pathways. Thus, therapeutic strategy using evodiamine may warrant further evaluation.

Dracorhodin perchlorate induces apoptosis in HL-60 cells

Dracorhodin perchlorate, an anthocyanin red pigment, induces human premyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cell death through apoptotic pathway. Caspase -1, -3, -8, -9, and -10 inhibitors partially reversed the cell death induced by dracorhodin perchlorate. Caspase-3 and -8 were activated followed to the degradation of caspase-3 substrates, inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase (ICAD) and poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Dracorhodin perchlorate up-regulated the expression ratio of mitochondrial proteins, Bax/Bcl-XL. The cell death was accompanied with phosphorylation of ERK, JNK and p38 MAPK and partially reduced by MEK inhibitor (PD98059), JNK MAPK inhibitor (SP600125) and p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB 203580). Taken together, dracorhodin perchlorate-induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells via up-regulation of Bax, activation of caspases and ERK/p38/JNK MAPKs.

The roles of Akt and MAPK family members in silymarin's protection against UV-induced A375-S2 cell apoptosis

Silymarin is a polyphenolic flavonoid derived from milk thistle (Silybum marianum) and has anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective as well as anticarcinogenic effects [Manna, S.K., Mukhopadlhyay, A., Van, N.T., Aggarwal, B., Silymarin suppresses TNF-induced activation of NF-kappaB, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and apoptosis. J. Immunol. 1999; 163, 6800-6809.]. In this study, we assessed the effect of silymarin on ultraviolet light (UV)-induced cell apoptosis in human malignant melanoma, A375-S2 cells. Silymarin pre-treatment reversed the effect of UV irradiation on the expression of phosphorylated Akt and phosphorylated p53 (regulated by Akt activation), followed by down-regulation of Bax and up-regulated expressions of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL proteins in UV-irradiated A375-S2 cells. Akt inhibitor decreased the viability of UV-irradiated cells which was treated with silymarin. In addition, the effect of UV irradiation on the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family members [extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)] was also reversed by silymarin. Moreover, ERK inhibitor (PD98059) and p38 inhibitor (SB203580) augmented UV-induced apoptosis in silymarin treated A375-S2 cells. Consequently, silymarin partially reduced UV-induced apoptosis by activating the Akt pathway, and silymarin's protective effect was also exerted by MAPK family members.

Quantitative analyses of indoloquinazoline alkaloids in Fructus Evodiae by high-performance liquid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Fructus Evodiae (Wuzhuyu), the fruits of Evodia rutaecarpa and related varieties, is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. The bioactive constituents include the indoloquinazoline alkaloids rutaecarpine, evodiamine and dehydroevodiamine. A new assay based on high-performance liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/UV/APCI-MS/MS) was developed for the measurement of the indoloquinazoline alkaloids in commercial Fructus Evodiae products. Initially, the MS/MS fragmentation pathways of indoloquinazoline alkaloids were investigated to identify fragment ions that might be useful for the sensitive and selective detection of trace indoloquinazoline alkaloids during LC/MS/MS. Then, quantitative MS analysis of five indoloquinazoline alkaloids in 12 commercial Fructus Evodiae products from different geographical sources was performed. Analyte recovery was in the range of 97.5-105.3% for all with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 6%, the intra-assay and inter-assay RSDs were less than 7%, and good linear relationships were shown with correlation coefficients for the analytes exceeding 0.999. Therefore, this LC/MS/MS assay facilitated the rapid quantitative analysis of rutaecarpine, evodiamine, evodiamide, 14-formyldihydrorutaecarpine and dehydroevodiamine in 12 commercial Fructus Evodiae products with excellent recovery, repeatability, accuracy and sensitivity. This method is simple and specific and can be used for identification and quality control of this traditional Chinese remedy.

Evodiamine inhibits in vitro angiogenesis: Implication for antitumorgenicity

Evodiamine, the major bioactive compound isolated from Chinese herbal drug named Wu-Chu-Yu, has been reported to exhibit anti-tumor growth and metastasis. However, the effect of evodiamine on angiogenesis remains to be investigated. We used the fresh medium containing evodiamine or human lung adenocarcinoma cell (CL1 cells) derived conditioned media free of evodiamine to test their capability to induce in vitro angiogenesis, i.e., human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) tube formation and invasion. We demonstrated that evodiamine could directly inhibit in vitro HUVECs tube formation and invasion. Locally administered evodiamine also inhibited the in vivo angiogenesis in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. The gene expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and the p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK, ERK) that correlated with endothelial cells angiogenesis were inhibited by evodiamine. We found that the evodiamine-treated CL1 cells derived conditioned medium showed decreased VEGF release and reduced ability of inducing in vitro tube formation. After the collection of conditioned media, the VEGF expression of remaining CL1 cells were determined by Western analyses and revealed that evodiamine decreased VEGF expression. Moreover, administration of recombinant human VEGF(165) (rhVEGF(165)) induced tube formation and ERK phosphorylation by HUVECs, and partially attenuated inhibitory effect of evodiamine. From these results, we suggested that evodiamine is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. The mechanism might involve at least the inhibition of VEGF expression, probably through repression of ERK phosphorylation.

Oridonin induces a caspase-independent but mitochondria- and MAPK-dependent cell death in the murine fibrosarcoma cell line L929

Oridonin, an active component isolated from Rabdosia rubescences, has been reported to exhibit antitumor effects, but little is known about its molecular mechanisms of action. In this study, the growth-inhibitory activity of oridonin for L929 cells is in time- and dose-dependent manner. After treatment with various concentrations of oridonin for 12 h, the majority of L929 cells underwent apoptosis as measured by an LDH activity-based assay. Although apoptotic bodies were observed in oridonin-treated L929 cells, DNA fragmentation as a hallmark of apoptosis was not found. The pan-caspase inhibitor, z-VAD, and caspase-3 inhibitor, z-DEVD, sensitized L929 cells to oridonin, however, a PARP inhibitor (DPQ) effectively blocked oridonin-induced cell death. After 12 h treatment, PARP proenzyme was significantly cleaved. This result indicated that oridonin-induced L929 cell death required PARP degradation in a caspase-independent manner. In addition, an MEK/ERK inhibitor (PD98059) markedly blocked oridonin-induced cell death, whereas a p38 inhibitor (SB203580) and JNK inhibitor (SP600125) weakly protected the cells against death. Treatment with 41.2 microM oridonin for 12 h induced significant and persistent ERK activation and p38 inactivation in L929 cells without evident changes in the protein levels. The responsiveness of ERK and p38 to oridonin suggests the involvement of these kinases in this apoptotic process. Moreover, oridonin increased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 protein expression, whereas it had no effect on the expression of Bcl-xL. These results indicate that regulation of the Bcl-2 and MAPK families maybe the effector mechanisms of oridonin-induced L929 cell death, independent of the caspase pathway.

Roles of SIRT1 and phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase/protein kinase C pathways in evodiamine-induced human melanoma A375-S2 cell death

We previously demonstrated that evodimine isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa (Goshuyu in Japan) induced apoptosis in human malignant melanoma A375-S2 cells within 24 h. In this study, TUNEL assay also indicated that one cause of A375-S2 cell death induced by evodiamine was apoptosis. After treatment with evodiamine for the indicated time periods, anti-apoptotic protein SIRT1 expression was decreased; p53 expression and its phosphorylation were both enhanced, whereas transient induction of downstream p21 was not enough to promote cell cycle arrest. Inhibition of the phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase (PI3-K)/protein kinase C (PKC) survival pathway as well as subsequent inhibition of the ERK cascade might contribute to evodiamine-induced cell death. In addition, p53 activation in response to evodiamine administration was correlated with the activation of the PI3-K/PKC pro-apoptotic pathway, but did not require ERK participation. The inhibition of the PI3-K/PKC survival pathway might be responsible for SIRT1 inactivation and increased Bax/Bcl-2 expression ratio in evodiamine-induced cell death.

Evodiamine Abolishes Constitutive and Inducible NF-κB Activation by Inhibiting IκBα Kinase Activation, Thereby Suppressing NF-κB-regulated Antiapoptotic and Metastatic Gene Expression, Up-regulating Apoptosis, and Inhibiting Invasion

Evodiamine, an alkaloidal component extracted from the fruit of Evodiae fructus (Evodia rutaecarpa Benth., Rutaceae), exhibits antiproliferative, antimetastatic, and apoptotic activities through a poorly defined mechanism. Because several genes that regulate cellular proliferation, carcinogenesis, metastasis, and survival are regulated by nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), we postulated that evodiamine mediates its activity by modulating NF-kappaB activation. In the present study, we investigated the effect of evodiamine on NF-kappaB and NF-kappaB-regulated gene expression activated by various carcinogens. We demonstrate that evodiamine was a highly potent inhibitor of NF-kappaB activation, and it abrogated both inducible and constitutive NF-kappaB activation. The inhibition corresponded with the sequential suppression of IkappaBalpha kinase activity, IkappaBalpha phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha degradation, p65 phosphorylation, p65 nuclear translocation, and p65 acetylation. Evodiamine also inhibited tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced Akt activation and its association with IKK. Suppression of Akt activation was specific, because it had no effect on JNK or p38 MAPK activation. Evodiamine also inhibited the NF-kappaB-dependent reporter gene expression activated by TNF, TNFR1, TRADD, TRAF2, NIK, and IKK but not that activated by the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB. NF-kappaB-regulated gene products such as Cyclin D1, c-Myc, COX-2, MMP-9, ICAM-1, MDR1, Survivin, XIAP, IAP1, IAP2, FLIP, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and Bfl-1/A1 were all down-regulated by evodiamine. This down-regulation potentiated the apoptosis induced by cytokines and chemotherapeutic agents and suppressed TNF-induced invasive activity. Overall, our results indicated that evodiamine inhibits both constitutive and induced NF-kappaB activation and NF-kappaB-regulated gene expression and that this inhibition may provide a molecular basis for the ability of evodiamine to suppress proliferation, induce apoptosis, and inhibit metastasis.

Dracorhodin Perchlorate Induces A375-S2 Cell Apoptosis via Accumulation of p53 and Activation of Caspases

Dracorhodin perchlorate, an anthocyanin red pigment, induces human melanoma A375-S2 cell death through the apoptotic pathway. Caspase-3, -8, -9, and -10 inhibitors partially reversed the cell death induced by dracorhodin perchlorate. Caspase-3 and -8 were activated, followed by the degradation of caspase-3 substrates, the inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase, and poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Dracorhodin perchlorate upregulated the expression ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and significantly increased the expression of p53 and p21(WAF1) proteins. The cell death was partially reduced by the mitogen-activated protein kinase c-JUN NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK MAPK) inhibitor (SP600125) and p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB 203580), while the MEK inhibitor (PD98059) augmented cell death; the drug induced sustained phosphorylation of JNK and p38 MAPK. Moreover, the Fas agonistic antibody CH-11 has a synergistic effect with dracorhodin perchlorate. The phoshatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) family inhibitor wortmanin and tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein rescued the viability loss induced by dracohodin perchlorate. Taken together, dracorhodin perchlorate induces apoptosis in A375-S2 cells via accumulation of p53, alters the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and activates caspases and p38/JNK MAPKs.

Evodiamine Induced Human Melanoma A375-S2 Cell Death Partially through Interleukin 1 Mediated Pathway

We have reported that caspase cascade accompanied by the regulation of Bax/Bcl-2 and MAPK signaling were involved in evodiamine-induced A375-S2 cell death. In this study, pretreatment with interleukin 1 (IL-1) receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) rescued the cell viability loss and reversed the ratio of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling (TUNEL)-positive cells induced by evodiamine. IL-1Ra was capable of attenuating the expression of Fas-ligand (Fas-L) and the cleavage of procaspas-8 and -3 caused by evodiamine. Subsequently, IL-1Ra reduced evodiamine-induced DNA degradation, p53 activation and up-regulation of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. However, IL-1Ra attenuated the enhanced phosphorylation level of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) without affecting extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) inactivation induced by evodiamine. In conclusion, IL-1-induced death cascade in melanoma A375-S2 cell might be one of the targets for natural product evodiamine, and increased Fas-L expression via IL-1 mediated pathway stands at the initiation phase, leading to consequent events that culminate in the death of the cells.

Silymarin Prevents UV Irradiation-Induced A375-S2 Cell Apoptosis

Silymarin, a plant flavonoid from milk thistle (Silybum marianum [L.] GAERTNER) was first evaluated for its protective effect against UV irradiation-induced apoptosis in human malignant melanoma cells (A375-S2 cells). Treatment with silymarin 500 microM for 12 h significantly inhibited UV irradiation (2.4 J/cm(2), 5 min)-induced apoptosis in A375-S2 cells. Activities of caspase-9 and caspase-3 in UV-irradiated A375-S2 cells were effectively reduced by silymarin in a dose-dependent manner, while the expression of the inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase (ICAD), protein expression of Bcl-x(L) (Bcl-2 family member), and the activity of extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MAPK) were increased simultaneously. It is suggested that the inhibitory effect of silymarin is exerted by blockage of the caspase/ICAD pathway after increased expression of Bcl-x(L) protein and activation of the ERK/MAPK pathway.