Inhibition by evodiamine of hepatocyte growth factor-induced invasion and migration of tumor cells

Evodiamine and its nano-based approaches for enhanced cancer therapy: recent advances and challenges

Evodiamine is a bioactive alkaloid extracted from the Evodia rutaecarpa plant. It has various pharmacological effects including anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-obesity, anti-neurodegenerative, anti-depressant, and cardiac protective properties. Evodiamine demonstrates potent anti-cancer activity by inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Despite the health-promoting properties of evodiamine, its clinical use is hindered by low water solubility, poor bioavailability, and toxicity. Thus, there is a need to develop alternative drug delivery systems for evodiamine to enhance its solubility, permeability, and stability, as well as to facilitate targeted, prolonged, and controlled drug release. Nanocarriers can increase the therapeutic potential of evodiamine in cancer therapy while reducing adverse side effects. To date, numerous attempts have been made through the development of smart nanocarriers to overcome the drawbacks of evodiamine. This review focuses on the pharmacological applications, anti-cancer mechanisms, and limitations of evodiamine. Various nanocarriers, including lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, cyclodextrins, and so forth, have been discussed extensively for evodiamine delivery. Nano-drug delivery systems could increase the solubility, bioavailability, stability, and therapeutic efficacy of evodiamine. This review aims to present a comprehensive and critical evaluation of several nano-formulations of evodiamine for cancer therapy. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evodiamine Exhibits Anti-Bladder Cancer Activity by Suppression of Glutathione Peroxidase 4 and Induction of Ferroptosis

Evodiamine (EVO) exhibits anti-cancer activity through the inhibition of cell proliferation; however, little is known about its underlying mechanism. To determine whether ferroptosis is involved in the therapeutic effects of EVO, we investigated critical factors, such as lipid peroxidation levels and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression, under EVO treatment. Our results showed that EVO inhibited the cell proliferation of poorly differentiated, high-grade bladder cancer TCCSUP cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Lipid peroxides were detected by fluorescence microscopy after cancer cell exposure to EVO. GPX4, which catalyzes the conversion of lipid peroxides to prevent cells from undergoing ferroptosis, was decreased dose-dependently by EVO treatment. Given the features of iron dependency and lipid-peroxidation-driven death in ferroptosis, the iron chelator deferoxamine (DFO) was used to suppress EVO-induced ferroptosis. The lipid peroxide level significantly decreased when cells were treated with DFO prior to EVO treatment. DFO also attenuated EVO-induced cell death. Co-treatment with a pan-caspase inhibitor or necroptosis inhibitor with EVO did not alleviate cancer cell death. These results indicate that EVO induces ferroptosis rather than apoptosis or necroptosis. Furthermore, EVO suppressed the migratory ability, decreased the expression of mesenchymal markers, and increased epithelial marker expression, determined by a transwell migration assay and Western blotting. The TCCSUP bladder tumor xenograft tumor model confirmed the effects of EVO on the inhibition of tumor growth and EMT. In conclusion, EVO is a novel inducer for activating the ferroptosis of bladder cancer cells and may be a potential therapeutic agent for bladder cancer.

Evodiamine as an anticancer agent: a comprehensive review on its therapeutic application, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and metabolism in various cancers

Evodiamine is a major alkaloid component found in the fruit of Evodia rutaecarpa. It shows the anti-proliferative potential against a wide range of cancers by suppressing cell growth, invasion, and metastasis and inducing apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Evodiamine shows its anticancer potential by modulating aberrant signaling pathways. Additionally, the review focuses on several therapeutic implications of evodiamine, such as epigenetic modification, cancer stem cells, and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Moreover, combinatory drug therapeutics along with evodiamine enhances the anticancer efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs in various cancers by overcoming the chemo resistance and radio resistance shown by cancer cells. It has been widely used in preclinical trials in animal models, exhibiting very negligible side effects against normal cells and effective against cancer cells. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics-based collaborations of evodiamine are also included. Due to its poor bioavailability, synthetic analogs of evodiamine and its nano capsule have been formulated to enhance its bioavailability and reduce toxicity. In addition, this review summarizes the ongoing research on the mechanisms behind the antitumor potential of evodiamine, which proposes an exciting future for such interests in cancer biology.

Roles of reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial membrane potential, and p53 in evodiamine-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest of human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma cells

BACKGROUND

Our previous studies have shown that evodiamine (EVO) as paclitaxel and nocodazole could trigger apoptosis in various human cancer cells including human renal cell carcinoma cells, colorectal carcinoma cells, and glioblastoma cells. This study aims to investigate the anti-cancer effects of EVO on human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) cells, and underlining mechanism.

METHODS

Two different endogenous p53 status human anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) cells including SW1736 (wtp53) and KAT4B (mutp53) were applied in the present study. The cytotoxicity of EVO on ATC cells was measured by MTT assay, and apoptosis and G2/M arrest were detected by propidium iodide (PI) staining followed by flow cytometry. Expression of indicated proteins was evaluated by Western blotting analysis, and pharmacological studies using chemical inhibitors and siRNA were performed for elucidating underlying mechanism. The roles of mitochondrial membrane potential and reactive oxygen species were investigated by flow cytometry using DiOC6 and DCFH-DA dye, respectively.

RESULTS

SW1736 (wtp53) cells showed a higher apoptotic percentage than KAT4B (mutp53) cells in response to EVO stimulation via a flow cytometric analysis. Mechanistic studies showed that increased p53 and its downstream proteins, and disrupted MMP with increased intracellular peroxide production participated in EVO-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest of SW1736 cells. In EVO-treated KAT4B cells, significant increases in G2/M percentage but little apoptotic events by EVO was observed. Structure-activity analysis showed that an alkyl group at position 14 was critical for induction of apoptosis related to ROS production and MMP disruption in SW1736 cells.

CONCLUSION

Evidence indicated that the endogenous p53 status affected the sensitivity of ATC cells to EVO-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest, revealing the potential role of p53 related to increased ROS production and disrupted MMP in the anticancer actions of EVO, and alkylation at position 14 of EVO is a critical substitution for apoptosis of ATC cells.

Research progress on evodiamine, a bioactive alkaloid of Evodiae fructus: Focus on its anti-cancer activity and bioavailability (Review)

Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) can be isolated from the dried, unripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum and is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine that is applied extensively in China, Japan and Korea. Evodiae fructus has been traditionally used to treat headaches, abdominal pain and menorrhalgia. In addition, it is widely used as a dietary supplement to provide carboxylic acids, essential oils and flavonoids. Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the major bioactive components contained within Evodiae fructus and is considered to be a potential candidate anti-cancer agent. EVO has been reported to exert anti-cancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, whilst inducing apoptosis in numerous types of cancer cells. However, EVO is susceptible to metabolism and may inhibit the activities of metabolizing enzymes, such as cytochrome P450. Clinical application of EVO in the treatment of cancers may prove difficult due to poor bioavailability and potential toxicity due to metabolism. Currently, novel drug carriers involving the use of solid dispersion techniques, phospholipids and nanocomplexes to deliver EVO to improve its bioavailability and mitigate side effects have been tested. The present review aims to summarize the reported anti-cancer effects of EVO whilst discussing the pharmacokinetic behaviors, characteristics and effective delivery systems of EVO.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of the fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum (FTR) known as Tetradii fructus or Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) is a versatile herbal medicine which has been prescribed in Chinese herbal formulas and recognized in Japanese Kampo. FTR has been clinically used to treat various diseases such as headache, vomit, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dysmenorrhea and pelvic inflammation for thousands of years.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present paper aimed to provide comprehensive information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, drug interaction and toxicology of FTR in order to build up a foundation on the mechanism of ethnopharmacological uses as well as to explore the trends and perspectives for further studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review collected the literatures published prior to July 2020 on the phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of FTR. All relevant information on FTR was gathered from worldwide accepted scientific search engines and databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, ACS, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Information was also obtained from local books, PhD. and MSc. Dissertations as well as from Pharmacopeias.

RESULTS

FTR has been used as an herbal medicine for centuries in East Asia. A total of 165 chemical compounds have been isolated so far and the main chemical compounds of FTR include alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, and phenylpropanoids. Crude extracts, processed products (medicinal slices) and pure components of FTR exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-obesity, antioxidant, insecticide, regulating central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, cardiovascular protection. Furthermore, bioactive components isolated from FTR can induce drug interaction and hepatic injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Therapeutic potential of FTR has been demonstrated with the pharmacological effects on cancer, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, CNS, bacterial infection and obesity. Pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies of FTR mostly focus on its main active alkaloids. Further in-depth studies on combined medication and processing approaches mechanisms, pharmacological and toxic effects not limited to the alkaloids, and toxic components of FTR should be designed.

Evodiamine suppresses Notch3 signaling in lung tumorigenesis via direct binding to γ-secretases

BACKGROUND

Notch activation requires proteolytic cleavage of the receptor by γ-secretase protein complex. Inhibition of Notch receptor activation (e.g. Notch3) with γ-secretase inhibitor is a potential new therapeutic approach for the targeted therapy of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, only a few safe and effective γ-secretase inhibitors have been discovered. Evodiamine (EVO), a compound derived from Euodiae Fructus (Chinese name, Wu-Zhu-Yu), exhibits remarkable anti-NSCLC activities. However, the underlying mechanisms of action have yet to be fully elucidated.

PURPOSE

We sought to determine the involvement of Notch3 signaling in the anti-NSCLC effects of EVO, and to explore whether EVO suppressed Notch3 signaling by inhibiting γ-secretase in cultured A549 and H1299 NSCLC cells and in urethane-induced lung cancer FVB mouse model.

METHODS

Cell viability, migration, stemness and cell cycle distribution of EVO were examined by the MTT assay, wound healing assay, soft agar colony assay and flow cytometry analysis, respectively. The binding affinity of EVO and γ-secretase complex was analyzed by molecular docking. Cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) was performed to study the drug-target interactions in NSCLC cells. Protein levels were determined by Western blotting.

RESULTS

EVO dramatically inhibited cell viability, induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, suppressed cell migration, and reduced stemness in NSCLC cells. Mechanistic studies indicated that EVO prevented the γ-secretase cleavage of Notch3 at the cell surface and hence inhibited Notch3 activation. Moreover, EVO notably reduced tumor growth in the mouse model and inhibited Notch3 activity in the tumors.

CONCLUSION

This study provides new insights into the anti-NSCLC action of EVO, and suggests that suppressing Notch3 signaling by inhibiting γ-secretase is a mechanism of action underlying the anti-NSCLC effect of EVO.

Genus Tetradium L.: A comprehensive review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The dried fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum is frequently utilized as a common traditional medicine in China, Japan and Korea. It has been widely used for the treatment of various diseases such as headache, menorrhalgia, dermatophytosis, celialgia, emesis and aphtha and so on.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

Despite the wide biological activities of Tetradium plants, there is no current review summarizing medicinal properties of the genus of plants; thus, this review aims to systematically summarize studies on botanical characteristics, traditional uses, phytochemical ingredients, quality control, pharmacokinetics, pharmacological activities and toxicity of Tetradium species to demonstrate their therapeutic capacity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information and materials related to Tetradium species were obtained from scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Wikipedia, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, ACS Publications, SciFinder. Information was also gathered from International Plant Names Index, Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Chinese Medicine classics, etc. All studies of this genus were included in this review until July 2018.

RESULTS

Tetradium is widely assessed regarding its phytochemistry and biological activities. Approximately 131 chemical compounds, including alkaloids, saponins, phenols and other compounds, have been isolated from Tetradium plants. Among these components, alkaloid evodiamine is the most representative active ingredients of Tetradium plants. These compounds isolated from Tetradium plants exhibit a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, insecticide, cardioprotective and lipid-lowering, treating CNS disorders, digestive system regulation and endocrine system improving activities. Furthermore, alkaloids could be used as markers for quality identification and evaluation of medicinal materials and their preparations. Information on evaluating the safety and pharmacokinetics of Tetradium often focuses on the alkaloids, thus further study and clinical data are required to enable the drug safety of the utilization of Tetradium plants.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Tetradium plants have proved Tetradium plants are important medicinal herb resource. However, well-designed randomized clinical trials are necessary to confirm the therapeutic benefits of this genus in clinical settings.

Antiproliferative Effects of Alkaloid Evodiamine and Its Derivatives

Alkaloids, a category of natural products with ring structures and nitrogen atoms, include most U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved plant derived anti-cancer agents. Evodiamine is an alkaloid with attractive multitargeting antiproliferative activity. Its high content in the natural source ensures its adequate supply on the market and guarantees further medicinal study. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review about the antiproliferative effects of evodiamine derivatives. Therefore, in this article the review of the antiproliferative activities of evodiamine will be updated. More importantly, the antiproliferative activities of structurally modified new analogues of evodiamine will be summarized for the first time.

Evodiamine, a Novel NOTCH3 Methylation Stimulator, Significantly Suppresses Lung Carcinogenesis in Vitro and in Vivo

Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. NOTCH3 signaling is mainly expressed in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC), and has been proposed as a therapeutic target of NSCLC. While, few agents for preventing or treating NSCLC via targeting NOTCH3 signaling are used in modern clinical practice. Evodiamine (EVO), an alkaloid derived from Euodiae Fructus, possesses low toxicity and has long been shown to exert anti-lung cancer activity. However, the underlying anti-lung cancer mechanisms of EVO are not yet fully understood. In this study, we explored the involvement of NOTCH3 signaling in the anti-lung cancer effects of EVO. Urethane-induced lung cancer mouse model and two NSCLC cell models, A549 and H1299, were used to evaluate the in vivo and in vitro anti-lung cancer action of EVO. A DNA methyltransferase inhibitor was employed to investigate the role of NOTCH3 signaling in the anti-lung cancer effects of EVO. Results showed that EVO potently reduced tumor size and tumor numbers in mice, and inhibited NOTCH3 in the tumors. EVO also dramatically reduced cell viability, induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, inhibited cell migration and reduced stemness in cultured NSCLC cells. Mechanistic studies showed that EVO potently inhibited NOTCH3 signaling by activation of DNMTs-induced NOTCH3 methylation. Importantly, inhibition of NOTCH3 methylation in NSCLC cells diminished EVO's anti-NSCLC effects. Collectively, EVO, a novel NOTCH3 methylation stimulator, exerted potent anti-lung cancer effects partially by inhibiting NOTCH3 signaling. These findings provide new insight into the EVO's anti-NSCLC action, and suggest a potential role of EVO in lung cancer prevention and treatment.

Protein Kinase RNA-Like Endoplasmic Reticulum Kinase-Mediated Bcl-2 Protein Phosphorylation Contributes to Evodiamine-Induced Apoptosis of Human Renal Cell Carcinoma Cells

We investigated the anticancer mechanism of evodiamine (EVO) against the viability of human A498 renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cells in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro study showed that EVO decreased the viability of A498 cells with the occurrence of apoptotic characteristics such as hypodiploid cells, DNA ladders, chromatin-condensed cells, and cleaved caspase (Casp)-3/poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Pharmacological studies using chemical inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) indicated that phosphorylation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) protein participated in EVO-induced cell death of A498 cells, and application of the JNK inhibitor, SP600125 (SP), inhibited EVO-induced cleavage of the Casp-3/PARP proteins and chromatin condensation according to Giemsa staining. EVO disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) with increased protein levels of the phosphorylated Bcl-2 protein (p-Bcl-2) was prevented by JNK inhibitors in A498 cells. A structure-activity relationship study showed that a methyl group at position 14 in EVO was important for its apoptotic effects and increased p-Bcl-2 protein in A498 cells. Furthermore, significant increases in the phosphorylated endoplasmic reticular stress protein, protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (p-PERK at Thr980), by EVO were detected in A498 cells, and the PERK inhibitor, GSK2606414, significantly suppressed EVO-induced apoptosis, p-JNK, p-PERK, and cleaved PARP proteins. The in vivo study showed that EVO significantly reduced RCC growth elicited by a subcutaneous injection of A498 cells, and an increased protein level of p-PERK was observed according to an immunohistochemical analysis. Apoptosis by EVO was also demonstrated in other RCC cells such as 786-O, ACHN, and Caki-1 cells. This is the first study to demonstrate the anti-RCC effect of EVO via apoptosis in vitro and in vivo, and activation of JNK and PERK to induce Bcl-2 protein phosphorylation, which led to disruption of the MMP.

Evodiamine from Evodia rutaecarpa induces apoptosis via activation of JNK and PERK in human ovarian cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine (EVO; 8,13,13b,14-tetrahydro-14-methylindolo[2'3'-3,4]pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-5-[7H]-one derived from the traditional herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa was reported to possess anticancer activity; however, the anticancer mechanism of EVO against the viability of human ovarian cancer cells is still unclear.

PURPOSE

A number of studies showed that chemotherapeutic benefits may result from targeting the endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress signaling pathway. The objective of the study is to investigate the mechanism by which ER stress protein PERK plays in EVO-induced apoptosis of human ovarian cancer cells.

METHODS

Cell death analysis was performed by MTT assay, DNA fragmentation assay, and Giemsa staining. DiOC6 staining was used for mitochondrial membrane potential measurement. Protein levels were analyzed by Western blotting. Pharmacological studies using MAPK inhibitors and PERK inhibitor GSK2606414 were involved.

RESULTS

The viability of human ovarian cancer cells A2780, A2780CP, ES-2, and SKOV-3 was inhibited by EVO at various concentrations in accordance with increases in the percentage of apoptotic cells, DNA ladders, and cleavage of caspase 3 and poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Decreased viability of cells was reversed by adding caspase inhibitors VAD and DEVD in SKOV-3 and A2780CP cells, and incubation of cells with JNK inhibitor SP600125 (SP) and JNKI, but not other MAPK and AKT inhibitors including PD98059, SB203580, significantly prevented the apoptosis elicited by EVO in human ovarian cancer cells. Furthermore, increased expression of phospho-eIF2α (peIF2α) and phospho-PERK (pPERK) proteins was detected in EVO-treated human ovarian cancer cells, and that was inhibited by adding JNK inhibitors SP600125 and JNKI. Application of a PERK inhibitor GSK2606414 showed a significant protection of human ovarian cancer cells A2780 and A2780CP from EVO-induced apoptosis. EVO disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was also inhibited by adding JNK or PERK inhibitors. The structure-activity relationship study indicated that the alkyl group at position 14 in EVO is important for apoptosis induction via activation of JNK and PERK in human ovarian cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

Evidence supporting EVO induction of apoptosis via activation of JNK and PERK to disrupt MMP in human ovarian cancer cells is provided, and the alkyl at position 14 is a critical substitution for the apoptotic actions of EVO.

Evodiamine Attenuates PDGF-BB-Induced Migration of Rat Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells through Activating PPARγ

The uncontrolled migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) into the intima is a critical process in the development of atherosclerosis. Evodiamine, an indole alkaloid extracted from the Chinese medicine evodia, has been shown to inhibit tumor cell invasion and protect the cardiovascular system, but its effects on VSMCs remain unknown. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of evodiamine on the platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-induced VSMC migration using wound healing and transwell assays, and assessed its role in decreasing the protein levels of matrix metalloproteinases and cell adhesion molecules. More importantly, we found that evodiamine activated the expression and nuclear translocation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Inhibition of PPARγ activity by using its antagonist T0070907 and its specific siRNA oligonucleotides significantly attenuated the inhibitory effects of evodiamine on VSMC migration. Taken together, our results indicate a promising anti-atherogenic effect of evodiamine through attenuation of VSMC migration by activating PPARγ.

Evodiamine inhibits the migration and invasion of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells in vitro via repressing MMP-2 expression

PURPOSE

Evodiamine is one of active alkaloids isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Evodia rutaecarpa Bentham and has various pharmacological properties. In this study, we investigated its effects on the migration, invasion, and associated mechanism in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells.

METHODS

Cell viability was determined by MTT assay after evodiamine treatment. Wound-healing assay and Boyden transwell system were used to evaluate the inhibitory effects of evodiamine on cell migration and invasion. MMP-2/9 activity was determined using commercial detection kits. The levels of associated proteins involved in the regulation of cell migration and invasion were analyzed by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Evodiamine effectively inhibited the migration and invasion of HONE1 and CNE1 cells, and hardly affected cell proliferation, but significantly suppressed cell adhesion activity in vitro. Additionally, evodiamine treatment significantly decreased mRNA and protein levels of MMP-2 and its activity in the NPC cells, but had little effects on MMP-9 mRNA and protein levels and its activity. Further investigation revealed that evodiamine inhibited the translocation of NF-κB p65, which involves the regulation of MMP-2 expression in cancer invasion. Additionally, evodiamine treatment did not significantly affect the protein levels of JNK, p38, Akt, and their phosphorylated forms and ERK1/2, but strongly attenuated ERK1/2 phosphorylation level, which at least partly accounts for the signal pathway of evodiamine-inhibited migration and invasion of NPC cells.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that evodiamine inhibits the migration and invasiveness of NPC cells, and it is probably a potential agent for the treatment of NPC invasion and metastasis.

Activation of JNK contributes to evodiamine-induced apoptosis and G2/M arrest in human colorectal carcinoma cells: a structure-activity study of evodiamine

Evodiamine (EVO; 8,13,13b,14-tetrahydro-14-methylindolo[2′3′-3,4]pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-5-[7H]-one derived from the traditional herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa was reported to possess anticancer activity; however, the anticancer mechanism is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the anticancer effects of EVO on human colon COLO205 and HT-29 cells and their potential mechanisms. MTT and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays showed that the viability of COLOL205 and HT-29 cells was inhibited by EVO at various concentrations in accordance with increases in the percentage of apoptotic cells and cleavage of caspase-3 and poly(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) proteins. Disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential by EVO was accompanied by increased Bax, caspase-9 protein cleavage, and cytochrome (Cyt) c protein translocation in COLO205 and HT-29 cells. Application of the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) inhibited H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis, but did not affect EVO-induced apoptosis of COLO205 or HT-29 cells. Significant increases in the G₂/M ratio and cyclinB1/cdc25c protein expression by EVO were respectively identified in colon carcinoma cells via a flow cytometric analysis and Western blotting. Induction of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) protein phosphorylation was detected in EVO-treated cells, and the JNK inhibitor, SP600125, but not the ERK inhibitor, U0126, inhibited EVO-induced phosphorylated JNK protein expression, apoptosis, and G₂/M arrest of colon carcinoma cells. Data of the structure-activity analysis showed that EVO-related chemicals containing an alkyl group at position 14 were able to induce apoptosis, G₂/M arrest associated with increased DNA ladder formation, cleavage of caspase-3 and PARP, and elevated cycB1 and cdc25c protein expressions in COLO205 and HT-29 cells. Evidence supporting JNK activation leading to EVO-induced apoptosis and G₂/M arrest in colon carcinoma cells is provided, and alkylation at position 14 of EVO is a critical substitution for treatment of colonic cancer.

Evodiamine might inhibit TGF-beta1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in NRK52E cells via Smad and PPAR-gamma pathway

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is involved in renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 is the main inducer of EMT. Phosphorylation of Smad proteins and PPAR-gamma activation are required for the process of TGF-beta1-induced EMT. Evodiamine possesses anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-cancer, and anti-nociceptive effects. We have examined the effects of evodiamine in EMT induced by TGF-beta1 and the role of Smad and PPAR-gamma signal pathway in rat renal proximal tubular epithelial (NRK52E) cells in vitro. E-cadherin, alpha-smooth muscle actin (SMA), Smad 2 and PPAR-gamma mRNA and protein expressions were detected by real-time PCR and Western blot, respectively. NRK52E treated with TGF-beta1 for 48 h induced EMT, as evidenced by loss of E-cadherin and de novo expression of alpha-SMA. EMT was almost completely blocked by evodiamine and rosiglitazone. TGF-beta1 significantly increased Smad 2 expression and decreased PPAR-gamma expression in NRK52E cells compared with the control group, while evodiamine and rosiglitazone almost reversed these effects. These observations suggest that evodiamine and rosiglitazone inhibit TGF-beta1-induced EMT in NRK52E cells. Smad 2 and PPAR-gamma signal pathway might participate in the effects of evodiamine and rosiglitazone in EMT induced by TGF-beta1.

Growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis in SGC‑7901 human gastric cancer cells by evodiamine

Evodiamine is one of the major bioactive compounds isolated and purified from the fruit of Fructus Evodiae. Numerous studies have indicated that evodiamine exhibits activity against human tumor cells. In the present study, the effect of evodiamine on the proliferation and apoptosis of SGC-7901 human gastric cancer cells and the correlative mechanisms were investigated. This may provide further experimental evidence of the pharmacological actions of evodiamine and a strategy for its use as a novel chemotherapeutic drug. Following treatment with evodiamine, the typical morphological changes of apoptosis were observed in human SGC-7901 cells. Cell cycle analysis indicated that evodiamine induced G2/M phase arrest in SGC-7901 cells and flow cytometry revealed that evodiamine induced apoptosis. Analysis of the enzymatic activity demonstrated that evodiamine increased the activity of caspase-3, -8 and -9 in SGC-7901 cells. The protein expression of caspase-3, -8 and -9 and Bax increased, and the expression of Bcl-2 decreased following treatment with evodiamine. These results suggest that evodiamine is able to inhibit the proliferation of SGC-7901 cells by inhibiting the cell cycle at G2/M phase and inducing apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells by activating caspase-3, -8 and -9, and altering the expression of caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2.

Berberine counteracts enhanced IL-8 expression of AGS cells induced by evodiamine

AIMS

Although showing an anti-tumor activity, evodiamine also up-regulated IL-8 production of human gastric cancer AGS cells. This study aimed to assess this effect and to examine whether co-administration with berberine counteracts it.

MAIN METHODS

MTT assay was used to assess the cell proliferation and adhesive ability. Flow cytometry was performed to measure the cell cycle distribution. Wound healing assay was used to detect the migration ability of cells. IL-8 production was determined by ELISA. Levels of mRNA expression of IL-8, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 were measured by real-time PCR. Molecular pathways involved were evaluated by ELISA and western-blotting methods.

KEY FINDINGS

Evodiamine triggered proliferative inhibition and cell cycle arrest, and decreased migration of AGS cells. IL-8 expression and the adhesive ability of AGS cells to HUVECs were significantly increased by evodiamine, but were inhibited after being co-treated with berberine in AGS cells. As IL-8 was neutralized, increased adhesion of AGS cells to HUVECs induced by evodiamine was abolished. Berberine significantly suppressed the up-regulation of VCAM-1 and the down-regulation of ICAM-1 induced by evodiamine. Evodiamine provoked IL-8 secretion via ERK1/2, SAPK/JNK, JAK2 and AP-1 pathways which could be counteracted by berberine.

SIGNIFICANCE

Although showing anti-proliferative and anti-migratory activities in AGS cells, evodiamine displayed a potential tendency to promote metastasis of gastric cancer cells by increasing IL-8 secretion and adhesion molecules. However, berberine could counteract the side-effect and simultaneously keep anti-proliferative and anti-migratory properties of evodiamine on AGS cells, which reduces the risk to use evodiamine in therapy of gastric cancers.

Pharmacological actions of multi-target-directed evodiamine

Evodiamine, a naturally occurring indole alkaloid, is one of the main bioactive ingredients of Evodiae fructus. With respect to the pharmacological actions of evodiamine, more attention has been paid to beneficial effects in insults involving cancer, obesity, nociception, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, Alzheimer's disease, infectious diseases and themoregulative effects. evodiamine has evolved a superior ability to bind various proteins, so we also argue that it is good starting point for multi-target drugs. This review is primarily addressed to the description of the recent advances in the biological activity studies of evodiamine, with a focus on pharmacological mechanism. The present review also includes the pharmacokinetics and the detailed exploration of target-binding properties of evodiamine in an attempt to provide a direction for further multi-target drug design.

Evodiamine inhibits 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced activator protein 1 transactivation and cell transformation in human hepatocytes

Evodia rutaecarpa has been used to treat inflammatory digestive disorders in Asian countries. However, little is known about the antitumor activities of E. rutaecarpa and its bioactive constituent evodiamine (EVO). The aim of this study was to characterize the antitumor mechanisms of E. rutaecarpa and EVO in human hepatocytes. Human Chang liver cells were transfected with activator protein 1 (AP-1)-luciferase reporter gene and designated as Chang/AP-1 cells. The Chang/AP-1 cells were treated with E. rutaecarpa and its bioactive constituents, and challenged with the AP-1 stimulator 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13- acetate (TPA). The present study showed that the methanol extract of E. rutaecarpa decreased the TPA-induced AP-1 transactivation in Chang/AP-1 cells, with an EC₅₀ value of 24.72 μg/mL. EVO inhibited the TPA-induced AP-1 transactivation and colony formation, with EC₅₀ values of 82 μM and 8.2 μM, respectively. Moreover, EVO significantly diminished the TPA-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs). These results suggested that EVO treatment suppressed the TPA-induced AP-1 activity via the ERKs pathway. In conclusion, EVO inhibited the AP-1 activity and cellular transformation in human hepatocytes, suggesting that EVO was a potential agent for antitumor therapy.

Evodia rutaecarpa and Three Major Alkaloids Abrogate Influenza A Virus (H1N1)-Induced Chemokines Production and Cell Migration

Evodia rutaecarpa is commonly used as an anti-inflammatory herbal remedy in traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, the ethanol extract of E. rutaecarpa (ER) and three major quinazoline alkaloids dehydroevodiamine (DeHE), evodiamine (Evo) and rutaecarpine (Rut), isolated from ER were employed to study their inhibitory effects against influenza A virus (H1N1)-induced chemokines production in A549 lung epithelial cells as well as on chemokines-evoked cell recruitment in HL-60-differentiated macrophages. The results showed that ER was a potent inhibitor of RANTES secretion by H1N1-inoculated A549 cells (IC(50): 1.9 ± 0.4 μg ml(-1)). Three alkaloids, although to differing extents, all concentration dependent, inhibited H1N1-induced RANTES production with Evo consistently being the most potent among these active components. ER also moderately and significantly inhibited H1N1-stimulated MCP-1 production in A549 cells. This was mimicked by Evo and Rut, but not DeHE. In the macrophage recruitment assay, both RANTES and MCP-1 markedly evoked cell migration and this phenomenon was significantly suppressed by ER. Evo and Rut, but not DeHE, also had the ability to inhibit cell migration toward RANTES and MCP-1, respectively. In summary, three major alkaloids displayed different potentials for inhibiting chemokines secretion and subsequently cell migration, which could partially explain the activity of ER. As an effective agent to suppress H1N1-induced chemokines production and block chemokine-attracted leukocytes recruitment, E. rutaecarpa and its active components may be useful in influenza virus infection-related inflammatory disorders.

In vitro and in vivo anti-colorectal carcinoma activities of Zuojin Pill and its major constituents

AIM: To investigate the intervention effect of Zuojin Pill and its major constituents against colorectal carcinoma in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS: Cultured HT29 cells in the logarithmic growth phase were treated with berberine (26.25, 52.5, 105, 210 and 420 μmol/L, respectively) and evodiamine (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 μmol/L, respectively) for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively, to determine the optimal concentration and duration of treatment. Under optimal conditions, the inhibitory effects of berberine and evodiamine on the proliferation of HT29 cells were examined by a viable cell count method, and the telomerase activity of the treated cells was determined by the TRAP method. The single cell suspension of HT29 cells was then prepared and subcutaneously injected into the left abdominal region of nude mice at a concentration of 5×10⁵ cells/0.2 mL to produce tumor-bearing nude mice. These mice were randomly divided into four groups, namely, control group (injection with saline), Zuojin Pill group, AZT (Azidothymidine) group and Zuojin Pill plus AZT group. The effects of Zuojin Pill and AZT on tumor growth and telomerase activity were observed. Additionally, a rat model of colorectal carcinoma was induced with 1, 2-dimethyl hydrazine (DMH). The rats were also randomly divided into four groups, treated in the same manner as described above, and killed at weeks 11, 21 and 34, respectively, to observe the effects of Zuojin Pill and AZT against the progression of rat colorectal carcinoma.

RESULTS: Evodiamine and berberine dose-dependently inhibited the proliferation of HT29 cells in vitro. The suppression ratios achieved using evodiamine (7.5, 15 and 30 μmol/L, respectively) were 39.3% ± 2.13%, 52.8% ± 5.34% and 64.1% ± 7.19%, respectively, while those achieved using berberine (52.5, 105, 210 μmol/L) were 44.1% ± 3.97%, 55.9% ± 4.12% and 65.3% ± 6.94%, respectively. Moreover, berberine and evodiamine could effectively inhibit the telomerase activity of HT29 cells. In tumor-bearing nude mice, Zuojin Pill and AZT had no significant influence on tumor size but had weak effect on telomerase activity. In DMH-induced rat colon cancer model, the tumor incidences observed at week 11 in the control group, Zuojin Pill group, AZT group and Zuojin Pill plus group were 20%, 0%, 10% and 10%, respectively. In contrast, the tumor incidences at week 34 showed no significant difference among different groups.

CONCLUSION: The major constituents of Zuojin Pill can suppress the proliferation and telomerase activity of HT29 cells in vitro. In DMH-produced rat model, Zuojin Pill can effectively repress the development and progression of early-stage carcinoma, but has no obvious effect against late-stage carcinoma.

Evodiamine: a novel anti-cancer alkaloid from Evodia rutaecarpa

Traditional Chinese herbs are regarded as a new and promising source of potential anti-cancer remedies and new chemotherapy adjuvants to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy and/or to ameliorate its side effects. Extensive investigations have been undertaken both in the experimental and clinical studies over the years to augment the efficacy of chemotherapy. Evodia rutaecarpa is a very popular multi-purpose herb traditionally used in China for the treatment of headaches, abdominal pain, postpartum hemorrhage, dysentery and amenorrhea. The major constituents of Evodia rutaecarpa are evodiamine and rutaecarpine. Growing evidence demonstrates that evodiamine possesses anti-cancer activities both in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting proliferation, invasion and metastasis, inducing apoptosis of a variety of tumor cell lines. This review is aimed to summarize the recent researches on evodiamine focusing on anti-cancer activity and to highlight molecular mechanisms during the past ten years.

Anticancer drugs from nature--natural products as a unique source of new microtubule-stabilizing agents

This review article provides an overview on the current state of research in the area of microtubule-stabilizing agents from natural sources, with a primary focus on the biochemistry, biology, and pharmacology associated with these compounds. A variety of natural products have been discovered over the last decade to inhibit human cancer cell proliferation through a taxol-like mechanism. These compounds represent a whole new range of structurally diverse lead structures for anticancer drug discovery.

Quantitative analyses of indoloquinazoline alkaloids in Fructus Evodiae by high-performance liquid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Fructus Evodiae (Wuzhuyu), the fruits of Evodia rutaecarpa and related varieties, is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. The bioactive constituents include the indoloquinazoline alkaloids rutaecarpine, evodiamine and dehydroevodiamine. A new assay based on high-performance liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/UV/APCI-MS/MS) was developed for the measurement of the indoloquinazoline alkaloids in commercial Fructus Evodiae products. Initially, the MS/MS fragmentation pathways of indoloquinazoline alkaloids were investigated to identify fragment ions that might be useful for the sensitive and selective detection of trace indoloquinazoline alkaloids during LC/MS/MS. Then, quantitative MS analysis of five indoloquinazoline alkaloids in 12 commercial Fructus Evodiae products from different geographical sources was performed. Analyte recovery was in the range of 97.5-105.3% for all with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 6%, the intra-assay and inter-assay RSDs were less than 7%, and good linear relationships were shown with correlation coefficients for the analytes exceeding 0.999. Therefore, this LC/MS/MS assay facilitated the rapid quantitative analysis of rutaecarpine, evodiamine, evodiamide, 14-formyldihydrorutaecarpine and dehydroevodiamine in 12 commercial Fructus Evodiae products with excellent recovery, repeatability, accuracy and sensitivity. This method is simple and specific and can be used for identification and quality control of this traditional Chinese remedy.

Evodiamine inhibits in vitro angiogenesis: Implication for antitumorgenicity

Evodiamine, the major bioactive compound isolated from Chinese herbal drug named Wu-Chu-Yu, has been reported to exhibit anti-tumor growth and metastasis. However, the effect of evodiamine on angiogenesis remains to be investigated. We used the fresh medium containing evodiamine or human lung adenocarcinoma cell (CL1 cells) derived conditioned media free of evodiamine to test their capability to induce in vitro angiogenesis, i.e., human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) tube formation and invasion. We demonstrated that evodiamine could directly inhibit in vitro HUVECs tube formation and invasion. Locally administered evodiamine also inhibited the in vivo angiogenesis in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. The gene expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and the p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK, ERK) that correlated with endothelial cells angiogenesis were inhibited by evodiamine. We found that the evodiamine-treated CL1 cells derived conditioned medium showed decreased VEGF release and reduced ability of inducing in vitro tube formation. After the collection of conditioned media, the VEGF expression of remaining CL1 cells were determined by Western analyses and revealed that evodiamine decreased VEGF expression. Moreover, administration of recombinant human VEGF(165) (rhVEGF(165)) induced tube formation and ERK phosphorylation by HUVECs, and partially attenuated inhibitory effect of evodiamine. From these results, we suggested that evodiamine is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. The mechanism might involve at least the inhibition of VEGF expression, probably through repression of ERK phosphorylation.

Evodiamine Abolishes Constitutive and Inducible NF-κB Activation by Inhibiting IκBα Kinase Activation, Thereby Suppressing NF-κB-regulated Antiapoptotic and Metastatic Gene Expression, Up-regulating Apoptosis, and Inhibiting Invasion

Evodiamine, an alkaloidal component extracted from the fruit of Evodiae fructus (Evodia rutaecarpa Benth., Rutaceae), exhibits antiproliferative, antimetastatic, and apoptotic activities through a poorly defined mechanism. Because several genes that regulate cellular proliferation, carcinogenesis, metastasis, and survival are regulated by nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), we postulated that evodiamine mediates its activity by modulating NF-kappaB activation. In the present study, we investigated the effect of evodiamine on NF-kappaB and NF-kappaB-regulated gene expression activated by various carcinogens. We demonstrate that evodiamine was a highly potent inhibitor of NF-kappaB activation, and it abrogated both inducible and constitutive NF-kappaB activation. The inhibition corresponded with the sequential suppression of IkappaBalpha kinase activity, IkappaBalpha phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha degradation, p65 phosphorylation, p65 nuclear translocation, and p65 acetylation. Evodiamine also inhibited tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced Akt activation and its association with IKK. Suppression of Akt activation was specific, because it had no effect on JNK or p38 MAPK activation. Evodiamine also inhibited the NF-kappaB-dependent reporter gene expression activated by TNF, TNFR1, TRADD, TRAF2, NIK, and IKK but not that activated by the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB. NF-kappaB-regulated gene products such as Cyclin D1, c-Myc, COX-2, MMP-9, ICAM-1, MDR1, Survivin, XIAP, IAP1, IAP2, FLIP, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and Bfl-1/A1 were all down-regulated by evodiamine. This down-regulation potentiated the apoptosis induced by cytokines and chemotherapeutic agents and suppressed TNF-induced invasive activity. Overall, our results indicated that evodiamine inhibits both constitutive and induced NF-kappaB activation and NF-kappaB-regulated gene expression and that this inhibition may provide a molecular basis for the ability of evodiamine to suppress proliferation, induce apoptosis, and inhibit metastasis.

Antitumor mechanism of evodiamine, a constituent from Chinese herb Evodiae fructus, in human multiple-drug resistant breast cancer NCI/ADR-RES cells in vitro and in vivo

Drug resistance is one of the main obstacles to the successful treatment of cancer. The availability of agents that are highly effective against drug-resistant cancer cells is therefore essential. The present study was performed to examine the anticancer effects of evodiamine, a major constituent of the Chinese herb Evodiae fructus, in adriamycin-resistant human breast cancer NCI/ADR-RES cells. Evodiamine inhibited the proliferation of NCI/ADR-RES cells in a concentration-dependent manner with a GI50 of 0.59 +/- 0.11 microM. This agent also caused a substantial apoptosis at 1 microM. FACScan flow cytometric analysis of cell cycle progression revealed that a G2/M arrest was initiated after a 12-h exposure to the drug. Evodiamine increased tubulin polymerization as determined by the immunocytochemical and in vivo tubulin polymerization analyses. In a time- and concentration-dependent manner, evodiamine also promoted the phosphorylations of Raf-1 kinase and Bcl-2. The phosphorylation site of Raf-1 kinase was identified to be serine338. The in vivo anticancer effects of evodiamine were evaluated in Balb-c/nude mice following a tumor xenograft implantation of NCI/ADR-RES cells. The antitumor activity of evodiamine against the human multiple-drug resistant tumor xenograft was found to be superior to that of paclitaxel. Evodiamine therefore represents a highly promising chemotherapeutic agent in the treatment of human multiple-drug resistant cancer cells.