Six new sesquineolignans from the stems of Akebia quinate and their diacylglycerol acyltransferase activity

Six new sesquineolignans (1-6), have been isolated and elucidated from the stems of Akebia quinate together with five known analogues (7-11). Their structures were elucidated on the basis of comprehensive analysis of UV, IR, NMR, HRESIMS and CD spectroscopy experiments. All the isolates were evaluated for in vitro inhibitory activity against DGAT1 and DGAT2. Among them, compounds 1-11 were found to exhibit selective inhibitory activity on DGAT1 with IC50 values ranging from 60.4 ± 1.3 to 84.6 ± 1.3 μM. Besides, the potential binding sites of 1 were predicted by molecular docking.

Effect-Directed Profiling of Akebia quinata and Clitoria ternatea via High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography, Planar Assays and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Two herbal plants, Akebia quinata D. leaf/fruit and Clitoria ternatea L. flower, well-known in traditional medicine systems, were investigated using a non-target effect-directed profiling. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) was combined with 11 different effect-directed assays, including two multiplex bioassays, for assessing their bioactivity. Individual active zones were heart-cut eluted for separation via an orthogonal high-performance liquid chromatography column to heated electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HESI-HRMS) for tentative assignment of molecular formulas according to literature data. The obtained effect-directed profiles provided information on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging, antibacterial (against Bacillus subtilis and Aliivibrio fischeri), enzyme inhibition (tyrosinase, α-amylase, β-glucuronidase, butyrylcholinesterase, and acetylcholinesterase), endocrine (agonists and antagonists), and genotoxic (SOS-Umu-C) activities. The main bioactive compound zones in A. quinata leaf were tentatively assigned to be syringin, vanilloloside, salidroside, α-hederin, cuneataside E, botulin, and oleanolic acid, while salidroside and quinatic acids were tentatively identified in the fruit. Taraxerol, kaempherol-3-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside, quercetin-3-rutinoside, and octadecenoic acid were tentatively found in the C. ternatea flower. This straightforward hyphenated technique made it possible to correlate the biological properties of the herbs with possible compounds. The meaningful bioactivity profiles contribute to a better understanding of the effects and to more efficient food control and food safety.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of WRKY Transcription Factors in Akebiatrifoliata: A Bioinformatics Study

WRKY transcription factors have been found in most plants and play an important role in regulating organ growth and disease response. Outlining the profile of WRKY genes is a very useful project for studying morphogenesis and resistance formation. In the present study, a total of 63 WRKY genes consisting of 13 class I, 41 class II, and 9 class III genes were identified from the newly published A. trifoliata genome, of which 62 were physically distributed on all 16 chromosomes. Structurally, two AkWRKY genes (AkWRKY6 and AkWRKY52) contained four domains, and AkWRKY17 lacked the typical heptapeptide structure. Evolutionarily, 42, 16, and 5 AkWRKY genes experienced whole genome duplication (WGD) or fragmentation, dispersed duplication, and tandem duplication, respectively; 28 Ka/Ks values of 30 pairs of homologous genes were far lower than 1, while those of orthologous gene pairs between AkWRKY41 and AkWRKY52 reached up to 2.07. Transcriptome analysis showed that many of the genes were generally expressed at a low level in 12 fruit samples consisting of three tissues, including rind, flesh, and seeds, at four developmental stages, and interaction analysis between AkWRKY and AkNBS genes containing W-boxes suggested that AkWRKY24 could play a role in plant disease resistance by positively regulating AkNBS18. In summary, the WRKY gene family of A. trifoliata was systemically characterized for the first time, and the data and information obtained regarding AkWRKY could be very useful in further theoretically elucidating the molecular mechanisms of plant development and response to pathogens and practically improving favorable traits such as disease resistance.

Metabolomic Profile and Antibacterial Bioactivity of Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz Pericarp Extract

Akebia trifoliata (A. trifoliata) is a significant medicinal and edible fruit crop and has some important bioactivities. However, there are few studies on the bacteriostatic activity of A. trifoliata, and the underlying mechanism of A. trifoliata for antibacterial activity is still unknown. Therefore, the bacteriostatic activity and antibacterial mechanism of A. trifoliata were investigated by a combination of chemical assays, using the UHPLC-TOF-MS/MS technique. The results indicated that alkaloids, triterpenoids, and flavonoids are the major secondary bioactive compounds in A. trifoliata that play a crucial role in antibacterial activity. We found that EEPA exhibited both bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria tested, with IZDs ranging from 13.80 ± 0.79 to 17.00 ± 0.58 mm. Significant differences in terms of sensitivity between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were not observed. In contrast, both antibiotics (kanamycin sulfate and ampicillin sodium salt) exhibited much better antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative bacteria. In addition, the primary antimicrobial mechanism was that EEPA increased cellular content leakage, altered the cell morphology, and destroyed the internal cell structure. Meanwhile, MA, UA, and OA, as the common triterpenoid components existing in plants, were used to analyze the relationships between the structures and the antimicrobial activities among homologous compounds, to determine the key functional group that plays an antibacterial role in MA, UA, and OA. As result, it was found that both the hydroxide and methyl groups present are important for their antibacterial activity. These findings suggested that EEPA exerted significant antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, B. subtilis, and P. aeruginosa and might be a potential natural antibacterial.

Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata - a review of phytochemical composition, ethnopharmacological approaches and biological studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

'Akebia stem' (Akebiae caulis) is one of the newest raw materials officially introduced into therapeutic practice from traditional Chinese medicine. A monograph on this material appeared for the first time in 2018 in Supplement 9.6 to the 9th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia. In the latest 10th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia, the monograph remained unchanged. The 'Akebia stem' monograph allows the use, as a raw material, of Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne., A. trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz, or a mixture of the two species.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this work is a detailed review of the scientific literature on the genus Akebia (family Lardizabalaceae), with particular emphasis on A. quinata and A. trifoliata, providing information on the botanical, ecological, and chemical characteristics of these species. Professional research on their biological activity has been reviewed. The attention is given to phytochemistry and cosmetology. The traditional use of Akebia species and their potential use in medicine and cosmetology are assessed. In addition, individual papers describing biotechnology research on in vitro cultures of the two Akebia species are presented.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The presented botanical, ecological, phytochemical and biotechnological characterization is based on a thorough review of published scientific research. It is a compilation and evaluation of data on the chemical composition and biological activities of these Akebia species.

RESULTS

This critical review of phytochemical studies demonstrates that triterpenoid saponins are dominant secondary metabolites of these species. A comparative analysis of phytochemical studies on A. quinata and A. trifoliata stems, roots, fruits, and seeds showed differences in metabolites based on the plant parts and species. The triterpenoid saponins mutongsaponin C and saponin P_j1 have been found only in A. trifoliata, whereas the phenolic glycoside 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-ethyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside has been found only in A. quinata. Biological activity studies of A. quinata stem, leaf and/or fruit extracts have confirmed diuretic, hepatoregenerative, neuroprotective, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity effects and an influence on ethanol metabolism. Different action profiles have been demonstrated for A. trifoliata stem, leaf and/or fruit extracts. Studies have proven the antibacterial and anticancer (liver and stomach) effects of these species. This review presents potential phytopharmacological applications of both species and detailed data on their broad applications in cosmetology. Attention is also drawn to information on the safety of using Akebia. Finally, an overview of biotechnology research on both species is presented.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides comprehensive knowledge about the ethnopharmacological use of Akebia species. Moreover, new findings on the differences in the chemical composition and biological activity profiles are underlined.

Specification and DNA Barcoding of Thai Traditional Remedy for Chronic Kidney Disease: Pikad Tri-phol-sa-mut-than

The Pikad Tri-phol-sa-mut-than (TS) remedy, a Thai traditional medicine, is officially recorded in Tamra Paetsart Sonkrau Chabub Anurak for its capabilities in treating kidney deficiency. TS remedy is composed of three fruit species—Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa., Coriandrum sativum L., and Morinda citrifolia L.—in an equal part by weight. The quality of the raw material is one of the essential factors that can affect the effectiveness and safety of treatment by herbal remedy. The pharmacognostic evaluation and DNA barcode of the three fruit species and TS remedy were performed in this study to authenticate them from contamination, and to provide the scientific database for further uses. Macroscopic and microscopic examination, chemical profile by TLC, and DNA barcoding were employed to positively identify the raw materials bought from the herbal market, especially the powder form. Consequently, the outcomes of this investigation can be used to develop an essential and effective tool for the authentication of crude drugs and herbal remedies.

The complete chloroplast genome of Akebia quinata (Lardizabalaceae) and phylogenetic analysis

Akebia quinata is an herb medicine plant in traditional oriental medicine in China. In this current study, we had assembled the complete chloroplast genome of A. quinata. The complete chloroplast genome sequence of A. quinata has a total 157,817 bp in size and has a typical quadripartite structure, which is the same as other plant species chloroplast genome. It contained a large single-copy (LSC) region of 86,544 bp, a small single-copy (SSC) region of 18,989 bp and two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 26,142 bp. The complete chloroplast genome sequence contains 132 genes, including 87 encoding genes, 37 transfer RNA genes, and eight ribosomal RNA genes. One of IR region harbors seven protein encoding genes, seven tRNA genes, and four rRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis result showed that A. quinata is closely related to Decaisnea insignis of the family Lardizabalaceae using the maximum-likelihood (ML) method in this study.

Molecular Analysis of Terminalia spp. Distributed in Thailand and Authentication of Crude Drugs from Terminalia Plants

Terminalia, a large genus of Combretaceae, is distributed in Tropical Asia, Africa, and America. Some Terminalia plants are used in folk medicine because they possess powerful medicinal properties. Dried fruits of Terminalia bellirica and Terminalia chebula are used as the main ingredient in Triphala, a famous polyherbal formulation in Ayurvedic medicine and Thai folk medicine, because of their laxative, detoxifying, and rejuvenating effects. To clarify the phylogenetic relationships of medicinal Terminalia species (T. bellirica, T. chebula, and T. catappa) and authenticate their crude drugs, "Samo" and Triphala, nucleotide sequencing alignments in the internal transcribed spacer one-two (ITS 1-2) regions of Terminalia plants collected in Thailand were performed. The amplified fragments of Terminalia species were approximately 800 bp in length. To compare these sequences and DDBJ registered data, a molecular phylogenetic tree was constructed. Phylogenetic analysis clearly separated the sequences into two groups: Asian Terminalia and African Terminalia with some exceptions. In the analyzed sequences, the length of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region was 674 bp in T. chebula, and 677 bp in T. bellirica and T. catappa. Eighty-one single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and nine insertion-deletions (indels) were observed, and the nucleotide sequences of this region showed species-specific sequences. Based on these differences, polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) were applied to identify medicinal Terminalia species. Moreover, the ARMS method was chosen for fingerprinting analysis of Samo crude drugs and Triphala formulations because it was a fast, cost-effective, and reproducible approach.

20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits the proliferation and induces the apoptosis of KG-1a cells through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Previous research has shown that total saponins of Panax ginseng (TSPG) and other ginsenoside monomers inhibit the proliferation of leukemia cells. However, the effect has not been compared among them. Cell viability was determined by Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, and ultra-structural characteristics were observed under transmission electron microscopy. Cell cycle distribution and apoptosis were determined by flow cytometry (FCM). Real-time fluorescence quantitative‑PCR, western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to measure the expression of β-catenin, TCF4, cyclin D1 and NF-κBp65. β-catenin/TCF4 target gene transcription were observed by ChIP-PCR assay. We found that 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 [(S)Rh2] inhibited the proliferation of KG-1a cells more efficiently than the other monomers. Moreover, (S)Rh2 arrested KG-1a cells in the G0/G1 phase and induced apoptosis. In addition, the levels of β-catenin, TCF4, cyclin D1 mRNA and protein were decreased. The ChIP-PCR showed that (S)Rh2 downregulated the transcription of β-catenin/TCF4 target genes, such as cyclin D1 and c-myc. These results indicated that (S)Rh2 induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, demonstrating its potential as a chemotherapeutic agent for leukemia therapy.

Evaluation of seven DNA barcodes for differentiating closely related medicinal Gentiana species and their adulterants

BACKGROUND

Species identification of living organisms by standard DNA sequences has been well-accepted. Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL) recommends chloroplast regions rbcL and matK as the DNA barcodes for the land plants. This study aims to evaluate the feasibility and limitations of rbcL, matK, and 5 other commonly used regions as the DNA barcodes for the medicinal Gentiana and their adulterants, Gentiana. rhodantha and Podophyllum hexandrum.

METHODS

The species differentiation power of rbcL, matK, nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and 5S rRNA intergenic spacer, and chloroplast trnH-psbA, trnL-F and rpl36-rps8 intergenic spacers were tested in different medicinal Gentiana, including Gentiana scabra, Gentiana triflora, Gentiana manshurica and Gentiana rigescens, from common adulterants such as Gentiana rhodantha and Podophyllum hexandrum (a toxic herb producing podophyllotoxin).

RESULTS

All seven tested loci could be used to differentiate medicinal Gentiana species from their adulterants, and to distinguish Guanlongdan from Jianlongdan. In terms of general differentiation powers, rbcL and matK had no significant advantages over the other five loci. Only the 5S rRNA and trnL-F intergenic spacers were able to discriminate the closely related species G. triflora, G. scabra and G. manshurica.

CONCLUSION

The DNA barcodes rbcL and matK are useful in differentiation of closely related medicinal species of Gentiana, but had no significant advantages over the other five tested loci.

Gut Microbiota in Health and Disease

Gut microbiota is an assortment of microorganisms inhabiting the length and width of the mammalian gastrointestinal tract. The composition of this microbial community is host specific, evolving throughout an individual's lifetime and susceptible to both exogenous and endogenous modifications. Recent renewed interest in the structure and function of this “organ” has illuminated its central position in health and disease. The microbiota is intimately involved in numerous aspects of normal host physiology, from nutritional status to behavior and stress response. Additionally, they can be a central or a contributing cause of many diseases, affecting both near and far organ systems. The overall balance in the composition of the gut microbial community, as well as the presence or absence of key species capable of effecting specific responses, is important in ensuring homeostasis or lack thereof at the intestinal mucosa and beyond. The mechanisms through which microbiota exerts its beneficial or detrimental influences remain largely undefined, but include elaboration of signaling molecules and recognition of bacterial epitopes by both intestinal epithelial and mucosal immune cells. The advances in modeling and analysis of gut microbiota will further our knowledge of their role in health and disease, allowing customization of existing and future therapeutic and prophylactic modalities.

An integrated web medicinal materials DNA database: MMDBD (Medicinal Materials DNA Barcode Database)

BACKGROUND

Thousands of plants and animals possess pharmacological properties and there is an increased interest in using these materials for therapy and health maintenance. Efficacies of the application is critically dependent on the use of genuine materials. For time to time, life-threatening poisoning is found because toxic adulterant or substitute is administered. DNA barcoding provides a definitive means of authentication and for conducting molecular systematics studies. Owing to the reduced cost in DNA authentication, the volume of the DNA barcodes produced for medicinal materials is on the rise and necessitates the development of an integrated DNA database.

DESCRIPTION

We have developed an integrated DNA barcode multimedia information platform- Medicinal Materials DNA Barcode Database (MMDBD) for data retrieval and similarity search. MMDBD contains over 1000 species of medicinal materials listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and American Herbal Pharmacopoeia. MMDBD also contains useful information of the medicinal material, including resources, adulterant information, medical parts, photographs, primers used for obtaining the barcodes and key references. MMDBD can be accessed at http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/icm/mmdbd.htm.

CONCLUSIONS

This work provides a centralized medicinal materials DNA barcode database and bioinformatics tools for data storage, analysis and exchange for promoting the identification of medicinal materials. MMDBD has the largest collection of DNA barcodes of medicinal materials and is a useful resource for researchers in conservation, systematic study, forensic and herbal industry.