Anethole exerts antimetatstaic activity via inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase 2/9 and AKT/mitogen-activated kinase/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathways

Anethole in cancer therapy: Mechanisms, synergistic pHyungseo Bobbyotential, and clinical challenges

Cancer remains a major global health challenge, prompting the search for effective and less toxic treatments. Anethole, a bioactive compound found in essential oils of anise and fennel, commonly used as a food preservative, has recently garnered attention for its potential anti-cancer properties. This comprehensive review aims to systematically assess the anti-cancer effects of anethole, elucidating its mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and synergistic potential with conventional cancer therapies. A detailed literature search was conducted across databases including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Criteria for inclusion were experimental studies in peer-reviewed journals focusing on the anti-cancer properties of anethole. Extracted data included study design, intervention specifics, measured outcomes, and mechanistic insights. Anethole demonstrates multiple anti-cancer mechanisms, such as inducing apoptosis, causing cell cycle arrest, exhibiting anti-proliferative and anti-angiogenic effects, and modulating critical signaling pathways including NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, and caspases. It enhances the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents like cisplatin and doxorubicin while reducing their toxicity. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown its effectiveness against various cancers, including breast, prostate, lung, and colorectal cancers. Anethole shows significant potential as an anti-cancer agent, with its multi-faceted mechanisms of action and ability to synergize with existing chemotherapy. Further clinical research is essential to fully understand its therapeutic potential and application in oncology.

Rhodium-Catalyzed Oxidative Alkenylation of Anisole: Control of Regioselectivity

We report the conversion of anisoles and olefins to alkenyl anisoles via a transition-metal-catalyzed arene C-H activation and olefin insertion mechanism. The catalyst precursor, [(η2-C2H4)2Rh(μ-OAc)]2, and the in situ oxidant Cu(OPiv)2 (OPiv = pivalate) convert anisoles and olefins (ethylene or propylene) to alkenyl anisoles. When ethylene is used as the olefin, the o/m/p ratio varies between approximately 1:3:1 (selective for 3-methoxystyrene) and 1:5:10 (selective for 4-methoxystyrene). When propylene is the olefin, the o/m/p regioselectivity varies between approximately 1:8:20 and 1:8.5:5. The o/m/p ratios depend on the concentration of pivalic acid and olefin. For example, when using ethylene, at relatively high pivalic acid concentrations and low ethylene concentrations, the o/m/p regioselectivity is 1:3:1. Conversely, again for use of ethylene, at relatively low pivalic acid concentrations and high ethylene concentrations, the o/m/p regioselectivity is 1:5:10. Mechanistic studies of the conversion of anisoles and olefins to alkenyl anisoles provide evidence that the regioselectivity is likely under Curtin-Hammett conditions.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neuroprotective potentials of anethole in Parkinson's disease-like motor and non-motor symptoms induced by rotenone in rats

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurological disorder characterized by a combination of motor and non-motor symptoms (NMS). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds are considered a potential therapeutic strategy against PD. The present study examined the neuroprotective effects of anethole as a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent against motor and non-motor deficits induced by rotenone toxicity. Rats were treated with anethole (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg, i.g) concomitantly with rotenone (2 mg/kg, s.c) for 5 weeks. After the treatment, behavioral tests were performed to evaluate motor function and depression-/anxiety-like behaviors. After the behavioral tests, rats were decapitated and brains were removed for histological analysis. Striatum samples were also isolated for neurochemical, and molecular analysis. Our data showed that rotenone-induced motor deficit, anxiety-and depression-like behaviors were significantly improved in rats treated with anethole. Furthermore, anethole treatment reduced inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and Interleukin 6 (IL-6), and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 in the striatum of rotenone-induced PD rats. Western blot analysis showed that treatment with anethole markedly suppressed caspase-3 activation induced by rotenone. Moreover, histological examination of striatum showed an increase in the number of surviving neurons after treatment with anethole. Anethole also significantly enhanced the striatal levels of dopamine in rotenone-induced PD rats. In addition, treatment with L-Dopa as a positive control group had effects similar to those of anethole on histological, neurochemical, and molecular parameters in rotenone-induced parkinsonian rats. Our results suggested the neuroprotective effects of anethole through anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and antioxidant mechanisms against rotenone-induced toxicity in rats.

Synergistic Effect of Anethole and Platinum Drug Cisplatin against Oral Cancer Cell Growth and Migration by Inhibiting MAPKase, Beta-Catenin, and NF-κB Pathways

Cisplatin is a common drug used to treat patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. However, cisplatin-induced chemoresistance poses a major challenge to its clinical application. Our recent study has shown that anethole possesses an anti-oral cancer effect. In this study, we examined the combined effect of anethole and cisplatin on oral cancer therapy. Gingival cancer cells Ca9-22 were cultured in the presence of various concentrations of cisplatin with or without anethole. The cell viability/proliferation and cytotoxicity were evaluated, respectively, by MTT, Hoechst staining, and LDH assay, while colony formation was measured by crystal violet. Oral cancer cell migration was evaluated by the scratch method. Apoptosis, caspase activity, oxidative stress, MitoSOX, and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) levels were evaluated by flow cytometry, and the inhibition of signaling pathways was investigated by Western blot. Our results show that anethole (3 µM) potentiates cisplatin-induced inhibition of cell proliferation and decreases the ΔΨm on Ca9-22 cells. Furthermore, drug combination was found to inhibit cell migration and enhanced cisplatin cytotoxicity. The combination of anethole and cisplatin potentiates cisplatin-induced oral cancer cell apoptosis through the activation of caspase, while we also found anethole and cisplatin to enhance the cisplatin-induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial stress. In addition, major cancer signaling pathways were inhibited by the combination of anethole and cisplatin such as MAPKase, beta-catenin, and NF-κB pathways. This study reports that the combination of anethole and cisplatin might provide a beneficial effect in enhancing the cisplatin cancer cell-killing effect, thus lowering the associated side effects.

Toxicological and molecular adverse effect of Illicium verum fruit constituents toward Bradysia procera

BACKGROUND

Bradysia procera, a ginseng stem fungus gnat, is one of the most serious insect pests of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng), causing significant damage to plant growth. The goal of this study was to determine the toxicity and mechanism of action of phenylpropanoids (trans-anethole and estragole) isolated from the methanol extract and hydrodistillate of Illicium verum fruit against third-instar larvae and eggs of Bradysia procera.

RESULTS

The filter-paper mortality bioassay revealed that estragole [median lethal concentration (LC₅₀ ) = 4.68 g/cm² ] has a significant fumigant effect, followed by trans-anethole (LC₅₀ = 43.92 g/cm² ). However, estragole had the lowest toxic effect when compared to commercially available insecticides. After 7 days, estragole and trans-anethole at 75 g/cm² inhibited egg hatchability up to 97% and 93%, respectively. At 0.09 g/cm² , insecticides had an inhibitory effect on egg-hatching ability ranging from 88% to 94%. Furthermore, in both closed and open containers, these active constituents were able to consistently induce vapor-phased toxicity. Both estragole and trans-anethole have the ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is involved in neurotransmitter function. However, the active constituent estragole from I. verum fruit acted as a potent AChE inhibitor and had a slightly lower effect on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP) than octopamine alone.

CONCLUSION

This finding suggests that estragole may influence Bradysia procera neurotransmitter function via both the AChE and octopaminergic receptors. More research is needed to demonstrate the potential applications of I. verum fruit-derived products as potential larvicides and ovicides for Bradysia procera population control. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Neuroprotective effect of anethole against rotenone induced non-motor deficits and oxidative stress in rat model of Parkinson's disease

INTRODUCTION

Non-motor symptoms (NMS) have high prevalence in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). These symptoms are mainly the result of increased oxidative stress and neuronal damage. In this study we investigated the possible neuroprotective effects of anethole as a potent antioxidant on rotenone-induced behavioral deficits, hippocampal neuronal death, and oxidative stress profile in rats.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were administered with anethole (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg, i.g) concomitantly with rotenone (2 mg/kg, s.c) for 35 days. Shuttle box and novel object recognition tests were performed to determine cognitive functions, and tail flick test was used to measure pain sensitivity. The levels of BDNF, MDA, SOD, and GPx were assayed in the hippocampus. Hippocampal neuronal damage was evaluated using cresyl violet staining technique.

RESULTS

Chronic administration of rotenone induced cognitive deficit and reduced thermal pain threshold. Rotenone also decreased SOD and GPx activities, increased MDA level, and reduced the expression of BDNF in the hippocampus. In addition, hippocampal neuronal loss was increased in rotenone treated rats. Treatment with high dose of anethole (250 mg/kg) improved cognitive function and increased pain threshold in all three doses (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg). Despite the unchanged SOD and GPx activities, hippocampal levels of MDA was significantly decreased after high-dose anethole treatment. Moreover, High dose of anethole increased the number of surviving neurons in the hippocampus, but couldn't increase the BDNF expression.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that anethole has antioxidant and neuroprotective effects against non-motor disorders induced by rotenone toxicity.

Dissecting dietary and semisynthetic volatile phenylpropenes: A compile of their distribution, food properties, health effects, metabolism and toxicities

Phenylpropenes represent a major subclass of plant volatiles, including eugenol, and (E)-anethole. They contribute to the flavor and aroma of many chief herbs and spices, to exert distinct notes in food, i.e., spicy anise- and clove-like to fruit. Asides from their culinary use, they appear to exert general health effects, whereas some effects are specific, e.g., eugenol being a natural local anesthetic. This review represents the most comprehensive overview of phenylpropenes with respect to their chemical structures, different health effects, and their food applications as flavor and food preservatives. Side effects and toxicities of these compounds represent the second main part of this review, as some were reported for certain metabolites generated inside the body. Several metabolic reactions mediating for phenylpropenes metabolism in rodents via cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and sulfotransferase (SULT) enzymes are presented being involved in their toxicities. Such effects can be lessened by influencing their pharmacokinetics through a matrix-derived combination effect via administration of herbal extracts containing SULT inhibitors, i.e., nevadensin in sweet basil. Moreover, structural modification of phenylpropanes appears to improve their effects and broaden their applications. Hence, such review capitalizing on phenylpropenes can help optimize their applications in nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and food applications.

Anethole's effects against myocardial infarction: The role of TLR4/NFκB and Nrf2/HO1 pathways

BACKGROUND

Exploring new drugs for the management of myocardial infarction (MI) is crucial, as MI is a major contributor to mortality worldwide. Anethole, a naturally occurring essential oil component, has numerous medicinal, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic purposes. This study explored the potential action of anethole to protect myocytes against MI injure.

METHODS

Wistar rats were divided into five groups: normal; anethole; and isoproterenol (ISO) groups in addition to two groups of ISO + anethole (125 and 250 mg/kg). All anethole groups were administered the oil component for 30 days, and all ISO groups were challenged with ISO on the 28th and 29th days. Parameters measured included infracted area, ECG, cardiac markers, the expression of Keap 1, nuclear Nrf2, and heme oxygenase-1, as well as the expression of TLR4 and MYD88 together with subsequent downstream oxidative stress, inflammatory, and apoptotic markers.

RESULTS

Anethole reduced infarct region, degenerated cardiac indicators levels, amended ECG alterations, and diminished myocardial necrosis. Anethole reduced Keap-1, activated Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, increased mitochondrial antioxidant enzyme activities, declined the TLR4/MYD88 pathway, and ameliorated myocardial inflammation and cell death markers.

CONCLUSION

Anethole may retain a cardio-protective potential by controlling myocardial oxidative stress (through Nrf2 pathway) and diminishing inflammation and apoptosis via the TLR4/MYD88 pathway.

Trans-anethole ameliorates LPS-induced inflammation via suppression of TLR4/NF-κB pathway in IEC-6 cells

This study was undertaken to investigate the protective role of trans-anethole (TA) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced rat intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6) injury and the potential mechanisms. The cells were pretreated with TA (0 and 1 mM) for 24 h, prior to stimulation by LPS (1 mg/mL) for 24 h. Compared with the control group (CON), LPS stimulus resulted in decreased cell viability, intestinal barrier injury, increased cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. These effects triggered by LPS were reversed by TA. In order to reveal the main genes and pathways involved among the groups, transcriptome analysis was performed to identify the differential expression genes (DEGs) among the treatment groups. There were a total of 493 DEGs (275 upregulated and 218 downregulated) that were identified between the LPS and CON group. Meanwhile, a total of 361 DEGs (103 regulated and 258 downregulated) were identified in the LPS+TA group compared with the LPS group. The results showed that the DEGs were mostly enriched in immune related pathways, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, complement and coagulation cascades, interleukin-17 (IL-17) signaling pathway, NF-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, antigen processing and presentation, and NOD-like receptor signaling pathway. Based on the results of RNA-sequencing, further investigation of the signaling pathway involved revealed that TA could inhibit the activation of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NF-κB signaling pathway and NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in LPS-induced IEC-6 cells. In conclusion, this finding demonstrated a functional role of TA in intestinal epithelial cells injury and indicated that TA may be a potential strategy for treatment of inflammatory intestinal diseases.

Anticonvulsant Activity of trans-Anethole in Mice

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder affecting 1-2% of world population, and one-third of patients are refractory to pharmacological treatment. This fact has stimulated research for new antiepileptic drugs and natural products have been an important source. trans-Anethole (TAN) is a phenylpropanoid, component of some essential oils, extracted from plants, and its effects have been little studied. Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the TAN effect in classic seizure models and evaluate the electroencephalographic (EEG) profile of animals treated with this substance. For this, Swiss male mice (Mus musculus) were used, and the lethal dose was evaluated and subsequently submitted to the test maximal electroshock (MES), the pentylenetetrazole- (PTZ) induced seizure test, and the EEG profile. Initially, the LD50 for TAN was estimated in 1000 mg/kg (i.p.) dose and there was no sign of acute toxicity or death. In the MES test, TAN 300, i.p. (12.00 ± 2.9 s) and 400 mg/kg, i.p. (9.00 ± 4.4 s) doses was able to decrease tonic seizures duration induced by electric discharge (0.5 mA, 150 pulses/s, for 0.5 s). In the PTZ test (75 mg/kg, i.p.), TAN 400 mg/kg, i.p. increased the latency to myoclonic jerks (80.0 (56.0-134.0)), the latency totonic-clonic seizures (900.0 (861.0-900.0) and decrease seizure duration (0.0 (0.0-10.0)). No deaths were found in this groups compared to vehicle. EEG analysis showed an amplitude decrease of waves (ratio of baseline) in TAN 300 (1.82 ± 0.23) and 400 mg/kg (1.06 ± 0.16) groups. In this way, TAN at 400 mg/kg was able to inhibit and/or attenuate seizures by increasing the time for the onset of spasms and convulsions, as reducing the duration of seizures. The EEG profile corroborate with this results showing a reduction in the amplitude of waves compared to the PTZ group. Thus, TAN showed an anticonvulsant effect in all experimental models performed, behavioral and electroencephalographic.

ZDQ-0620, a Novel Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Inhibitor, Inhibits Colorectal Carcinoma Cell Proliferation and Suppresses Angiogenesis by Attenuating PI3K/AKT/mTOR Pathway

The PI3K/AKT pathway plays a central role in human cancers, aberrant activation of this pathway is associated with tumorigenesis, cancer progression and angiogenesis. Based on the importance of the PI3K/AKT pathway in malignancies, we developed a 4-aminoquinazoline derivative, ZDQ-0620, initially envisioned as a novel pan-PI3K inhibitor. This study aimed to evaluate the potential target of ZDQ-0620 and its anticancer effect in human colorectal carcinoma (CRC). PI3K-kinase activity test showed IC50 of ZDQ-0620 against PI3Ka was 0.5 nM; molecular docking, CETSA assay and western blotting was further performed to predict ZDQ-0620 was a PI3K/AKT pathway inhibitor by targeting PI3K. To identify the effect of ZDQ-0620 on CRC cells, Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay, flow cytometry, and Cell morphology analysis were conducted. The results showed that ZDQ-0620 inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of CRC cells, induced apoptosis through G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and mitochondrial pathway. Additionally, ZDQ-0620 inhibited the migration and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In vivo, neovascularization of rat aortic ring and chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) induced by VEGF was diminished when treated with ZDQ-0620. These results indicate that ZDQ-0620 induce apoptosis and anti-angiogenesis via inhibits the PI3K/AKT pathway. We suggest that the great potential of ZDQ-0620 as an effective treatment candidate against CRC.

The Protective Effect of Anethole against Renal Ischemia/Reperfusion: The Role of the TLR2,4/MYD88/NFκB Pathway

Background: Anethole is the principle essential oil component of anise and fennel. Renal ischemia/reperfusion (RIR) is one of the utmost imperative reasons for acute kidney injury and often associated with high mortality rate. The aim of this study is to investigate the protective effect of anethole on RIR status, exploring the involved mechanisms. Methods: RIR was accomplished by bilateral renal pedicle clamping for 45 min, after which the clamps were removed to achieve the reperfusion phase. Rats were randomized into five groups; Sham, Sham + anethole, RIR, and finally RIR + anethole (125 mg/kg or 250 mg/kg) groups. Animals were given anethole (in specified groups in doses) for 14 days before RIR. Results: RIR-experienced animals developed renal injury evidenced by diminished renal function and histopathological alteration. RIR induced severe oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic status within renal tissue. Pre-RIR management with anethole enhanced renal morphology and improved renal function. Anethole amplified GSH content and SOD, CAT, and GPx activities and lowered MDA. Anethole reduced gene and protein expression levels of HMGB1, TLR2, TLR4, MYD88, and NFκB. Anethole distinctly dropped TNF-α, IFN-γ, and MCP-1 levels, increased IL-10, and diminished caspase 3 and 9, reflecting its anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic actions. Conclusion: Anethole displayed anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic actions against RIR-induced injury. Anethole exhibited renal protective actions, which could be through inhibiting the HMGB1/TLR2, 4/MYD88/NFκB pathway. These results could suggest anethole as a protective agent against RIR.

Anti-depressive-like effect of monoterpene trans-anethole via monoaminergic pathways

Trans-anethole (ANE) is a monoterpene present in many aromatic plants, especially Pimpinella anisum (PA). In this regard, we previously reported the anti-depressant potential of PA. Here, we examined the anti-depressant activity of ANE and its possible mechanism in mice. In experiment 1, the animals received ANE (12.5–50 mg.kg ^-1) 60 min prior to forced swimming and open-field tests. In experiment 2, the animals received several receptor antagonists to assess the possible mechanism of ANE. The administration of ANE (25 and 50 mg.kg ^-1; p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively) exhibited an anti-depressive-like effect in FST without any significant effect on animal locomotion(p > 0.05). Moreover, haloperidol(p < 0.001), SCH23390(p < 0.001), sulpiride(p < 0.001), ketanserin(p < 0.001), p-chlorophenylalanine(p < 0.001), WAY100135(p < 0.001), reserpine, (p < 0.001) prazosin(p < 0.001), and yohimbine(p < 0.001) inhibited the anti-depressive-like effect of ANE. Furthermore, co-treatment of a subeffective dose of ANE with imipramine or fluoxetine induced synergistic anti-depressant-like effects(p < 0.001). Our data mainly showed that the anti-depressive-like effect of ANE, which can be attributed to the contribution of the monoaminergic system.

Amelioration of oxidative stress by trans-Anethole via modulating phase I and phase II enzymes against hepatic damage induced by CCl4 in male Wistar rats

The current study was designed to assess the in vivo hepatoprotective properties of trans-Anethole, which is a principal aromatic component of star anise. The hepatoprotective effects of trans-Anethole were evaluated at three doses [40, 80, and 160 mg/kg body weight (b.wt.)] against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatic damage in male Wistar rats for 4 weeks. Forty-two male Wistar rats were equally divided into seven groups; the control (group I) received only distilled water. Rats of group II received CCl₄ (1 ml/kg b.wt.) in a 1:1 ratio of CCl₄ and olive oil via intraperitoneal doses, while rats of group III received silymarin (50 mg/kg b.wt.), followed by CCl₄ intraperitoneal doses, 3 days in a week. Rats of group IV received trans-anethole (160 mg/kg b.wt.) for 28 days as a negative control. Trans-anethole at the doses of 40, 80, and 160 mg/kg b.wt. was administered to groups V, VI, and VII, respectively, for 28 days, followed by CCl₄ (i.p). Results showed that CCl₄ treatment (group II) elevated the levels of different serum markers like aspartate aminotransferase (AST) by 4.74 fold, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) by 3.47 fold, aspartate alkaline phosphatase (ALP) by 3.55 fold, direct bilirubin by 3.48 fold, and total bilirubin by 2.38 fold in contrast to control. Furthermore, it was found that the decreased levels of liver antioxidant enzymes viz. catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase (GR) were significantly modulated by the pre-administration of rats with different doses (40, 80, and 160 mg/kg b.wt.) of trans-anethole. Furthermore, pre-treatment of trans-anethole reduced the level of phase I enzymes and elevated the level of phase II detoxifying enzymes. Histopathological investigations showed that the treatment with trans-anethole was effective in ameliorating CCl₄-induced liver injury and restored the normal hepatic architecture. Moreover, trans-anethole restored p53 and cyclin D levels in liver tissue relative to group II. Western blot analysis revealed that the trans-anethole treatment downregulated the expression of Bax and caspase-3 while upregulated the expression of Bcl-xL. Collectively, the findings of the study showed the strong efficacy of trans-anethole in ameliorating the hepatic damage caused by CCl₄ through the modulation of antioxidants and xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes.

Chitooligosaccharides alleviate hepatic fibrosis by regulating the polarization of M1 and M2 macrophages

Regulating immune homeostasis by targeting liver macrophage polarization is a potential therapeutic strategy for hepatic fibrosis. Chitooligosaccharide (COS) is a bioactive oligosaccharide possessing potent immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective effects. In this study the hepatoprotective effect of COS on hepatic fibrosis was examined in mice and the underlying mechanisms were investigated. Herein, mice were induced to hepatic fibrosis using carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) and concurrently treated with COS orally. Kupffer cells (KCs) were skewed towards M1 macrophage polarization by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and towards M2 macrophage polarization by interleukin-4 (IL-4) in vitro, which were utilized for COS treatment. The results showed that mice were rescued from hepatic fibrosis by COS, marked by a reduction in the deposition of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and histological lesions. COS had an inhibitory effect on the polarization of M1 and M2 macrophages both in vivo and in vitro, characterized by the raised biomarker of the M1 and M2 macrophages slipping towards the basal levels. Furthermore, COS inhibited the JAK2/STAT1 pathways on M1 macrophages and the JAK1/STAT6 pathways on M2 macrophages in KCs. In summary, this study revealed a molecular mechanism for the impact of COS effectiveness on the polarization of liver macrophages, suggesting that is could be a possible intervention for hepatic fibrosis.

Anethole induces anti-oral cancer activity by triggering apoptosis, autophagy and oxidative stress and by modulation of multiple signaling pathways

Oral cancer is one of the major public health problems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of anethole, 1-methoxy-4-[(E)-1-propenyl]-benzene, on growth and apoptosis of oral tumor cells, and to identify the signaling pathways involved in its interaction with these cancer cells. Cancer gingival cells (Ca9-22) were treated with different concentrations of anethole. Cell proliferation and cytotoxic effects were measured by MTT and LDH assays. Cell death, autophagy and oxidative stress markers were assessed by flow cytometry while cell migration was determined by a healing capacity assay. The effect of anethole on apoptotic and pro-carcinogenic signaling pathways proteins was assessed by immunoblotting. Our results showed that anethole selectively and in a dose-dependent manner decreases the cell proliferation rate, and conversely induces toxicity and apoptosis in oral cancer cells. This killing effect was mediated mainly through NF-κB, MAPKinases, Wnt, caspase 3, 9 and PARP1 pathways. Anethole showed an ability to induce autophagy, decrease reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and increased intracellular glutathione (GSH) activity. Finally, anethole treatment inhibits the expression of oncogenes (cyclin D1) and up-regulated cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (p21^WAF1), increases the expression of p53 gene, but inhibits the epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers. These results indicate that anethole could be a potential molecule for the therapy of oral cancer.

Network pharmacology-based evaluation of natural compounds with paclitaxel for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer

Metastatic breast cancer is a prevalent life-threatening disease. Paclitaxel (PTX) is widely used in metastatic breast cancer therapy, but the side effects limit its chemotherapeutic application. Multidrug strategies have recently been used to maximize potency and decrease the toxicity of a particular drug by reducing its dosage. Therefore, we have evaluated the combined anti-cancerous effect of PTX with tested natural compounds (andrographolide (AND), silibinin (SIL), mimosine (MIM) and trans-anethole (TA)) using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, trypan blue dye exclusion assay, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) staining, network pharmacology, molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) and in vivo chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) angiogenesis assay. We observed a reduction in the IC₅₀ value of PTX with tested natural compounds. Further, the network pharmacology-based analysis of compound-disease-target (C-D-T) network showed that PTX, AND, SIL, MIM and TA targeted 55, 61, 56, 31 and 18 proteins of metastatic breast cancer, respectively. Molecular docking results indicated that AND and SIL inhibited the C-D-T network's core target kinase insert domain receptor (KDR) protein more effectively than others. While MD showed that the binding of AND with KDR was stronger and more stable than others. In trypan blue dye exclusion assay and PCNA staining, AND and SIL along with PTX were found to be more effective than PTX alone. CAM assay results suggested that AND, SIL and TA increase the anti-angiogenic potential of PTX. Thus, natural compounds can be used to improve the anti-cancer potential of PTX.

trans-Anethole Abrogates Cell Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis through the Mitochondrial-Mediated Pathway in Human Osteosarcoma Cells

trans-Anethole, the major bioactive component of Illicium verum Hook. commonly known as star anise exhibits various pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, insecticidal, and antitumor. Osteosarcoma is an extremely aggressive malignant bone tumor that affects children and young adults and accounts for around 60% of all sarcomas. The study was planned to evaluate the potential of trans-Anethole against Human osteosarcoma cell line MG-63. The antiproliferative activity of trans-Anethole was assessed by MTT assay. trans-Anethole exhibited apoptotic cell death as monitored by confocal/electron microscopy and flow cytometry studies. Modulation of gene expression was studied by Western blot and RT-PCR analysis. The present study revealed that trans-Anethole inhibited osteosarcoma proliferation in a dose-dependent manner with a GI₅₀ value of 60.25 µM and showed pro-apoptotic activity as analyzed by Annexin V-FITC/PI assay. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that trans-Anethole induced cell cycle arrest at the G₀/G₁ phase with the generation of reactive oxygen species and reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm). Immunoblotting results showed the increased expression of caspase-9/-3, p53, and decreased expression of Bcl-xL suggesting the involvement of the p53 and mitochondrial intrinsic pathway. This work provides a rationale that trans-Anethole might be considered as a promising chemotherapeutic/nutraceutical agent for the management of osteosarcoma.Highlightstrans-Anethole inhibited cell growth and caused G₀/G₁ arrest in Human osteosarcoma MG-63 cell line.trans-Anethole led to the loss of mitochondrial membrane permeability along with ROS generation.trans-Anethole upregulates the expression of p53, Caspase-9/-3, and downregulate Bcl-xL expression.

Evaluation of the Effect of Foeniculum vulgare on the Expression of E-Cadherin, Dysadherin and Ki-67 in BALB/C Mice with 4T1 Model of Breast Cancer

Introduction: Breast cancer is described as a serious disease and one of the important factors of cancer-related deaths. Considering the drug resistance, special attention has been paid to natural compounds. This study aimed at evaluating the anti-metastatic activity of fennel in a breast cancer mouse model.Methods: A total of 28 adult female BALB/C mice were used in this study. Breast cancer was induced by subcutaneous injection of 4T1 cells in the right lower flank. The mice received fennel extracts daily via intraperitoneal injection for two weeks. Meanwhile, tumor volume was measured every day using calipers. After two weeks, each animal was anesthetized. The expression levels of ki-67 and dysadherin as tumor markers, as well as E-cadherin as a tumor suppressor, were measured in tumor tissue and ovary. Also the expression of her2 was measured in ovary.Results: Tumor size significantly decreased after nine days treatment of the fennel. Fennel treatment caused an increase in the ratio of the expression of E-cadherin to Ki-67 and dysadherin in the tumor tissues. On the other hand, the expression of Ki-67 and HER2 decreased in the ovary.Conclusion: Based on our findings, fennel has anti-tumor and anti-metastatic activities against aggressive cancers.

The concentration-dependent effect of anethole on collagen, MMP-2 and GAG in human skin fibroblast cultures

PURPOSE

In aging skin and some skin disorders, components of skin extracellular matrix (ECM) are disturbed and therefore research to find skin drugs is important. Evaluation of anethole impact on collagen, GAGs and MMP-2 in human skin fibroblasts was the aim of this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For collagen assay the Sircol dye, 5-[³H]proline and real time-PCR were used. MMP-2 activity was detected by zymography. GAG concentration was determined using 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB). Cell viability was assayed with MTT.

RESULTS

In cells treated with 1 and 10 μM anethole, a significant increase in collagen synthesis was demonstrated. In contrast, collagen synthesis was significantly decreased in cells exposed to 100 μM anethole. Similar alterations were found in collagen type I expression. The concentration of collagen secreted into the medium was higher only in cells exposed to 1 μM anethole, while it was lower under the influence of higher compound concentrations. It may be due to the lack of pro-MMP-2 activation at 1 μM and a significant increase in the level of MMP-2 at 10 and 100 μM anethole. GAG concentration was reduced under the influence of 100 μM anethole, whereas anethole at lower concentrations revealed the ability to prevent H₂O₂-induced GAG increase. No significant cytotoxicity of anethole to fibroblasts was noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate the concentration-dependent action of anethole on the crucial components of ECM in cultured skin fibroblasts, which may be somewhat beneficial and may possibly be developed towards a therapeutic use in some skin disorders.

Cordycepin Augments the Chemosensitivity of Human Glioma Cells to Temozolomide by Activating AMPK and Inhibiting the AKT Signaling Pathway

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most commonly encountered subtype of deadly brain cancer in human adults. It has a high recurrence rate and shows aggressive proliferation. The novel cytotoxic agent temozolomide (TMZ) is now frequently applied as the first-line chemotherapeutic treatment for GBM; however, a considerable number of patients treated with TMZ turn out to be refractory to this drug. Hence, a more effective therapeutic approach is urgently required to overcome this critical issue. Accumulating evidence has shown that both AMPK and AKT are activated by TMZ, while only AMPK contributes to apoptosis via mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition. Accordingly, AKT increases the tumorigenicity and chemoresistance of various tumor cells. In addition, AKT overexpression increases the resistance of glioma cells to TMZ. Cordycepin, a major bioactive component in Cordyceps militaris, exhibits immunomodulatory, anticancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, among other therapeutic effects. To date, whether GBM sensitivity to TMZ can be enhanced by cordycepin largely remains unknown. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of the combined use of cordycepin and TMZ in the treatment of GBM and explored the molecular mechanisms. Notably, we found that treatment with cordycepin led to inhibition of cellular proliferation, migration, and invasion as well as cellular apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in glioma cell lines in vitro. Likewise, the combined treatment with both cordycepin and TMZ synergistically resulted in inhibition of cellular growth, migration, and tumor metastasis as well as induction of cellular apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Moreover, we also demonstrated that cordycepin effectively enhanced the activation of AMPK and suppressed the activity of AKT, whose activation was only induced by TMZ. Furthermore, there was an apparent reduction in the expression levels of p-mTOR, p-p70S6K, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and MMP-9 in the group treated with both cordycepin and TMZ, in comparison with those in the groups treated with either cordycepin or TMZ alone. In vivo, the combination therapy also obviously reduced the tumor volume as well as prolonged the median survival time of xenograft models. In brief, our results suggested that cordycepin augments TMZ sensitivity in human glioma cells at least partially through activation of AMPK and suppression of the AKT signaling pathway. Overall, the combination therapy of cordycepin and TMZ potentially provides a novel option for a better prognosis of patients with GBM in clinical practice.

A Dual-Functional Catalyst for Cascade Meerwein-Pondorf-Verley Reduction and Dehydration of 4'-Methoxypropiophenone to Anethole

Anethole is an ingredient in many flavours, fragrances and pharmaceutical formulations. To reduce the dependence of its supply on natural oils, a green route for anethole synthesis was designed on the basis of Meerwein-Pondorf-Verley (MPV) reduction and dehydration of 4'-methoxypropiophenone. The one-pot cascade reactions were heterogeneously catalysed by dual-functional Zr-MSU-3, a predominantly Lewis-acidic catalyst with a Si/Zr ratio of 10 and pores with sizes in the range of 3.2-4.2 nm. The use of 2-pentanol as solvent and hydrogen donor for the MPV reduction was advantageous, as its high boiling point enhances the rate of the reactions, especially the dehydration of the MPV product, 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-propan-1-ol. This dispenses with the need for a strong acid catalyst that could result in by-products of acid-catalysed reactions. Anethole yields of 91 % with a trans/cis isomer ratio of about 92:8, similar to that of natural anethole, were obtained. In comparison, microporous Zr-beta (Si/Zr 12.5) gave lower activity owing to pore-size constraints. Hence, through design of the reactions and catalyst, 4'-methoxypropiophenone can be efficiently converted to anethole in a sustainable and green manner.

Fabrication of PCL/PVP Electrospun Fibers loaded with Trans-anethole for Bone Regeneration in vitro

Trans-anethole (TA) is a phenolic phytocompound widely used in the food and health sector because of its diverse biological properties. However, its role in the promotion of bone formation is not known. With the enhanced bioavailability of TA, we aimed to determine its effect on osteogenesis; TA at different concentrations (5, 10, and 20 μM) was loaded onto polycaprolactone (PCL)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) fibers by the electrospinning technique. The synthesized PCL/PVP + TA fibers were subjected to physiochemical and material characterization. The addition of TA did not have any effect on fiber thickness, swelling, protein adsorption, degradation, or biomineralization. The fibers were compatible with mouse mesenchymal stem cells (mMSCs). A sustained release of TA from the fibers promoted osteoblast differentiation at the cellular and molecular levels. Furthermore, the release of TA from fibers up-regulated the expression of Runx2, a bone transcription factor, and its co-activators, which are key molecules for osteoblast differentiation. Thus, these results provide insights into the bioavailability of TA in promoting in vitro osteoblast differentiation and the potential applications of TA in bone regeneration.

Chloroform fraction of Foeniculum vulgare induced ROS mediated, mitochondria-caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway in MCF-7, human breast cancer cell line

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Fennel) is one of the most common herbs used in alternative medicines for its varied range of bioactivity. In Ecuador (South America), use of fennel in traditional cancer treatment is on record.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of the present study was to demonstrate the anti-proliferative and apoptotic effect of chloroform fraction of fennel (CFF) in MCF-7 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-proliferative assay (MTT assay) and colony formation assay were performed to study the growth inhibitory effect of CFF. Various morphological changes of apoptosis were observed using Giemsa, Hoechst and Acridine orange/ ethidium bromide stains in MCF-7 cells. The extent of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest was measured by flow cytometer. Levels of ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential was measured by DCFH-DA and JC-1 respectively. Caspases activity was measured by luminescence and DNA fragmentation by comet assay.

RESULTS

CFF appeared as a good inhibitor of growth against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-237 in time- and concentration-dependent manners. All the morphological changes of apoptosis were evident in treatment groups. Annexin V/PI-assay of apoptosis gave around 49% of apoptotic cells upon treatment of 0.5 mg/ml of CFF and PI-stained cells showed the G1 phase cell cycle arrest. Elevated levels of ROS, disrupted mitochondrial membrane, increased levels of caspase-9 & caspase-3 and DNA fragmentation were noted in treated MCF-7 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our findings revealed the proliferation inhibition, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction effect of CFF, which may help in exploring the novel anti-cancer drug for therapeutic implications.

Insufficient Radiofrequency Ablation Treated Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells Promote Metastasis by Up-Regulation ITGB3

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is one of the standards of care for early stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, rapid progression of residual tumor after RFA has been confirmed. The aim of this study was to investigate the underlying mechanism of this phenomenon. Human HCC cell lines HCCLM3 and HepG2 were employed to establish insufficient RFA models in vivo and in vitro, respectively. The effects of insufficient RFA on metastatic potential of residual tumors were evaluated. The molecular changes after insufficient RFA were evaluated by PCR array, western blot, immunofluorescence, and immunohistochemistry. Results showed that insufficient RFA significantly promoted lung and intrahepatic residual tumor cells in vivo, and heat intervention promoted migration and invasion of hepatoma cells in vitro. PCR array revealed that the expression of integrin β3 (ITGB3) and MMP2 were up-regulated in the residual tumors of HCCLM3 xenograft model. The up-regulation of ITGB3 was confirmed by qRT-PCR, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Knockdown ITGB3 expression in HCCLM3 cells by shRNA significantly lowered the pro-metastatic effects of insufficient RFA. Mechanism studies indicated that ITGB3 mediated the expression of MMP2 by activing FAK/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. The up-regulation of ITGB3 contributed to enhanced metastatic potential of residual cancer in HCCLM3 model after insufficient RFA. Targeting ITGB3 expression may further improve the clinical effects of RFA.

Dual blocking of PI3K and mTOR signaling by NVP-BEZ235 inhibits proliferation in cervical carcinoma cells and enhances therapeutic response

NVP-BEZ235 is a novel dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor that shows dramatic effects on many tumors, but its effects on cervical carcinoma cells are largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effects of NVP-BEZ235 on the proliferation and invasion of cervical carcinoma cells in vitro and clarified its mechanism of action. In cellular settings with human cervical carcinoma cell lines, this molecule effectively and specifically blocked dysfunctional PI3K/mTOR pathway activation, suppressed cell growth in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, led to G1 cell cycle arrest, and induced apoptosis. NVP-BEZ235 suppressed HeLa cell invasiveness and metastasis by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/MMP-2 pathway. We further demonstrated that NVP-BEZ235 treatment in combination with cisplatin or carboplatin induced a synergistic anti-tumoral response in cervical carcinoma cells. These findings suggested that NVP-BEZ235 could regulate growth and invasion of cervical carcinoma cells; thus it may provide a potential therapy for cervical carcinoma.

Interleukin-21 induces migration and invasion of fibroblast-like synoviocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by synovial fibroblast hyperplasia and bone erosion. Fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) play a pivotal role in RA pathogenesis through aggressive migration and matrix invasion, and certain proinflammatory cytokines may affect synoviocyte invasion. Whether interleukin (IL)-21 influences this process remains controversial. Here, we evaluated the potential regulatory effect of IL-21 on the migration, invasion and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression in RA-FLS. We found that IL-21 promoted the migration, invasion and MMP (MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9, MMP-13) production in RA-FLS. Moreover, IL-21 induced activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3) and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) pathways, and blockage of these pathways [PI3K/protein kinase B (AKT) inhibitor LY294002, STAT-3 inhibitor STA-21 and ERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059] attenuated IL-21-induced migration and secretion of MMP-3 and MMP-9. In conclusion, our results suggest that IL-21 promotes migration and invasion of RA-FLS. Therefore, therapeutic strategies targeting IL-21 might be effective for the treatment of RA.

Baicalein inhibits the migration and invasion of colorectal cancer cells via suppression of the AKT signaling pathway

The anticancer effect of baicalein has been known for a number of years. However, its anti-metastatic effect and associated mechanisms in colorectal cancer (CRC) remain unclear. The present study investigated the hypothesis that treatment with baicalein may inhibit the proliferation, motility and invasion of human CRC cell lines via regulation of the protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway. Baicalein was demonstrated to significantly inhibit the migration and invasion of CRC cells (P=0.01). Additionally, after treatment with baicalein for 24 h, the protein expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 in CRC cells were significantly reduced in a dose-dependent manner (P=0.01). Furthermore, treatment with baicalein significantly reduced the expression levels of phosphorylated AKT (P=0.01). In conclusion, baicalein appears to inhibit CRC cell migration and invasion by reducing the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 via suppression of the AKT signaling pathway. Thus, baicalein is a potential novel therapeutic agent for patients with CRC.

Novel cancer chemotherapy hits by molecular topology: dual Akt and Beta-catenin inhibitors

Background and Purpose

Colorectal and prostate cancers are two of the most common types and cause of a high rate of deaths worldwide. Therefore, any strategy to stop or at least slacken the development and progression of malignant cells is an important therapeutic choice. The aim of the present work is the identification of novel cancer chemotherapy agents. Nowadays, many different drug discovery approaches are available, but this paper focuses on Molecular Topology, which has already demonstrated its extraordinary efficacy in this field, particularly in the identification of new hit and lead compounds against cancer. This methodology uses the graph theoretical formalism to numerically characterize molecular structures through the so called topological indices. Once obtained a specific framework, it allows the construction of complex mathematical models that can be used to predict physical, chemical or biological properties of compounds. In addition, Molecular Topology is highly efficient in selecting and designing new hit and lead drugs. According to the aforementioned, Molecular Topology has been applied here for the construction of specific Akt/mTOR and β-catenin inhibition mathematical models in order to identify and select novel antitumor agents.

Experimental Approach

Based on the results obtained by the selected mathematical models, six novel potential inhibitors of the Akt/mTOR and β-catenin pathways were identified. These compounds were then tested in vitro to confirm their biological activity.

Conclusion and Implications

Five of the selected compounds, CAS n° 256378-54-8 (Inhibitor n°1), 663203-38-1 (Inhibitor n°2), 247079-73-8 (Inhibitor n°3), 689769-86-6 (Inhibitor n°4) and 431925-096 (Inhibitor n°6) gave positive responses and resulted to be active for Akt/mTOR and/or β-catenin inhibition. This study confirms once again the Molecular Topology’s reliability and efficacy to find out novel drugs in the field of cancer.

Anti-cancer activity of pegylated liposomal trans-anethole on breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and T47D

OBJECTIVE

To examine the role of liposomes for the encapsulation of drugs and their suitability for chemotherapy of breast cancer.

RESULTS

Pegylated liposomal trans-anethole nanoparticles were synthesized through a reverse-phase evaporation technique. Nanoparticles were characterized in terms of mean diameter, size distribution, zeta potential, encapsulation and drug loading efficiency, drug release pattern and cytotoxicity effects. Size and zeta potential of pegylated nanoliposomal drug and blank pegylated nanoliposomal were 257 nm and -28 mV; 35.7 nm and -21 mV, respectively. Encapsulation and drug loading efficiency were 78 ± 2.5 and 2.3 ± 4.1 %, respectively. There was a 57 % release of trans-anethole from pegylated liposomal nanoparticles in 48 h. Compared to free drug, toxicological studies indicated around 9- and 8-fold cytotoxicity effect against MCF-7 and T47D cell lines respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

PEG-liposomes provided a high stability and slow release of trans-anethole in two cancer cell lines.

Antitumor phenylpropanoids found in essential oils

The search for new bioactive substances with anticancer activity and the understanding of their mechanisms of action are high-priorities in the research effort toward more effective treatments for cancer. The phenylpropanoids are natural products found in many aromatic and medicinal plants, food, and essential oils. They exhibit various pharmacological activities and have applications in the pharmaceutical industry. In this review, the anticancer potential of 17 phenylpropanoids and derivatives from essential oils is discussed. Chemical structures, experimental report, and mechanisms of action of bioactive substances are presented.

Antitumor potential of anethole singly and in combination with cyclophosphamide in murine Sarcoma-180 transplantable tumor model

Coupling anethole with cyclophosphamide reduces side effect of the latter and enhances apoptosis–necrosis ratio in murine s-180 tumor model.

Effects of anethole in nociception experimental models

This study investigated the antinociceptive activity of anethole (anethole 1-methoxy-4-benzene (1-propenyl)), major compound of the essential oil of star anise (Illicium verum), in different experimental models of nociception. The animals were pretreated with anethole (62.5, 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) one hour before the experiments. To eliminate a possible sedative effect of anethole, the open field test was conducted. Anethole (62.5, 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) showed an antinociceptive effect in the writhing model induced by acetic acid, in the second phase of the formalin test (125 and 250 mg/kg) in the test of glutamate (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg), and expresses pain induced by ACF (250 mg/kg). In contrast, anethole was not able to increase the latency time on the hot plate and decrease the number of flinches during the initial phase of the formalin test in any of the doses tested. It was also demonstrated that anethole has no association with sedative effects. Therefore, these data showed that anethole, at all used doses, has no sedative effect and has an antinociceptive effect. This effect may be due to a decrease in the production/release of inflammatory mediators.

Anisi stellati fructus extract attenuates the in vitro and in vivo metastatic and angiogenic potential of malignant cancer cells by downregulating proteolytic activity and pro-angiogenic factors

Anisi stellati fructus (ASF), commonly known as star anise, has long been used as a traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammation, nervousness, insomnia and pain. In recent studies, it has been demonstrated that ASF possesses anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and anti-oxidant activities, as well as exhibits inhibitory effects on capillary‑like tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). However, the effects of ASF extract on the metastatic potential of malignant tumor cells have not been examined. In this study, we found that daily oral administration of ASF (50 mg/kg) remarkably reduced the number of pulmonary metastatic colonies of B16F10 cells in C57BL/6J mice with no observed systemic toxicity. In an in vitro system, ASF inhibited metastatic properties, including anchorage‑independent colony formation, migration and invasion. Upon phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulation, the mRNA levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) -9, -13, -14 and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) decreased in a dose-dependent manner with ASF treatment. Gelatinase, type I collagenase, and uPA activities were also suppressed efficiently by ASF treatment. In response to PMA, NF-κB and AP-1 activation as well as p38 phosphorylation, which are crucial for MMP activation, were significantly decreased by ASF. In particular, ASF considerably inhibited tumor-induced HUVEC migration and tube formation and suppressed in vivo tumor-induced angiogenesis via a reduction of pro-angiogenic factors in tumors. These results collectively indicate that ASF might be useful in the management of metastatic malignant tumors.

Anethole prevents hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis and collagen metabolism alterations in human skin fibroblasts

The collagen metabolism alterations triggered by reactive oxygen species are involved in the development of various connective tissue diseases and skin aging. This study was designed to examine whether (E)-anethole possesses a protective effect on H₂O₂-induced alterations in collagen metabolism as well as whether it can prevent apoptosis in human skin fibroblasts. In cells treated with 300 µM H₂O₂, a decrease in collagen biosynthesis of 54 % was observed. Pretreatment of cells with 0.5 µM anethole for 1 h completely prevented this alteration. Changes at the protein level positively correlated with alterations of type I collagen mRNA expression. We have shown that H₂O₂ caused increase in the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 as well as that an increase in MMP-2 activity can contribute to the 8 % decrease in the amount of collagen secreted into the medium. The most efficient suppression of these changes was observed in the presence of 0.5 µM of anethole. At 10 µM, in addition to suppression, an inhibitory effect of anethole on MMP-9 activity was documented. Additionally, the 60 % H₂O₂-induced decrease in cell viability was suppressed by 1 µM of anethole and a 4-fold increase in cell apoptosis was suppressed by 0.5 µM of anethole. Our results suggest that anethole, which is a small lipophilic and non-toxic molecule with the ability to prevent H₂O₂-induced collagen metabolism alterations and apoptosis in human skin fibroblasts, would prove useful in the development of effective agents in pharmacotherapy of oxidative stress-related skin diseases.

Knockdown of sphingosine kinase 1 inhibits the migration and invasion of human rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes by down-regulating the PI3K/AKT activation and MMP-2/9 production in vitro

To investigate the potential regulation of sphingosine kinase 1 (SPHK1) on the migration, invasion, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression in human rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLS). RA-FLS were transfected control siRNA or SPHK1 siRNA. The migration and invasion of unmanipulated control, control siRNA or SPHK1 siRNA- transfected RA-FLS in vitro were measured by the transwell system. The relative levels of SPHK1, PI3K, and AKT as well as AKT phosphorylation in RA-FLS were determined by Western blot. The levels of MMP-2/9 secreted by RA-FLS were detected by ELISA. Knockdown of SPHK1 significantly inhibited the spontaneous migration and invasion of RA-FLS, accompanied by significantly reduced levels of PI3K expression and AKT phosphorylation. Similarly, treatment with LY294002, an inhibitor of the PI3K/AKT pathway, inhibited the migration and invasion of RA-FLS. Knockdown of SPHK1 and treatment with the inhibitor synergistically inhibited the migration and invasion of RA-FLS, by further reducing the levels of PI3K expression and AKT phosphorylation. In addition, knockdown of SPHK1 or treatment with LY294002 inhibited the secretion of MMP-2 and MMP-9, and both synergistically reduced the production of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in RA-FLS in vitro. Knockdown of SPHK1 expression inhibits the PI3K/AKT activation, MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression, and human RA-FLS migration and invasion in vitro. Potentially, SPHK1 may be a novel therapeutic target for RA.

CXCR4 and PTEN are involved in the anti-metastatic regulation of anethole in DU145 prostate cancer cells

Anethole has been known to have chemopreventive activities as a suppressor of the incidence and multiplicity of both invasive and noninvasive carcinomas. The goal of this study was to understand the anti-metastatic effect of anethole through C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4)/tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) axis in DU145 prostate cancer cells. Anethole reduced both of the RNA level and the protein level of CXCR4 in a dose-dependent manner without cytotoxicity. Anethole also reduced the expression of CXCR4 and prolonged the expression of PTEN in DU145 prostate cancers. The phosphorylation of AKT and phosphatidylinositol-3kinase (PI3K) were decreased with anethole. The inhibition metastatic effect of anethole was arisen from down-regulating CXCR4 and up-regulating PTEN. Morphologically, anethole significantly inhibited the invasion of DU145 cell and down-regulated the activities of matrix-metalloproteinase (MMPs) in a dose-dependent manner. However, anethole didnot decrease the phosphorylation of PI3K and AKT while PTEN was silenced. Furthermore, the CXCR4 inhibition of anethole was not caused to proteasomal or lysosomal of CXCR4. Taken together, anethole demonstrated to act as the CXCR4 antagonist and as the PTEN activator which resulted to PI3K/AKT-mediated inhibition of the metastatic prostate cancer progressions.

Regulation of crosstalk between epithelial to mesenchymal transition molecules and MMP-9 mediates the antimetastatic activity of anethole in DU145 prostate cancer cells

The underlying antimetastatic mechanism of anethole (1) still remains unclear in association with the molecules of the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). Herein, the role of the EMT molecules was elucidated in terms of the antimetastatic activity of 1 using DU145 cells. Anethole significantly inhibited the adhesion of DU145 cells to vitronectin-coated plates, as well as migration in a wound-healing assay and invasion using a Boyden chamber. Also, anethole suppressed the expression of MMP-9 in DU145 cells by zymography, ELISA, and RT-PCR. Consistently, the silencing of MMP-9 enhanced the activity of 1 to upregulate the expression of E-cadherin and to attenuate the expression of Vimentin in DU145 cells. Compound 1 enhanced E-cadherin, which is an epithelial marker and attenuated the expression of Vimentin, Twist, and Snail as mesenchymal molecules at the mRNA level. Consistently, anethole upregulated E-cadherin and downregulated the expression of Vimentin, Twist and PI3K, and AKT at the protein level in DU145 cells. Conversely, the antimetastatic effects of 1 to inhibit invasion and the expression of MMP-9 and upregulate E-cadherin were reversed by the EMT inducer TGF-β in DU145 cells. Overall, the present findings suggest that anethole exerts antimetastatic activity via regulation of crosstalk between EMT molecules and MMP-9 on the basis of the in vitro data obtained.

Anethole induces apoptotic cell death accompanied by reactive oxygen species production and DNA fragmentation in Aspergillus fumigatus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

trans-Anethole (anethole), a major component of anise oil, has a broad antimicrobial spectrum, and antimicrobial activity that is weaker than that of other antibiotics on the market. When combined with polygodial, nagilactone E, and n-dodecanol, anethole has been shown to possess significant synergistic antifungal activity against a budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and a human opportunistic pathogenic yeast, Candida albicans. However, the antifungal mechanism of anethole has not been completely determined. We found that anethole stimulated cell death of a human opportunistic pathogenic fungus, Aspergillus fumigatus, in addition to S. cerevisiae. The anethole-induced cell death was accompanied by reactive oxygen species production, metacaspase activation, and DNA fragmentation. Several mutants of S. cerevisiae, in which genes related to the apoptosis-initiating execution signals from mitochondria were deleted, were resistant to anethole. These results suggest that anethole-induced cell death could be explained by oxidative stress-dependent apoptosis via typical mitochondrial death cascades in fungi, including A. fumigatus and S. cerevisiae.

Matrix metalloproteinase enzymes and their naturally derived inhibitors: novel targets in photocarcinoma therapy

The continuous exposure of skin to ultraviolet radiations generates reactive oxygen species leading to photoaging in which degradation of dermal collagen and degeneration of elastic fibers occurs. Matrix metalloproteinase [MMP] enzymes are the proteolytic enzymes which have significant potentiality of cleaving extracellular matrix [ECM] against Ultraviolet [UV] radiation. The important MMPs are MMP1, MMP2 and MMP7 which promote skin cancer when irradiated by UV rays. In lieu of this, the investigation of MMPs and their inhibitors are constantly being studied for successive results. Recent researches have focused on some traditionally used bioactive moieties as natural matrix metalloproteinases inhibitors (MMPIs) and emphasized on the need of more extensive and specific studies on MMPIs, so that a good combination of natural or synthetic MMPIs with the conventional drugs can be evolved for cancer chemotherapy. In this review, we discuss the current view on the feasibility of MMPs as targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer. This review also summarizes the role of small molecular weight natural MMPIs and a clinical update of those natural MMPIs that are under clinical trial stage.

Diet, nutrients, phytochemicals, and cancer metastasis suppressor genes

The major factor in the morbidity and mortality of cancer patients is metastasis. There exists a relative lack of specific therapeutic approaches to control metastasis, and this is a fruitful area for investigation. A healthy diet and lifestyle not only can inhibit tumorigenesis but also can have a major impact on cancer progression and survival. Many chemicals found in edible plants are known to inhibit metastatic progression of cancer. While the mechanisms underlying antimetastatic activity of some phytochemicals are being delineated, the impact of diet, dietary components, and various phytochemicals on metastasis suppressor genes is underexplored. Epigenetic regulation of metastasis suppressor genes promises to be a potentially important mechanism by which dietary components can impact cancer metastasis since many dietary constituents are known to modulate gene expression. The review addresses this area of research as well as the current state of knowledge regarding the impact of diet, dietary components, and phytochemicals on metastasis suppressor genes.