1
|
Proportions of Early Specializers Varies According to Methods and Skill Level. Sports (Basel) 2022; 10:sports10030034. [PMID: 35324644 PMCID: PMC8954525 DOI: 10.3390/sports10030034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sport researchers have warned about the lack of a clear and consistent definition of early specialization, while others have raised concerns around the validity of methods used to classify athletes as ‘specializers’. The current investigation includes two studies examining the implications of varying classification methods for exploring both specialization and early specialization in sport. Study 1 examined whether different approaches to defining and measuring specialization affected the classification of athletes throughout development and provided a ‘profile’ of the sample in terms of developmental milestones related to specialization. Results indicated the proportion of athletes classified as specializers varied depending on the method used and athletes generally met specialization milestones after the age of 12. Study 2 examined the proportions of athletes who achieved ‘elite’, ‘pre-elite’, and ‘non-elite’ status in adulthood who were early specializers as determined by different methods. Results showed the method used changed the proportion of athletes classified as specializers at each level and there was no clear advantage or disadvantage to being a specializer. Combined, these studies provide intriguing data regarding the implications of different measures for assessing specialization in young athletes.
Collapse
|
2
|
Biese KM, Winans M, Hernandez MI, Schaefer DA, Post EG, Sanfilippo JL, Bell DR. Comparing High School Sport Specialization Trends Between Division I and Club Collegiate Athletes. Sports Health 2021; 14:849-858. [PMID: 34913390 DOI: 10.1177/19417381211060293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescent athletes report that sports specialization improves their ability to receive a collegiate athletics scholarship, though this is not well-understood. The purpose of this study was to examine self-reported trends in high school specialization and influences for sport participation between Division I (D-I) and college-aged club (club) athletes. HYPOTHESIS There would be no difference in high school sport specialization or sport participation influences between D-I and club athletes. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective cross-sectional study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3. METHODS A survey included specialization classification (low, moderate, and high) for 9th to 12th grade, age that the athlete started organized sport and his or her collegiate sport, and several influential factors for participation in one's primary high school sport (1 = no influence to 5 = extremely influential). Chi-square analyses were used to compare specialization classifications between groups. Nonparametric tests were used to determine significant differences in age-related variables and influential factors between D-I and club athletes. All analysis were also conducted with boys and girls separately. RESULTS Participants included 266 D-I (girls, 155; 58%) and 180 club (girls, 122; 68%) athletes. Club athletes were more likely to be classified as low specialization at every grade in high school, and this difference was more pronounced between D-I and club female athletes than male athletes. The number of years an athlete was classified as highly specialized in high school was not different between D-I and club athletes. Club athletes were more influenced by playing with friends than D-I athletes and D-I athletes were more influenced by pursuing a collegiate scholarship than club athletes. CONCLUSION High levels of specialization in high school sport may not be necessary for playing at the collegiate level, though some level of specialization in high school might be necessary. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Clinicians should advocate for healthy long-term athlete development, which does not support high specialization in high school sports.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Biese
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Madeline Winans
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Mayrena I Hernandez
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Daniel A Schaefer
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Eric G Post
- Department of Applied Medicine and Rehabilitation, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
| | | | - David R Bell
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kearney PE, Comyns TM, Hayes P. The Prevalence and Consequences of Within-Sport Specialization in Track and Field Athletics. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2021; 92:779-786. [PMID: 32853103 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2020.1776819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: The aim of this study was to provide an in-depth analysis of the prevalence and consequences of within-sport specialization in track and field in the United Kingdom. Method: The competition histories of top 100 ranked athletes from four representative events (100 m, 800 m, long jump, and shot put) were recorded from a publically-accessible database. Athletes were drawn from Under 20 (U20), U15, and U13 populations from the 2014/15 season, U15 populations from the 2009/10 season, and U13 populations from the 2007/08 season. Athletes' specialization status was defined based upon the number of event groups (sprint, endurance, jump, throw) in which they had recorded at least one performance. Chi-squared tests were used to examine the association between level of specialization at U13 and U15 and both performance and retention at subsequent age grades. Results: Within-sport specialization was rare among U13 and U15 track and field athletes, with approximately 10% of top 100 ranked U13s and 25% of top 100 ranked U15s competing in a single event group only. However, less than 35% of participants competed in sprinting, endurance running, jumping, and throwing events (i.e., diversification). There were no sex differences in the extent of specialization. Top ranked U20 female athletes were more likely to have diversified at U13 than their peers. There was no association between specialization at U13/U15 and subsequent retention. Conclusion: Administrators and coach educators should provide more sophisticated guidance for coaches and parents in relation to within-sport specialization.
Collapse
|
4
|
Sugimoto D, Lambrinakos-Raymond K, Kobelski GP, Geminiani ET, Stracciolini A, Meehan WP. Sport specialization of female figure skaters: cumulative effects on low back injuries. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2021; 49:463-468. [PMID: 33337938 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2020.1855483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Objective: 1) to determine the proportion of sport specialization among female figure skaters, 2) to compare proportion of low back injuries between specialized female figure skaters and non-specialized female figure skaters, and 3) to identify an independent risk factor(s) for low back injuries in female figure skaters.Methods: A cross-sectional questionnaire study was used. Young female figure skaters were asked questions related to sport specialization and any history of low back injuries. The primary outcome variables were status of sport specialization, weekly training hours, and low back injury. Descriptive statistics, t-test, chi-square analyses, and binary logistic regressions were used.Results: Responses from 132 female figure skaters (mean age: 16.3 ± 2.7 years, age range: 8-22 years) were analyzed. Sixty-two percent (82/132) of figure skaters were specialized. Specialized female figure skaters spent more time in training (11.3 ± 6.5 hours/week) than non-specialized skaters (7.6 ± 4.9 hours/week, p = 0.001). No statistical differences were found in proportion of low back injury history between specialized (25.6%) and non-specialized female figure skaters (24.0%, p = 0.836). Chronological age was also identified as an independent risk factor for low back injuries in female figure skaters (aOR: 1.24, 95%CI: 1.00, 1.54, p = 0.048).Conclusions: The majority of female figure skaters in this cohort were specialized. An association between chronological age and low back injuries, found in the current study, may be a result of cumulative effects of participating in figure skating over time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dai Sugimoto
- School of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan.,The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention, Waltham, MA, USA
| | | | - Greggory P Kobelski
- The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention, Waltham, MA, USA.,Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ellen T Geminiani
- The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention, Waltham, MA, USA.,Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Andrea Stracciolini
- The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention, Waltham, MA, USA.,Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - William P Meehan
- The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention, Waltham, MA, USA.,Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Coelho EMRTDC, Costa FRD, Leite NMC, Santos SDLD. Developmental pathway routes to achieve expert performance in portuguese track and field athletes. MOTRIZ: REVISTA DE EDUCACAO FISICA 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/s1980-65742021003020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
|
6
|
Mosher A, Fraser-Thomas J, Baker J. What Defines Early Specialization: A Systematic Review of Literature. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:596229. [PMID: 33345176 PMCID: PMC7739675 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.596229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: While practitioners and organizations advise against early specialization, the lack of a consistent and clear definition of early specialization reduces the impact of recommendations and policies in youth sport. An important first step in understanding the consequences of early specialization is establishing what early specialization is. Objectives: This PRISMA-guided systematic review aimed to determine the types, characteristics, and general content of early specialization papers within the literature, and examine how early specialization has been defined and measured in order to advance knowledge toward a clear and consistent definition of early specialization. Data sources: Four different electronic databases were searched (SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Sports Medicine and Education Index, and Scopus). Both non data-driven and data-driven studies were included to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the literature. Eligibility Criteria: In order to be included in the review, the paper must: (a) Focus on specialization and explicitly use the term "specialization" (b) Focus on sport and athletes (c) Be papers from a peer-reviewed (d) Be in English. And finally, (e) be available in full text. Results: One thousand three hundred and seventy one articles were screened resulting in 129 articles included in the review after applying inclusion/exclusion criteria. Results indicated a clear discrepancy between key components of early specialization and the approaches used to classify early specializers. Conclusion: Future research should work toward developing a valid and reliable approach to classifying early specializers and establishing a consistent definition across studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Mosher
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lima AB, Nascimento JV, Leonardi TJ, Soares AL, Paes RR, Gonçalves CE, Carvalho HM. Deliberate Practice, Functional Performance and Psychological Characteristics in Young Basketball Players: A Bayesian Multilevel Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E4078. [PMID: 32521647 PMCID: PMC7312187 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17114078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early sport specialization has increased its popularity mostly based on the deliberate practice theory premises. In this study, we examined the influence of the age of onset of deliberate basketball practice on body size, functional performance (countermovement jump, line drill and yo-yo intermittent recovery level 1), motivation for achievement and competitiveness, motivation for deliberate practice and sources of enjoyment among young Brazilian basketball players. In addition, we adjusted for the influence of gender, age group, maturity status and state basketball federation on the outcomes. METHODS The sample included 120 female and 201 male adolescent basketball players aged 14.0 (1.7) years, on average. We grouped players by the age of onset of deliberate basketball practice as related to biologic maturation milestones (pre-puberty deliberate practice onset, mid-puberty deliberate practice onset and late-puberty deliberate practice onset). RESULTS There was no substantial variation among contrasting players by the onset of deliberate practice in all of the outcomes. Adjusting for gender, male players with late-puberty deliberate practice onset had better functional performance than players with pre- and mid-puberty onset of practice. Females players with late-puberty deliberate practice onset had slightly worst functional performance than players with pre- and mid-puberty onset of practice. CONCLUSIONS Early deliberate basketball practice does not appear to provide an advantage for the development of physiological functions. Likewise, enjoyment, motivation for deliberate practice and motivation for achievement and competition do not appear to be negatively influenced by early deliberate basketball practice. The debate about the relationship between time spent in deliberate practice and performance development in young athletes will need to emphasize the coaching pedagogical quality and the training environment and account for informal practice and deliberate play.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahlan B. Lima
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina SC 88040-900, Brazil; (A.B.L.); (J.V.N.); (A.L.S.)
| | - Juarez V. Nascimento
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina SC 88040-900, Brazil; (A.B.L.); (J.V.N.); (A.L.S.)
| | - Thiago J. Leonardi
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul 90690-200, Brazil;
| | - André L. Soares
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina SC 88040-900, Brazil; (A.B.L.); (J.V.N.); (A.L.S.)
| | - Roberto R. Paes
- Faculty Physical Education, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-851, Brazil;
| | - Carlos E. Gonçalves
- Faculty Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Coimbra, 3040-156 Coimbra, Portugal;
| | - Humberto M. Carvalho
- Department of Physical Education, School of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina SC 88040-900, Brazil; (A.B.L.); (J.V.N.); (A.L.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Recent estimates are that close to 30 million children between the ages of 6 and 18 years participate in team sport and close to 60 million in some type of organized athletics in the United States. This has resulted in an increase in sport-related injuries, but the reasons for this are complex and multifactorial. Sport participation offers multiple benefits for children and adolescents, but there is concern that early sport specialization (ESS) may lead to adverse health and social effects. ESS has been defined as intensive training or competition in organized sport by prepubescent children (<12 years of age) for more than 8 months per year, with focus on a single sport to the exclusion of other sport and free play. An increased prevalence of ESS has been attributed to multiple variables, including coach/caregiver influence and the perception that developing athletes can attain mastery and gain a competitive advantage. Trends vary across individual and team sport and by sex. It has been proposed in the literature and lay press that a lack of diversified activity in youth leads to overuse injury, psychological fatigue, and burnout. ESS may not be necessary for elite athletic achievement, and the contrary has been proposed that early sport diversification leads to superior results. This review will summarize the current understanding of ESS, report evidence for and against its merits, highlight areas of future research, and provide recommendations for orthopaedic providers involved in the care of young athletes.
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sports specialization is becoming an increasingly common training strategy in young athletes. Very little research currently exists examining the occurrence of serious injury (>3 months off sport or loss of season) in elite-level wrestlers who specialize early (before age 12 years). HYPOTHESIS Wrestlers who specialize early will sustain more serious injuries than wrestlers who specialize at age 12 years or older. STUDY DESIGN Descriptive epidemiological study. METHODS We sent an anonymous online survey to a total of 312 elite-level wrestlers (National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletes and World/Olympic team members) containing questions documenting age of specialization and number of serious injuries sustained. The number of serious injuries both before and after starting college were compared between wrestlers specializing at <12 years old and ≥12 years old using an independent-samples t test. Respondents' opinions on the necessity of early specialization and their primary source of encouragement to specialize were also reported. RESULTS A total of 143 wrestlers completed the survey, for a total response rate of 46%. Thirty-six (25%) wrestlers specialized at <12 years old. The early specialization group sustained significantly more serious injuries than the late specialization group (1.14 vs 0.60; P = 0.035). Sixty-two (43%) believed early specialization was necessary to achieve elite-level status. The decision to specialize was encouraged primarily by the athlete (78/143; 55%), parents (37/143; 26%), and coaches (22/143; 15%). CONCLUSION Elite wrestlers who specialize prior to age 12 years sustain a greater number of serious injuries before starting college than those who specialize at or after the age of 12 years. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Athletes, coaches, and parents should consider the risk of injury before adopting a wrestling-specialized training strategy at a young age.
Collapse
|
10
|
Bell DR, Post EG, Biese K, Bay C, Valovich McLeod T. Sport Specialization and Risk of Overuse Injuries: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2018; 142:peds.2018-0657. [PMID: 30135085 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2018-0657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Sport specialization is theorized to increase the risk of sustaining overuse musculoskeletal injuries. OBJECTIVE To complete a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature to determine if sport specialization is associated with overuse musculoskeletal injuries. DATA SOURCES An electronic search was conducted using the search terms "specialization," "year-round," "overuse," "repetitive stress," "injury," "young," "pediatric," and "sports." STUDY SELECTION Studies were included if their population was ≤18 years of age, if they compared athletes with high or single-sport specialization with athletes with low or multisport specialization, and focused on overuse injuries. DATA EXTRACTION Of the 12 articles that were identified for full-text review, 5 studies met all the inclusion criteria. Four studies provided adequate data for the meta-analysis. Quality scores on the modified Downs and Black scale ranged from 69% to 81%. RESULTS Athletes with high specialization were at an increased risk of sustaining an overuse injury compared with athletes with low (pooled relative risk [RR] ratio: 1.81; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.26-2.60) and moderate (pooled RR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.05-1.33) specialization. Athletes with moderate specialization were at a higher risk of injury compared with athletes with low specialization (RR: 1.39 [95% CI: 1.04-1.87]). LIMITATIONS Four of the 5 studies included in this systematic review were included in the meta-analysis because of the lack of access to the original data set for 1 article. CONCLUSIONS Sport specialization is associated with an increased risk of overuse musculoskeletal injuries (Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy grade: B).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David R Bell
- Wisconsin Injury in Sport Laboratory and .,Departments of Kinesiology and.,Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin; and
| | - Eric G Post
- Wisconsin Injury in Sport Laboratory and.,Departments of Kinesiology and
| | - Kevin Biese
- Wisconsin Injury in Sport Laboratory and.,Departments of Kinesiology and
| | - Curtis Bay
- Athletic Training Department, A.T. Still University, Mesa, Arizona
| | | |
Collapse
|