1
|
Osborne JO, Solli GS, Engseth TP, Welde B, Morseth B, Noordhof DA, Sandbakk Ø, Andersson EP. Annual Volume and Distribution of Physical Training in Norwegian Female Cross-Country Skiers and Biathletes: A Comparison Between Sports, Competition Levels, and Age Categories-The FENDURA Project. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:19-27. [PMID: 37917966 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe and compare the annual physical training characteristics between Norwegian female cross-country (XC) skiers and biathletes across competition levels and age categories. METHODS Daily training sessions for 1 year were recorded for 45 XC skiers and 26 biathletes, comprising international/national team (inter[national]) and nonnational/regional team members (nonnational) of both junior and senior age. Endurance, strength, flexibility, speed, and power training sessions were recorded. Data included exercise modality, intensity, and duration. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. RESULTS The total annual physical training volume consisted of ∼90% endurance training for both groups, although XC skiers had significantly higher total volumes (∼10%; P = .003; d = 0.78) than biathletes. Senior XC skiers performed more training hours of skiing and/or roller skiing compared with biathletes over the season. However, biathletes compensated for this lower volume by more skating and a higher proportion of endurance training as skiing (81% [17%]) compared with XC skiers (68% [16%]; P < .001; d = 0.94). Overall, (inter)national-level athletes completed a higher annual training volume than non-national-level athletes (740 [90] h vs 649 [95] h; P = .004;d = 0.81). Although juniors reported less endurance volume than seniors, they maintained a relatively stable level of endurance training across the preparatory and competition period, unlike senior athletes. CONCLUSIONS The higher annual physical training volume by XC skiers compared with biathletes is likely caused by the different demands of the 2 sports; XC skiing necessitates training for 2 skiing styles, while biathlon requires additional shooting practice. However, biathletes compensate with a higher proportion of ski training, particularly in the skating technique.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John O Osborne
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Guro S Solli
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Tina P Engseth
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Boye Welde
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Bente Morseth
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Dionne A Noordhof
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Erik P Andersson
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Center, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jones TW, Lindblom HP, Laaksonen MS, McGawley K. Using Multivariate Data Analysis to Project Performance in Biathletes and Cross-Country Skiers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023:1-12. [PMID: 37290762 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine whether competitive performance, as defined by International Biathlon Union (IBU) and International Ski Federation (FIS) points in biathlon and cross-country (XC) skiing, respectively, can be projected using a combination of anthropometric and physiological metrics. Shooting accuracy was also included in the biathlon models. METHODS Data were analyzed using multivariate methods from 45 (23 female and 22 male) biathletes and 202 (86 female and 116 male) XC skiers who were all members of senior national teams, national development teams, or ski-university or high school invite-only programs (age range: 16-36 y). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Shooting accuracy was assessed via an outdoor standardized testing protocol. RESULTS Valid projective models were identified for female biathletes' IBU points (R2 = .80/Q2 = .65) and female XC skiers' FIS distance (R2 = .81/Q2 = .74) and sprint (R2 = .81/Q2 = .70) points. No valid models were identified for the men. The most important variables for the projection of IBU points were shooting accuracy, speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1, peak aerobic power, and lean mass. The most important variables for the projection of FIS distance and sprint points were speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1 and peak aerobic power. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the relative importance of specific anthropometric, physiological, and shooting-accuracy metrics in female biathletes and XC skiers. The data can help to identify the specific metrics that should be targeted when monitoring athletes' progression and designing training plans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Jones
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Hampus P Lindblom
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jonsson Kårström M, Stöggl T, Ohlsson ML, McGawley K, Laaksonen MS. Kinematical effects of rifle carriage on roller skiing in well-trained female and male biathletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33:444-454. [PMID: 36408766 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to investigate how rifle carriage and skiing speed during biathlon roller skiing affect range of motion (ROM) in joint angles and equipment (skis and poles), the vertical distance between shoulders and treadmill (vertdist ), as well as possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage. METHODS Fourteen biathletes (6 women, 8 men) roller-skied on a treadmill at submaximal and simulated race speeds, with (WR) and without (NR) a rifle, using gears 3 and 2. Kinematical data for the whole body, poles, roller-skis, rifle, and treadmill were monitored using a 3D motion capture system. Movements determined as flexion/extension (x), abduction/adduction (y), and/or internal/external rotation (z) were analyzed for the hip, shoulder, thorax, knee, ankle, elbow, poles, and roller skis. ROM (the difference between maximal and minimal angles) in joints and equipment, and vertdist were analyzed over six skiing cycles during each condition (WR and NR) and speed. RESULTS The maximal vertdist was lower for WR compared with NR (gear 3: 1.53 ± 0.06 vs 1.54 ± 0.06 m; gear 2: 1.49 ± 0.06 vs 1.51 ± 0.06 m; both p < 0.001). ROM in the upper body was altered when roller skiing WR (movements decreased in thorax and shoulder (x) and increased in elbow (only gear 3) (x), thorax (only gear 2), and shoulder (y) and (z); all p < 0.05) and increased with speed, without differences between sexes (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Since rifle carriage and speed appear to affect the kinematics of roller skiing, coaches, and biathletes are advised to perform skiing technique training under competition-like conditions (i.e., at race speeds while carrying the rifle).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malin Jonsson Kårström
- Department of Health Science, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria.,Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Marie Lund Ohlsson
- Department of Health Science, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Department of Health Science, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Department of Health Science, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Jonsson Kårström M, Staunton C, McGawley K, Björklund G, Laaksonen MS. Rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in female and male biathletes. J Sports Sci 2023; 40:2722-2731. [PMID: 37023785 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2189796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2023]
Abstract
The aim was to investigate whether rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in highly-trained biathletes, and whether there were any associated sex differences. Twenty-eight biathletes (11 women, 17 men) skied a 2230-m lap at competition speed twice, one lap with the rifle (WR) and the other lap without the rifle (NR). The biathletes wore a portable 3D-motion analysis system while skiing, which enabled characterisation of distance and time in different gears. Skiing WR increased lap time compared to NR (412 (90) vs. 395 (91) s, p < 0.001). The biathletes used gear 2 to a greater extent WR compared to NR (distance: 413 ± 139 vs. 365 ± 142 m; time: 133 (95) vs. 113 (86) s; both p < 0.001) and gear 3 less (distance: 713 ± 166 vs. 769 ± 182 m, p < 0.001; time: 141 ± 33 vs. 149 ± 37 s, p = 0.008), with similar patterns for women and men. Differences between WR and NR in the use of gears 3 and 2 were more extensive for moderate compared to steeper uphill terrain. Rifle carriage increased the use of gear 2, which was negatively associated with performance. Therefore, preparing biathletes to be able to cover more distance in gear 3 WR, especially in moderate uphill terrain, may improve biathlon skiing performance.
Collapse
|
5
|
Heinrich A, Köhler H, Müller F, Stoll O, Cañal-Bruland R. The impact of co-acting competitors on shooting performance in elite biathletes. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:2028-2036. [PMID: 36227924 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2127514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Grounded in social facilitation theory, this study examined the impact of co-acting competitors (i.e., opponents) on elite biathletes' shooting performance based on World Cup competition data. To this end, the impact of the number as well as the mean overlapping time with co-acting competitors at the shooting range on both shooting time and shooting accuracy was assessed. Competition data of World Cup races from 2005 to 2020 were analysed. This included 115 mass start and 195 pursuit events of a total of 758 elite biathletes amounting to 57.251 shooting bouts equivalent to a total of 286.255 shots. Data was analysed using a fixed effects model. Results revealed two main findings: First, the more co-acting opponents were present at the shooting range, the shorter (i.e., better) was shooting time. However, more co-acting opponents were also associated with decreased shooting accuracy in mass start, but not in pursuit. Second, a longer temporal overlap with co-acting opponents negatively affected biathletes' shooting time. There was no effect on shooting accuracy. To conclude, the present study provides first evidence for a link between co-acting competitors and shooting performance in elite biathletes by analysing ecologically valid, real world data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Heinrich
- Department of Sport Science, Social and Health Sciences, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Hanna Köhler
- Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Biomagnetic Center, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Department of Clinical Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.,Department of Research Methods in Education, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Florian Müller
- Department for the Psychology of Human Movement and Sport, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Oliver Stoll
- Department of Sport Psychology, Sport Pedagogy and Sport Sociology, Institute of Sport Science, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Rouwen Cañal-Bruland
- Department for the Psychology of Human Movement and Sport, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Staunton CA, Sloof L, Brandts M, Jonsson Kårström M, Laaksonen MS, Björklund G. The Effect of Rifle Carriage on the Physiological and Accelerometer Responses During Biathlon Skiing. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:813784. [PMID: 35399594 PMCID: PMC8990322 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.813784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Investigate the effect of biathlon rifle carriage on physiological and accelerometer-derived responses during biathlon skiing. Methods Twenty-eight biathletes (11F, 17M) completed two XC skiing time-trials (~2,300 m), once with and once without the biathlon rifle, with concurrent measurements of HR, skiing speed and accelerations recorded from three triaxial accelerometers attached at the Upper-spine, Lower-spine and Pelvis. Exercise intensity was quantified from HR, skiing speed as well from accelerometry-derived PlayerLoad™ per minute (PL·min-1) and average net force (AvFNet). All metrics were analyzed during Uphill, Flat and Downhill sections of the course. Relationships between accelerometry-derived metrics and skiing speed were examined. Results Time-trials were faster for males compared with females (mean difference: 97 ± 73 s) and No-Rifle compared to With-Rifle (mean difference: 16 ± 9 s). HR was greatest during Downhill (183 ± 5 bpm), followed by Uphill (181 ± 5 bpm) and was lowest in the Flat sections (177 ± 6 bpm, p <0.05). For PL·min-1 and AvFNet there were 3-way Rifle x Gradient x Sensor-Position interactions. Typically, these metrics were greatest during Uphill and Flat sections and were lowest during Downhill sections. Rifle carriage had no impact on the AvFNet at the Lower-Spine or Pelvis. Significant positive linear relationships were identified between skiing speed and accelerometer-derived metrics during Uphill, Flat and Downhill skiing (r = 0.12-0.61, p < 0.05). Conclusions The accelerometry-derived approach used in this study provides the potential of a novel method of monitoring the external demands during skiing. In particular, AvFNet with sensors located close to the center of mass displayed greatest utility because it followed the expected response of external intensity where responses were greatest during uphill sections, followed by flats and lowest during downhills. In addition, there were significant positive relationships between AvFNet and skiing speed ranging from small to large. Accelerometry-derived measures could provide useful estimates of the external demands in XC skiing and biathlon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Staunton
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Luciën Sloof
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Maxime Brandts
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Institute of Sports Science, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Malin Jonsson Kårström
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Glenn Björklund
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Björklund G, Laaksonen MS. The Determinants of Performance in Biathlon World Cup Sprint and Individual Competitions. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:841619. [PMID: 35425893 PMCID: PMC9004791 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.841619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
PurposeThe present study aimed to determine the association of skiing speed (SS), range time (RT), and the number of missed targets (MT) with rank in sprint and individual biathlon competitions.MethodsData were collected from the International Biathlon Union's database for 17 seasons (2002/2003–2018/2019). Furthermore, the biathletes were divided into three rank groups (G3, rank 1–3; G10, rank 4–10; and G20, rank 11–20). Multinominal regression was used to detect odds ratios associated with group rank for both sexes, separately.ResultsMT was the only variable that was constantly related to G3 (OR 1.90–6.35, all p < 0.001) for both women and men. SS was associated with G3 in the last lap in the sprint for both sexes (OR 0.46–0.66, all p < 0.001) and RT for standing shooting (OR 1.04–1.14, all p < 0.05).ConclusionThese results show that shooting is the fundamental factor for performance in both competitions, but that SS is increasingly important for the last lap in the sprint for both sexes. Further, a fast RT in the standing shooting for women in individual and men in the sprint seems important for improving final rank.
Collapse
|
8
|
Heinrich A, Stoll O, Cañal-Bruland R. A Biopsychosocial Framework to Guide Interdisciplinary Research on Biathlon Performance. Front Psychol 2021; 12:671901. [PMID: 33995230 PMCID: PMC8116492 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Heinrich
- Department of Sport Psychology, Sport Pedagogy and Sport Sociology, Institute of Sport Science, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Oliver Stoll
- Department of Sport Psychology, Sport Pedagogy and Sport Sociology, Institute of Sport Science, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Rouwen Cañal-Bruland
- Department for the Psychology of Human Movement and Sport, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Luchsinger H, Talsnes RK, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Analysis of a Biathlon Sprint Competition and Associated Laboratory Determinants of Performance. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 1:60. [PMID: 33344983 PMCID: PMC7739577 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Biathlon is an Olympic winter-sport where cross-country (XC) skiing in the skating technique is combined with rifle shooting. In the biathlon sprint competition for men, three laps of 3.3-km are interspersed with a 5-shot shooting sequence in the prone and standing position. Our purpose was to investigate the contribution from overall XC skiing performance, the performance in different terrain sections and shooting performance to the overall biathlon sprint race performance, as well as the relationship to laboratory-measured capacities obtained during treadmill roller ski skating. Eleven elite male biathletes were tracked by a Global Positioning System (GPS) device and a heart rate (HR) monitor during an international 10-km biathlon sprint competition. Within a period of 6 weeks prior to the competition, physiological responses, and performance during submaximal and maximal treadmill roller skiing were measured. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that XC skiing time, shooting performance, shooting time and range time explained 84, 14, 1.8, and 0.2% of the overall sprint race performance (all p < 0.01). Time in uphill, varied, and downhill terrains were all significantly correlated to the total XC skiing time (r = 0.95, 0.82, 0.72, respectively, all p < 0.05). Percent of maximal HR (HRmax) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during submaximal roller skiing, and time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing correlated significantly with overall biathlon sprint race performance and overall XC skiing time (r = 0.64–0.95, all p < 0.05). In conclusion, XC skiing performance provided greatest impact on biathlon sprint performance, with most of the variance determined by XC skiing performance in the uphill terrain sections. Furthermore, the ability to roller ski with a low RPE and %HRmax during submaximal speeds, as well as time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing significantly predicted biathlon performance. Such laboratory-derived measures may therefore be validly used to distinguish biathletes of different performance levels and to track progress of their XC skiing capacity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Harri Luchsinger
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Laaksonen MS, Andersson E, Jonsson Kårström M, Lindblom H, McGawley K. Laboratory-Based Factors Predicting Skiing Performance in Female and Male Biathletes. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:99. [PMID: 33345089 PMCID: PMC7739653 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Skiing in biathlon is a high-intensity, intermittent endurance discipline. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between laboratory-derived physiological variables and skiing performance during a field-based biathlon competition (BC) for female and male biathletes. Fourteen female (23 ± 3 year, V˙O2max 56 ± 4 mL·kg−1·min−1) and 14 male (24 ± 4 year, V˙O2max 66 ± 3 mL·kg−1·min−1) biathletes performed a submaximal incremental test and a maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing for the assessment of oxygen uptake at a lactate threshold of 4 mmol·L−1 (V˙O2@4mmol), gross efficiency (GE), aerobic (MRae) and anaerobic (MRan) metabolic rates, peak oxygen consumption (V˙O2peak), anaerobic capacity and TT performance. Field-based skiing performance was assessed during a BC. The TT and BC skiing performances were significantly correlated in both sexes (r = 0.68–0.69, p < 0.01). V˙O2peak (31/21%), anaerobic capacity (1/0%), and GE (35/32%) explained 67 and 52% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.051), respectively. A second model showed that V˙O2@4mmol (30/35%), anaerobic capacity (0/0%) and GE (37/13%) explained 67 and 48% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.077), respectively. Results of this study suggest that a high V˙O2@4mmol and GE, but not anaerobic capacity, are important for BC skiing performance, especially for females. In addition, a laboratory-based TT could be useful for regular laboratory testing of biathletes due to its relationship with field-based skiing performance in biathlon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marko S Laaksonen
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Erik Andersson
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Malin Jonsson Kårström
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Hampus Lindblom
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sandbakk Ø, Perl R, Holmberg HC, Steiner T. Energetic Cost and Kinematics of Pushing a Stroller on Flat and Uphill Terrain. Front Physiol 2020; 11:574. [PMID: 32547425 PMCID: PMC7274195 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During early parenthood, walking and/or running while pushing a stroller is a common form of endurance exercise among both recreationally active individuals and athletes. Here, we investigate how pushing a stroller influences the energetic cost, gross efficiency (GE), and kinematic behavior of well-trained men and women while walking or running on flat and uphill incline. Eight men and nine women, all recreationally active, performed three 5-min submaximal tests of walking or running during four different testing sessions, in randomized order: with and without pushing a 24.3-kg stroller on a flat (1%; 6, 8/9, and 11/12 km/h for women/men) and uphill (10%; 5, 6.5/7.5, and 7.5/8.5 km/h for women/men) incline. Respiratory parameters, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were determined and video-based kinematic analysis was performed in connection with all these tests. Except while walking on the flat incline, pushing a stroller increased the energetic cost of walking/running under all conditions (all p < 0.05). This was associated with shorter and more rapid strides on both inclines (all p < 0.05); however, GE was higher when pushing the stroller (p < 0.05). The increase in energetic cost of pushing the stroller was approximately threefold higher uphill than on the flat incline, and women were influenced more than men when running uphill at the highest speed (all p < 0.05). Here, we provide novel insights on the energetic cost and kinematic behavior of pushing a stroller while walking or running on flat and uphill inclines. The energetic cost of pushing a stroller was clearly higher than for unloaded exercise, coincided by shorter and more rapid strides, and especially pronounced on uphill terrain where also women were more influenced than men.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rilana Perl
- Section for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Thomas Steiner
- Section for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Jonsson Kårström M, McGawley K, Laaksonen MS. Physiological Responses to Rifle Carriage During Roller-Skiing in Elite Biathletes. Front Physiol 2020; 10:1519. [PMID: 31956312 PMCID: PMC6951403 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the physiological factors affected by rifle carriage during biathlon skiing performance, as well as the sex differences associated with rifle carriage. Methods: Seventeen national- and international-level biathletes (nine females and eight males; age 23.0 ± 3.3 years, V.O2max 59.4 ± 7.6 mL.kg–1.min–1) performed a submaximal incremental test and a maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing (gear 3, skating technique) on two occasions separated by at least 48 h. One condition involved carrying the rifle on the back (WR) and the other condition no rifle (NR) and the tests were randomized. Submaximal V.O2, skiing speed at 4 mmol.L–1 of blood lactate (speed@4mmol), gross efficiency (GE), aerobic (MRae), and anaerobic (MRan) metabolic rates, and V.O2max were determined. Results: Submaximal V.O2 (at all intensities) and GE (16.7 ± 0.9 vs. 16.5 ± 1.1%) were higher for WR compared to NR (p < 0.05), while speed@4mmol was lower (3.1 ± 0.4 vs. 3.3 ± 0.5 m.s–1, p = 0.040). TT performance was improved (4.6 ± 0.4 vs. 4.3 ± 0.4 m.s–1, p < 0.001) and MRan was higher (31.3 ± 8.0 vs. 27.5 ± 6.5 kJ.min–1, p < 0.01) for NR compared to WR, with no difference in V.O2max or MRae. For skiing WR, TT performance was correlated to speed@4mmol (r = 0.81, p < 0.001), MRan (r = 0.65, p < 0.01), V.O2max (r = 0.51, p < 0.05), and relative muscle (r = 0.67, p < 0.01) and fat (r = −0.67, p < 0.01) masses. Speed@4mmol together with MRan explained more than 80% of the variation in TT performance (WR 84%, NR 81%). Despite a higher relative mass of the rifle in females compared with males (5.6 ± 0.4 vs. 5.0 ± 0.4% of body mass, p = 0.012), there were no sex differences associated with rifle carriage measured as absolute or relative differences. Conclusion: Rifle carriage in biathlon skiing led to significantly higher physiological demands during submaximal exercise and reduced performance during maximal treadmill roller-skiing compared to NR for both sexes. The most important variables for performance in biathlon treadmill skiing seem to be speed@4mmol combined with MRan, both of which were lower for WR compared to NR. To improve skiing performance in biathlon, improving speed at 4 mmol.L–1 of blood lactate and anaerobic energy delivery while carrying the rifle are recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerry McGawley
- The Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- The Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Laaksonen MS, Finkenzeller T, Holmberg HC, Sattlecker G. The influence of physiobiomechanical parameters, technical aspects of shooting, and psychophysiological factors on biathlon performance: A review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:394-404. [PMID: 30450247 PMCID: PMC6234024 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The biathlon, an Olympic sporting discipline that combines cross-country skiing with rifle marksmanship, entails considerable physiological demands, as well as fine motor control while shooting after intense exercise and under mental pressure. Although much of our knowledge about cross-country skiing is probably also applicable to the biathlon, carrying the rifle and shooting under stress make this discipline somewhat unique. The present review summarizes and examines the scientific literature related to biathlon performance, with a focus on physiological and biomechanical factors and shooting technique, as well as psychophysiological aspects of shooting performance. We conclude with suggestions for future research designed to extend our knowledge about the biathlon, which is presently quite limited.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marko S. Laaksonen
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83125, Sweden
| | - Thomas Finkenzeller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg 5020, Austria
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83125, Sweden
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø 9019, Norway
| | - Gerold Sattlecker
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg 5020, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Laaksonen MS, Jonsson M, Holmberg HC. The Olympic Biathlon - Recent Advances and Perspectives After Pyeongchang. Front Physiol 2018; 9:796. [PMID: 30013486 PMCID: PMC6036135 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The biathlon, combining cross-country ski skating with rifle marksmanship, has been an Olympic event since the Winter Games in Squaw Valley, United States, in 1960. As a consequence of replacing the classical with the skating technique in the 1980s, as well as considerable improvements in equipment and preparation of ski tracks and more effective training, the average biathlon skiing speed has increased substantially. Moreover, the mass-start, pursuit, and sprint races have been introduced. Indeed, two of the four current individual Olympic biathlon competitions involve mass-starts, where tactics play a major role and the outcome is often decided during the last round of shooting or final sprint. Biathlon is a demanding endurance sport requiring extensive aerobic capacity. The wide range of speeds and slopes involved requires biathletes to alternate continuously between and adapt different skating sub-techniques during races, a technical complexity that places a premium on efficiency. Although the relative amounts of endurance training at different levels of intensity have remained essentially constant during recent decades, today’s biathletes perform more specific endurance training on roller skis on terrain similar to that used for competition, with more focus on the upper-body, systematic strength and power training and skiing at higher speeds. Success in the biathlon also requires accurate and rapid shooting while simultaneously recovering from high-intensity skiing. Many different factors, including body sway, triggering behavior, and even psychology, influence the shooting performance. Thus, the complexity of biathlon deserves a greater research focus on areas such as race tactics, skating techniques, or shooting process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Malin Jonsson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,School of Sports Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.,School of Kinesiology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Bolger CM, Bessone V, Federolf P, Ettema G, Sandbakk Ø. The influence of increased distal loading on metabolic cost, efficiency, and kinematics of roller ski skating. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197592. [PMID: 29791464 PMCID: PMC5965841 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of increased loading of the roller ski on metabolic cost, gross efficiency, and kinematics of roller ski skating in steep and moderate terrain, while employing two incline-specific techniques. Ten nationally ranked male cross-country skiers were subjected to four 7-minute submaximal intervals, with 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 kg added beneath the roller-ski in a randomized order. This was done on two separate days, with the G2 skating at 12% incline and 7 km/h speed and G3 skating at 5% incline and 14 km/h speed, respectively. At 12% incline, there was a significant increase in metabolic rate and a decrease in gross efficiency with added weight (P<0.001 and P = 0.002). At 5% incline, no change in metabolic rate or gross efficiency was found (P = 0.89 and P = 0.11). Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) increased gradually with added weight at both inclines (P>0.05). No changes in cycle characteristics were observed between the different ski loadings at either incline, although the lateral and vertical displacements of the foot/skis were slightly altered at 12% incline with added weight. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that increased loading of the ski increases the metabolic cost and reduces gross efficiency during steep uphill roller skiing in G2 skating, whereas no significant effect was revealed when skating on relatively flat terrain in G3. Cycle characteristics remained unchanged across conditions at both inclines, whereas small adjustments in the displacement of the foot coincided with the efficiency changes in uphill terrain. The increased RPE values with added ski-weight at both inclines indicates that other factors than those measured here could have influenced effort and/or fatigue when lifting a heavier ski.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Conor M. Bolger
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Veronica Bessone
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
- Department of Biomechanics in Sports, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter Federolf
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gertjan Ettema
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Comparison of the Effects of Performance Level and Sex on Sprint Performance in the Biathlon World Cup. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13:360-366. [PMID: 28771061 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Biathlon is an Olympic sport combining cross-country skiing with the skating technique and rifle shooting. The sprint (7.5 km for women and 10 km for men) includes 2 shootings between 3 laps of skiing. The aims of the current study were to compare biathletes of different performance levels and sex on total race time and performance-determining factors of sprint races in the biathlon World Cup. The top-10 performers (G1-10) and results in ranks 21-30 (G21-30) in 47 sprint races during the 2011-12 to 2015-16 World Cup seasons were compared regarding total race time, course time, shooting time, range time, shooting performance (rate of hits), and penalty time. G21-30 men and women were on average 3-5% behind G1-10 in total race time, in which course time accounted for 59-65% of the overall performance difference, followed by 31-35% explained by penalty time. The remainder (ie, 4-6%) was explained by differences in shooting time and range time. The G1-10 women exhibited on average 12% slower speeds than the G1-10 men, and course time accounted for 93% of the total time difference of 13% between sexes. The average total hit rates were 92-93% among the G1-10 and 85% among the G21-30 in both sexes. In total, men shot on average 6 s faster than women. Course time is the most differentiating factor for overall biathlon performance between performance levels and sex in World Cup races. No sex difference in shooting performance was found.
Collapse
|
17
|
Stöggl TL, Holmberg HC. Double-Poling Biomechanics of Elite Cross-country Skiers: Flat versus Uphill Terrain. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2017; 48:1580-9. [PMID: 27031747 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In light of the recent revolutionary change in the use of the double-poling (DP) technique in cross-country skiing, our purpose was to compare the associated kinetics and kinematics on flat (DPflat) and uphill terrain (DPup), as well as to identify factors that determine performance. METHODS Thirteen elite male cross-country skiers completed two incremental speed tests (Vpeak) involving roller skiing with the DP technique at moderate (13 and 24 km·h) and high speed (15 and 28.5 km·h) on a treadmill that was flat (1°) or tilted uphill (7°). Pole forces and three-dimensional whole-body kinematics were monitored simultaneously. RESULTS In comparison to DPflat, during DPup, swing times were much shorter (-48%) and peak pole forces greater (+13%) and generated later during the poling phase (+68%), with higher impulses for all force components (+87%-123%). Furthermore, pole forces were 18% more effectively oriented for propulsion. During DPup, the skiers demonstrated more flexed elbows, as well as shoulder angles that were less flexed in the forward direction and less abducted throughout the poling phase, together with more highly flexed knee and ankle joints, a more upright thorax, less flexed hips, and a shortened backward swing after pole off. With DPup, the skiers raised their center of mass 25% more, attaining maximal heel raise and maximal vertical position at a timepoint closer to pole plant compared with flat. On the uphill incline, the magnitude of Vpeak was positively related to body mass, relative pole length (% body height), and magnitude of heel raise. CONCLUSIONS The present findings provide novel insights into the coordination, kinetics and kinematics of elite skiers while DP on flat and uphill terrain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Leonhard Stöggl
- 1Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, AUSTRIA; 2Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, SWEDEN; 3and Swedish Olympic Committee, Stockholm, SWEDEN
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Stöggl T, Martiner A. Validation of Moticon's OpenGo sensor insoles during gait, jumps, balance and cross-country skiing specific imitation movements. J Sports Sci 2016; 35:196-206. [PMID: 27010531 PMCID: PMC5214925 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1161205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was the experimental validation of the OpenGo sensor insole system compared to PedarX sensor insole and AMTI force-plate systems. Sixteen healthy participants performed trials in walking, running, jumping (drop and counter movement jumps), imitation drills and balance, with simultaneous measures of all three systems. Detected ground contact and flight times with OpenGo during walking, running and jumping were similar to those of AMTI. Force–time curves revealed comparable shapes between all three systems. Force impulses were 13–34% lower with OpenGo when compared to AMTI. Despite differences in mean values in some exercise modes, correlations towards AMTI were between r = 0.8 and r = 1.0 in most situations. During fast motions, with high force and impact, OpenGo provided lower force and latency in force kinetics. During balance tasks, discrepancy in the centre of pressure was found medio-lateral, while anterio–posterior direction was closer to AMTI. With awareness of these limitations, OpenGo can be applied in both clinical and research settings to evaluate temporal, force and balance parameters during different types of motion. The fully mobile OpenGo system allows for the easy and quick system application, analysis and feedback under complex field conditions, as well.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- a Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology , University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
| | - Alex Martiner
- a Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology , University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
| |
Collapse
|