Contribution of chloride channel activation to the elevated muscular tone of the pulmonary artery in monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertensive rats

Chronic hypoxia-induced upregulation of Ca2+-activated Cl- channel in pulmonary arterial myocytes: a mechanism contributing to enhanced vasoreactivity

Chronic hypoxic pulmonary hypertension (CHPH) is associated with altered expression and function of cation channels in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), but little is known for anion channels. The Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel (CaCC), recently identified as TMEM16A, plays important roles in pulmonary vascular function. The present study sought to determine the effects of chronic hypoxia (CH) on the expression and function of CaCCs in PASMCs, and their contributions to the vascular hyperreactivity in CHPH. Male Wistar rats were exposed to room air or 10% O(2) for 3–4 weeks to generate CHPH. CaCC current (I(CI.Ca)) elicited by caffeine-induced Ca(2+) release or by depolarization at a constant high [Ca(2+)](i) (500 or 750 nm) was significantly larger in PASMCs of CH rats compared to controls. The enhanced I(CI.Ca)) density in CH PASMCs was unrelated to changes in amplitude of Ca(2+) release, Ca(2+)-dependent activation, voltage-dependent properties or calcineurin-dependent modulation of CaCCs, but was associated with increased TMEM16A mRNA and protein expression. Maximal contraction induced by serotonin, an important mediator of CHPH, was potentiated in endothelium-denuded pulmonary arteries of CH rats. The enhanced contractile response was prevented by the CaCC blockers niflumic acid and T16A(inh)-A01, or by the L-type Ca(2+) channel antagonist nifedipine. The effects of niflumic acid and nifedipine were non-additive. Our results demonstrate for the first time that CH increases I(CI.Ca) density, which is attributable to an upregulation of TMEM16A expression in PASMCs. The augmented CaCC activity in PASMCs may potentiate membrane depolarization and L-type channel activation in response to vasoconstrictors and enhance pulmonary vasoreactivity in CHPH.

Time-dependent phenotypic and contractile changes of pulmonary artery in chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension

Phenotypic and contractile changes in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) were examined in rats with pulmonary hypertension induced by hypoxia. Exposure to hypoxia induced pulmonary hypertension within 1-4 weeks. Staining with BrdU revealed that proliferative activities of PASMCs peaked at 1 week of hypoxic exposure, and then moderate proliferative activity was maintained for the next 2-4 weeks. The beta-actin/alpha-actin ratio also increased at 1-2 weeks of exposure to hypoxia. Absolute contractility of the pulmonary arterial ring continuously decreased during hypoxia, whereas the basal active tonus of the pulmonary artery increased at 1-3 weeks. Nicardipine, the ETA-receptor antagonis, CI-1034 and the rho-kinase inhibitor Y27632 partially inhibited the elevated active tonus. Endothelin-1 content in the pulmonary hypertensive lung was continuously increased during exposure to hypoxia. In conclusion, the hypoxia-induced proliferative activity of PASMCs comprised a transient phase followed by a sustained phase. The change in PASMCs from a contractile to a synthetic phenotype also correlated with proliferative activity, which subsequently decreased PASMC contractility. The continuous production of endothelin-1 upon hypoxic exposure might contribute to the increased basal tonus of the pulmonary arterial wall, which might subsequently increase pulmonic arterial pressure, resulting in accelerated pulmonary hypertension.

Hypotonic activation of volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channels (VSOACs) requires coordinated remodeling of subcortical and perinuclear actin filaments

Cell volume regulation requires activation of volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channels (VSOACs). The actin cytoskeleton may participate in the activation of VSOACs but the roles of the two major actin pools remain undefined. We hypothesized that structural reorganization of both subcortical and perinuclear actin filaments (F-actin) contributes to the hypotonic activation of VSOACs. Hypotonic stress of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) was associated with reorganization of both peripheral and perinuclear F-actin, and with activation of VSOACs. Preincubation with cytochalasin D caused prominent dissociation of perinuclear, but not of subcortical F-actin. Cytochalasin D failed to induce isotonic activation and delayed the hypotonic activation of VSOACs. F-actin stabilization by phalloidin delayed both the hypotonic stress-induced dissociation of membrane-associated actin filaments and the activation kinetics of VSOACs. PKCepsilon, which was proposed to phosphorylate and inhibit VSOACs, colocalized primarily with F-actin and the net kinase activity remained unchanged during hypotonic cell swelling. In conclusion, normal hypotonic activation of VSOACs requires disruption of peripheral F-actin but intact perinuclear F-actin; interference with this pattern of actin reorganization delays the activation kinetics of VSOACs. The cell swelling-induced peripheral actin dissociation may underlie the observed translocation of PKCepsilon, which leads to a net decrease of PKCepsilon inhibitory activity in submembranous sites. Thus, reorganization of actin and PKCepsilon may establish conditions for mechano- and/or signal transduction-mediated activation of VSOACs.

Altered expression of calcium-activated K and Cl channels in detrusor overactivity of rats with partial bladder outlet obstruction

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the activity of large- and small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels (BKCa, SKCa) and calcium-activated chloride channels (ClCa) in detrusor overactivity (DO) cells after partial bladder outlet obstruction (PBOO) in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirteen female Wistar rats with DO caused by PBOO were studied simultaneously with eight sham-operated rats. The expression of KCa and ClCa channels was assessed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and the function of the two groups compared.

RESULTS

In the DO cells the expression of BKCa, SKCa2 and SKCa3 was lower, and that of ClCa channels higher, than in the control group cells. Using confocal laser scanning microscopic analysis, the function of BKCa and SKCa channels was suppressed, and that of ClCa channels was enhanced in DO group cells. KCa and ClCa effectors altered the cell membrane potentials more significantly in the DO cells than in the control cells, indicating a decrease in KCa and an increase in ClCa in DO group in either iso- or hypo-osmolar medium. Moreover, the change in BKCa, SKCa and ClCa channel activators in DO cells showed a more excitable state in hypo-osmolar medium than in iso-osmolar medium.

CONCLUSION

In DO myocytes after PBOO, the expression and function of KCa channels were decreased, and those of ClCa channels increased. These changes all provoke greater cell excitability, and could partly account for the DO.

Comparison of lung proteome profiles in two rodent models of pulmonary arterial hypertension

We studied the lung proteome changes in two widely used models of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH): monocrotaline (MCT) injection and chronic hypoxia (CH); untreated rats were used as controls (n = 6/group). After 28 days, invasive right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) was measured. Lungs were immunostained for alpha-smooth muscle actin (alphaSMA). 2-DE (n = 4/group) followed by nano-LC-MS/MS was applied for protein identification. Western blotting was used additionally if possible. RVSP was significantly increased in MCT- and CH-rats (MCT 62.5 +/- 4.4 mmHg, CH 62.2 +/- 4.1 mmHg, control 25.0 +/- 1.7 mmHg, p<0.001). This was associated with an increase of alphaSMA positive vessels. In both groups, there was a significantly increased expression of proteins associated with the contractile apparatus (diphosphoHsp27 (p<0.001), Septin2 (p<0.001), F-actin capping protein (p<0.01), and tropomyosin beta (p<0.02)). In CH, proteins of the nitric oxide (Hsc70; p = 0.002), carbon monoxide (biliverdin reductase; p = 0.005), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway (annexin 3; p<0.001) were significantly increased. In MCT, proteins involved in serotonin synthesis (14-3-3; p = 0.02), the enhanced unfolded protein response (ERp57; p = 0.02), and intracellular chloride channels (CLIC 1; p = 0.002) were significantly elevated. Therefore, MCT- and CH-induced vasoconstriction and remodeling seemed to be mediated via different signaling pathways. These differences should be considered in future studies using either PAH model.

Propofol Increases Pulmonary Vascular Resistance During ??-Adrenoreceptor Activation in Normal and Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Hypertensive Rats

BACKGROUND

Using isolated perfused lungs of normal or monocrotaline (MCT: 50 mg/kg)-induced pulmonary hypertensive rats, we tested the hypothesis that the pulmonary vascular effects of propofol depend on activation of the alpha-adrenoreceptor.

METHODS

Changes in pulmonary perfusion pressure induced by propofol (10(-5) to 10(-4) M) were measured with or without phenylephrine (10(-6) M) pretreatment. Before phenylephrine administration, we assessed the effects of inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase (N(omega)-nitro-l-arginine methylester: 10(-4) M), cyclooxygenase (indomethacin: 10(-5) M), and protein kinase C inhibitor, bisindolylmaleimide I (10(-6) M) or calphostin C (10(-6) M).

RESULTS

Changes in pulmonary perfusion pressure by phenylephrine after pretreatment of nitric oxide synthase inhibitor and indomethacin in normal rats were significant (5 +/- 3 and 7 +/- 2 mm Hg), whereas that after pretreatment of bisindolylmaleimide I were small in MCT-rats (2 +/- 1 mm Hg). Propofol caused pulmonary vasoconstriction after phenylephrine pretreatment both in normal and MCT-treated rats. In normal rats, the propofol-induced increase in pulmonary perfusion pressure after indomethacin pretreatment was slightly smaller than that in the non-pretreated lungs (P < 0.05). In MCT-treated rats, the propofol-induced increases in pulmonary perfusion pressure after both protein kinase C inhibitors were smaller than that in the non-pretreated lungs (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Propofol may increase pulmonary vascular resistance during alpha-adrenoreceptor activation.

Upregulation of profilin, cofilin-2 and LIMK2 in cultured pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells and in pulmonary arteries of monocrotaline-treated rats

Pulmonary hypertension is associated with remodeling of the smooth muscle layer of pulmonary arteries, manifested by reduced smooth muscle cell (SMC) contractility and enhanced motility and growth. These responses are underlied by increased dynamics of the peripheral actin network. Thus, we hypothesized that pulmonary hypertension is associated with upregulation of two proteins that regulate the dynamics of peripheral actin filaments, i.e., profilin and cofilin. We also analyzed the expression of LIMK2, which regulates the actin remodeling capacity of cofilin by phosphorylation. Experimental inflammation was induced by incubation of cultured pulmonary artery SMCs (PASMCs) with inflammatory mediators in vitro, and by subcutaneous administration of monocrotaline to Sprague-Dawley rats in vivo. Expression of messenger RNA (mRNA) was assessed by quantitative RT-PCR, protein levels and phosphorylation were analyzed by immunoblotting. Immune and Masson trichrome stained lung cryosections were analyzed by microscopy. PDGF, IL-1beta, ET-1 and TNFalpha upregulated the profilin, cofilin-2 and LIMK2 mRNA in cultured pulmonary artery SMCs (PASMCs). Along with the development of rat pulmonary artery and right ventricular hypertrophy, monocrotaline treatment also induced the mRNA and protein contents of profilin, cofilin-2 and LIMK2 in PASMCs. The cofilin upregulation was paralleled by a relative decrease of the phospho-cofilin content. The upregulation of profilin, cofilin and LIMK2 in experimental inflammation suggests that by intensifying the remodeling of subcortical actin filaments these proteins may contribute to the enhanced invasiveness and growth of SMCs, and to the development of increased vascular resistance and pulmonary hypertension.

Attenuated Noradrenaline-Induced Contraction of Pulmonary Arteries from Rats Treated with Monocrotaline: Role of Rho Kinase

Noradrenaline-induced pulmonary artery contraction was reduced in monocrotaline-treated rats. The possibility that this could be due to alterations in the rho kinase pathway was examined in this study. A combination of nifedipine (10(-6) M) and thapsigargin (10(-6) M) attenuated noradrenaline-induced contraction significantly more in artery segments from monocrotaline-treated rats than in artery segments from control rats indicating a reduced role for calcium sensitization in artery segments from monocrotaline-treated rats. In artery segments permeabilized with ionomycin, CaCl(2) (1.25 mmol/l) produced significantly greater contraction in monocrotaline treated rats compared with control rats. Addition of noradrenaline (10(-5) M) to the bath produced further contractions in both groups. However, noradrenaline-induced contraction was less in monocrotaline-treated rats compared with controls. Y-27632 concentration dependently relaxed ring segments of pulmonary artery pre-contracted with noradrenaline (10(-5)M). The pIC(50) values were 6.46+/- 0.09 (n=5) 5.81+/- 0.06 (n=5) in control and pulmonary hypertensive rings, respectively. The maximum relaxation to Y-27632 was significantly higher in monocrotaline-treated rats. ROCK II was the predominant isoform of rho kinase expressed in the pulmonary artery. The level of expression was increased in rats treated with monocrotaline. These results would suggest that while basal rho kinase activity was elevated in monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension, noradrenaline-induced contraction was attenuated, suggesting poor coupling of the receptor activation to rho kinase activation.

ClC-3: more than just a volume-sensitive Cl- channel

Pulmonary vascular medial hypertrophy due to enhanced pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell (PASMC) proliferation and/or decreased PASMC apoptosis is a primary cause of increased pulmonary vascular resistance and arterial pressure in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. While many factors can contribute to this form of vascular remodeling, it is generally agreed upon that altered transmembrane ion flux via ion channels is involved. While much focus has centered on the role of cations and cation channels in controlling PASMC contraction and proliferation, anion efflux via Cl- channels has recently gained interest for its role in SMC proliferation, differentiation, migration, contraction, and angiogenesis. In this issue, Dai et al. report that the putative volume-sensitive ClC-3 channel is upregulated in PASMC from monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertensive rats and in inflammatory cytokine-treated canine PASMC. They also provide evidence that ClC-3 upregulation may protect against oxidative stress-induced PASMC necrosis, thereby improving PASMC survival and promoting medial hypertrophy.

ClC-3 chloride channel is upregulated by hypertrophy and inflammation in rat and canine pulmonary artery

Cl- channels have been implicated in essential cellular functions including volume regulation, progression of cell cycle, cell proliferation and contraction, but the physiological functions of the ClC-3 channel are controversial. We tested the hypothesis that the ClC-3 gene (ClCn-3) is upregulated in hypertensive pulmonary arteries of monocrotaline-treated rats, and upregulated ClC-3 channel aids viability of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Experimental pulmonary hypertension was induced in rats by a single subcutaneous administration of monocrotaline (60 mg kg(-1)). Injected animals developed characteristic features of pulmonary hypertension including medial hypertrophy of pulmonary arteries and right ventricular hypertrophy. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry and Western immunoblot analysis indicated that histopathological alterations were associated with upregulation of the ClC-3 mRNA and protein expression in both smooth muscle cells of hypertensive pulmonary arteries and in cardiac myocytes. RT-PCR analysis of mRNA, extracted from canine cultured PASMCs, indicated that incubation with the inflammatory mediators endothelin-1 (ET-1), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), but not transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta), upregulated ClC-3 mRNA. Adenovirus-mediated delivery and overexpression of ClC-3 in canine PASMCs improved cell viability against increasing concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, range 50-250 microM). In conclusion, upregulation of ClC-3 in rat hypertensive lung and heart is a novel observation. Our functional data suggest that upregulation of ClC-3 is an adaptive response of inflamed pulmonary artery, which enhances the viability of PASMCs against reactive oxygen species.

Dexamethasone prevents impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation in arteries cultured with fetal bovine serum

In the present study, we assessed the effects of dexamethasone on fetal bovine serum-induced dysfunction of mesenteric endothelial cells using an organ culture procedure. In rabbit mesenteric arteries cultured in the presence of 10% fetal bovine serum for 7 days, the endothelium-dependent, nitric oxide (NO)-mediated relaxations caused by substance P and ionomycin were decreased as compared to those in non-treated arteries. Dexamethasone (3 microM) inhibited the proliferative stimuli-induced endothelial dysfunction without affecting the contractility or NO susceptibility of smooth muscle cells. Cross-sectioned hematoxylin-eosin staining and whole-mount CD31 staining indicated that chronic proliferative stimulation induced detachment of endothelial cells from the tunica intima in some regions, and also caused thickening of the arterial wall and shortening of the internal diameter. Endothelial NO synthesis (eNOS) mRNA expression was also decreased by the treatment with fetal bovine serum. The dexamethasone treatment did not inhibit the smooth muscle hypertrophy, but it inhibited the peeling of endothelial cells and recovered the eNOS mRNA expression. These results suggest that DEX ameliorate the impairments of arterial relaxation induced by proliferative stimuli and that these beneficial effects may be mediated by maintaining the adhesion of endothelial cells to the vascular wall and/or by recovering eNOS mRNA expression.

Chloride channels and α1-adrenoceptor-mediated pulmonary artery smooth muscle contraction: effect of pulmonary hypertension

Noradrenaline induced concentration-dependent contractions of pulmonary artery segments from control and monocrotaline-treated rats. There was a significant decrease in the maximum response but not sensitivity in artery segments from monocrotaline-treated rats. At a concentration (10(-6) M) that abolished KCl-induced contraction, nifedipine attenuated but did not abolish, noradrenaline-induced contraction in both groups. However, noradrenaline-induced contraction in artery segments from pulmonary hypertensive rats was more susceptible to inhibition by nifedipine. Bumetanide (10(-4) M), a chloride transport inhibitor and niflumic acid, a chloride channel inhibitor, reduced noradrenaline-induced contraction of the pulmonary artery in control and pulmonary hypertensive groups. These compounds were more effective in ring segments from pulmonary hypertensive rats. It was concluded that activation of chloride channels was involved in noradrenaline-induced contraction and that the contribution of chloride channels was enhanced in pulmonary hypertensive rats.

Rhythmical contractions in pulmonary arteries of monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertensive rats

Rhythmical contractions accompanied by an increase in cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations were produced in ring preparations of endothelium-denuded pulmonary arteries from monocrotaline-treated rats, but not in those from vehicle-treated rats, 2-3 h after a resting tension of 15 mN (150-180% of the initial wall length of the artery) was applied. The rhythmical contractions were abolished by nicardipine and ryanodine. Cyclopiazonic acid reduced the relaxation phase of the rhythmical contractions, finally leading to a sustained contraction. Similarly, apamin caused a sustained contraction, whereas charybdotoxin increased the amplitude of the rhythmical contractions. Glibenclamide had no apparent effects on them. Indomethacin and the prostaglandin H2/thromboxane A2 receptor antagonist SQ29548 abolished the rhythmical contractions and reduced the tension, but the thromboxane synthase inhibitor ozagrel had no effect. These results suggest that optimal stretch induces rhythmical contractions in the pulmonary arteries of monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertensive rats, to which both Ca2+ influx through voltage-operated Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum seem to contribute. It is also suggested that small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels participate in the relaxation phase of rhythmical contractions. Furthermore, prostaglandin H2 released from nonendothelial cells is likely to play a pivotal role in the induction of rhythmical contractions.

Effects of flufenamic acid on smooth muscle of the carotid artery isolated from spontaneously hypertensive rats

Endothelium-removed carotid artery strips from stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats spontaneously developed a tonic myogenic contraction. Flufenamic acid reduced the resting tone observed during superfusion with Tyrode's solution, in a concentration-dependent manner. Flufenamic acid also inhibited contractions produced by high-K solutions in a concentration-dependent manner. The resting membrane potential of smooth muscle cells in the artery was around -32 mV, with occasional oscillatory potentials. Flufenamic acid hyperpolarized the membrane in a concentration-dependent manner. The voltage-dependent outward currents recorded in isolated cells with micropipettes filled with high-K+ solution (holding potential, -60 mV) were enhanced by flufenamic acid and inhibited by tetraethylammonium. When the recording micropipette was filled with high Cs to inhibit the K+-current, depolarizing step pulses evoked nifedipine-sensitive inward currents. Flufenamic acid inhibited the inward currents. These results indicate that flufenamic acid inhibits the spontaneous active tone of the carotid artery by inhibiting L-type Ca2+-channels and possibly by membrane hyperpolarization through activation of the voltage-dependent K+-channels.